ISLAND LIFE
OR THE PHENOMENA AND CAUSES OF
INSULAR FAUNAS AND FLORAS, INCLUDING A REVISION AND ATTEMPTED SOLUTION OF THE PROBLEM OF
GEOLOGICAL CLIMATES
BY ALFRED RUSSEL WALLACE
2nd EDITION
LONDON: MACMILLAN AND CO.
1892
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BOOK DESCRIPTION: 8vo (19.5cm) green cloth: xx, 563pp,index. 3 coloured maps, as called for.
CONDITION: VERY GOOD. The covers are bright and have very little wear. A few minor marks and a few small nicks to tail of spine. Binding tight and secure. Endpapers cracked. Slight edge toning. Previous ownership inscription of Andrew David Sloan to half-title. A near fine copy which shows very well.
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Full contents list and list of illustrations after the images below.
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PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION
This edition has been carefully revised throughout, and owing to the great increase to our knowledge of the Natural History of some of the islands during the last twelve years considerable additions or alterations have been required. The more important of these changes are the following:--
Chapter VII. The account of the migrations of animals and plants during and since the Glacial Epoch, has been modified to accord with newer information.
Chapters VIII and IX. The discussion of the causes of Glacial Epochs and Mild Arctic Climates has been somewhat modified in view of the late Dr. Croll's remarks, and the argument rendered clearer.
Chapter XIII. Several additions to the Fauna of the Galapagos have been noted.
Chapter XV. Considerable additions have been made to this chapter embodying the recent discoveries of birds and insects new to the Sandwich Islands, while a much fuller account has been given of its highly peculiar and very interesting flora.
Chapter XVI. Important additions and corrections have been made in the lists of peculiar British animals and plants embodying the most recent information.
Chapter XVII. Very large additions have been made to the mammalia and birds of Borneo, and full lists of the peculiar species are given. {viii}
Chapter XVIII. A more accurate account is given of the birds of Japan.
Chapter XIX. The recent additions to the mammals and birds of Madagascar are embodied in this chapter, and a fuller sketch is given of the rich and peculiar flora of the island.
Chapter XXI. and XXII. Some important additions have been made to these chapters owing to more accurate information as to the depth of the sea around New Zealand, and to the discovery of abundant remains of fossil plants of the tertiary and cretaceous periods both in New Zealand and Australia.
In the body of the work I have in each case acknowledged the valuable information given me by naturalists of eminence in their various departments, and I return my best thanks to all who have so kindly assisted me. I am however indebted in a special manner to one gentleman--Mr. Theo. D. A. Cockerell, now Curator of the Museum of the Jamaica Institute--who supplied me with a large amount of information by searching the most recent works in the scientific libraries, by personal inquiries among naturalists, and also by giving me the benefit of his own copious notes and observations. Without his assistance it would have been difficult for me to have made the present edition so full and complete as I hope it now is. In a work of such wide range, and dealing with so large a body of facts some errors will doubtless be detected, though, I trust few of importance.
PARKSTONE, DORSET, _December, 1891_.
* * * * *
{ix}
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION
The present volume is the result of four years' additional thought and research on the lines laid down in my _Geographical Distribution of Animals_, and may be considered as a popular supplement to and completion of that work.
It is, however, at the same time a complete work in itself: and, from the mode of treatment adopted, it will, I hope, be well calculated to bring before the intelligent reader the wide scope and varied interest of this branch of natural history. Although some of the earlier chapters deal with the same questions as my former volumes, they are here treated from a different point of view; and as the discussion of them is more elementary and at the same time tolerably full, it is hoped that they will prove both instructive and interesting. The plan of my larger work required that _genera_ only should be taken account of; in the present volume I often discuss the distribution of _species_, and this will help to render the work more intelligible to the unscientific reader.
The full statement of the scope and object of the present essay given in the "Introductory" chapter, together with the "Summary" of the whole work and the general view of the more important arguments given in the "Conclusion," render it unnecessary for me to offer any further remarks on these points. I may, however, state {x} generally that, so far as I am able to judge, a real advance has here been made in the mode of treating problems in Geographical Distribution, owing to the firm establishment of a number of preliminary doctrines or "principles," which in many cases lead to a far simpler and yet more complete solution of such problems than have been hitherto possible. The most important of these doctrines are those which establish and define--(1) The former wide extension of all groups now discontinuous, as being a necessary result of "evolution"; (2) The permanence of the great features of the distribution of land and water on the earth's surface; and, (3) The nature and frequency of climatal changes throughout geological time.
I have now only to thank the many friends and correspondents who have given me information or advice. Besides those whose assistance is acknowledged in the body of the work, I am especially indebted to four gentlemen who have been kind enough to read over the proofs of chapters dealing with questions on which they have special knowledge, giving me the benefit of valuable emendations and suggestions. Mr. Edward R. Alston has looked over those parts of the earlier chapters which relate to the mammals of Europe and the North Temperate zone; Mr. S. B. J. Skertchley, of the Geological Survey, has read the chapters which discuss the glacial epoch and other geological questions; Professor A. Newton has looked over the passages referring to the birds of the Madagascar group; while Sir Joseph D. Hooker has given me the invaluable benefit of his remarks on my two chapters dealing with the New Zealand flora.
CROYDON, _August, 1880
CONTENTS
PART I.
THE DISPERSAL OF ORGANISMS; ITS PHENOMENA, LAWS, AND CAUSES.
CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTORY.
Remarkable Contrasts in the distribution of Animals— Britain and Japan — Australia
and New Zealand— Bali and Lombok — Florida and Bahama Islands— Brazil and
Africa — Borneo, Madagascar, and Celebcs^Problems in distribution to be found in
every country — Can be solved only by the combination of many distinct lines of
inquiry, biological and physical — Islan ds offer the best subjects for th e study of
distribution — Outline of the subjects to be discussed in the present volume.
Pages 3—11
CHAPTER II.
THE ELEMENTARY FACTS OF DISTRIBUTION
Importance of Locality as an essential character of Species — Areas of Distribution —
Extent and Limitations of Specific Areas — Specific range of Birds — Generic
Areas — Separate and overlapping areas — The species of Tits as illustrating Areas
of Distribution — Tlie distribution of the species of Jays — Discontinuous generic
areas — Peculiarities of generic and family distribution — General features of over-
lapping and discontinuous areas — Restricted areas of Families — The distribution
of Orders Pages 12—30
CHAPTER III.
CLASSIFICATION OF THE FACTS OF DISTRIBUTION - ZOOLOGICAL REGIONS.
The Geographical Divisions of the Globe do not correspond to Zoological Divisions —
The range of British Mammals as indicating a Zoological Region — Range of East
Asian and North African Mammals — The Range of British Birds — Range of East
Asian Birds — The limits of the Palrearctic Region — Characteristic features of the
Palaearctic Region — Definition and characteristic groups of the Ethiopian Region
— Of the Oriental Region— Of the Australian Region— Of the Nearctic Region
— Of the Neotropical Region — Comparison of Zoological Regions with the Geo-
graphical Divisions of the Globe Pages 31 — 53
CHAPTER IV.
EVOHJTION AS THE KEY TO DISTRIBUTION.
Importance of the Doctrine of Evolution— The Origin of New Species — Variation in
Animals — The amount of variation in North American Birds — How new species
arise from a variable species — Definition and Origin of Genera— Cause of the
extinction of Species — The rise and decay of Species and Genera— Discontinuous
specific areas, why rare — Discontinuity of the area of Parus palustris — Disconti-
nuity of Emberiza schsnidus — The European and Japanese Jays — Supposed ex-
amples of discontinuity among North American Birds — Distribution and antiquity
of Families — Discontinuity a proof of antiquity — Concluding Remarks
rages 54-69
CHAPTER V.
THE POWERS OF DISPERSAL OP ANIMALS AND PLANTS.
Statement of the general question of Dispersal — The Ocean as a barrier to the dis-
persal of Mammals — The dispersal of Birds — Tlie dispersal of Reptiles — The
dispersal of Insects — The dispersal of Land Mollusca — Great antiquity of Land-
shells — Causes favouring the abundance of Land-shells — The dispersal of Plants
— Special adaptability of Seeds for disjjersal — Birds as agents in the dispersal of
Seeds — Ocean currents as agents in Plant dispersal — Dispersal along mountain-
chains — Antiquity of Plants as affecting their distribution . . Pages 70 — 80
CHAPTER VI.
GEOGRAPHICAL AND GEOLOGICAL CHANGES : THE PERMANENCE OF CONTINENTS.
Changes of Land and Sea, their nature and extent — Shore-deposits and stratified
rocks — The Stovements of Continents — Supposed oceanic formations ; the Origin
of Chalk— Fresh-water and Shore-deposits as proving the permanence of Conti-
nents — Oceanic Islands as indications of the permanence of Continents and
Oceans — General stability of Continents with constant change of form — Effect of
Continental Changes on the Distribution of Animals — Changed distribution proved
by the extinct animals of different epochs — Summary of evidence for the general
permanence of Continents and Oceans ... , . Pages 81 — 103
CHAPTER VII
CHANGES OF CLIMATE WHICH HAVE INFLUENCED THE DISPERSAL OF 0RGANISMS :
THE GLACIAL EPOCH.
Proofs of the recent occurrence of a Glacial Epoch — Moraines — Travelled Blocks —
Glacial deposits of Scotland: the "Till" — Inferences from the glacial phenomena
of Scotland— Glacial phenomena of North America — Effects of the Glacial Epoch
on animal life— Warm and cold periods— Palaeontological evidence of alternate
cold and warm periods — Evidence of interglacial warm periods on the Continent
and in North America — Migrations and extinctions of Organisms caused by the
Glacial Epoch Pages 103-120
CHAPTER VII.
THE CAUSES OF GLACIAL EPOCHS.
Various suggested causes — Astronomical causes of changes of Climate— Difference
of Temperature caused by varying distances of tlje .Sun— Properties of air and
water, snow and ice, in relation to Climate — Effects of snow on Climate — High
land and great moisture essential to the initiation of a Glacial Epoch— Per-
petual snow nowhere exists on lowlands — Comiitions determining the presence or
absence of perpetual Snow — EflSciency of Astronomical causes in producing Glaci-
ation — Action of meteorological causes in intensifying Glaciation — Summary of
causes of Glaciation— Effect of clouds and fog in cutting off the Sun's heat —
South Temperate America as illustrating the influence of Astronomical causes on
Chmate — Geographical changes how far a cause of Glaciation— Land acting as a
barrier to ocean-currents— The theory of interglacial periods and their probabla
character — Probable effect of winter in aphelion on the climate of Britain — The
essential principle of climatal change restated — Probable date of the last Glacial
Epoch— Changes of the sea-level dependent on Glaciation— The planet Mars aa
betiriug on the theory of eccentricity as a cause of Glacial Epochs
CHAPTER IX.
ANCIENT GLACIAL EPOCHS, AND MILD CLIMATES IS THE ARCTIC REGIONS.
Mr. Croll's views on ancient Glacial Epochs— Effects of Denudation in destroying
the evidence of remote Glacial Epochs— Else of sea-level connected with Glacial
Epochs a cause of further denudation— AVhat evidence of early Glacial Epochs
may be expected— Evidences of Ice-action during the Tertiary Period— The
weight of the negative evidence— Temperate climates in the Arctic Regions
The Miocene Arctic flora— Mild Arctic climates of the Cretacious Period— Strati-
grapiiical evidence of long-continued mild Arctic conditions— The causes of mild
Arctic chmates— Geographical conditions favouring mild northern climates in Ter-
tiary times— The Indian Ocean as a source of heat in Tertiary times— Condi-
tion of Xorth America during the Tertiary Period— Effect of high excentricity on
warm Polar climates— Evidences as to climate in the Secondary and Paleozoic
Epochs— Warm Arctic climates in early Secondary and Paleozoic times— Con-
clnsions as to the climates of Secondary and Tertiary Periods— General view of
Geological Climates as dependent on the physical features of the Earth's surface
— Estimate of the comparative effects of geographical and physical causes in
producmg changes of climate Fages 163 — 202
CHAPTER X.
THE EARTH'S AGE, AND THE RATE OF DEVELOPMENT OF AMIMALS AND PLANTS.
Various estimates of Geological Time— Denudation and deposition of Strata as a
measure of Time — How to estimate the thickness of the Sedimentary Rocks —
How to estimate the average rate of depositiou of the Sedimentary Rocks — The
rate of Geological change probably greater in very remote times — Value of the
preceding estimate of Geological Time— Organic modification dependent on
Change of Conditions — Geographical mutations as a motive power in bringing
about Organic Changes — Climatal revolutions as an agent in producing Organic
Changes— Present condition of the Earth one of exceptional stability as regards
Climate — Date of last Glacial Epoch and its bearing on the Measurement of
Geological time — Concluding Remarks Fages 203—229
PART 11.
INSULAR FAUNAS AND FLORAS.
CHAPTER XI.
THE CLASSIFICATION OF ISLANDS.
Importance of Islands in the study of the Distribution of Organisms — Classificatioa
of Islands with reference to Distribution — Continental Islands — Oceanic Islands
Pages 233-237
CHAPTEK XII
OCEANIC ISLANDS : — THE AZORES AND BERMUDA.
THE AZORES, OR WESTERN ISLANDS.
Position and physical features— Chief Zoological features of the Azores— Birds-
Origin of the Azorean bird-fauna — Insects of the Azores— Land-shells of the
Azores — The flora of the Azores— The dispersal of seeds — Birds as seed-carriers
Facilities for dispersal of Azorean plants— Important deduction from the
peculiarities of the Azorean fauna and flora Pages 238 — 253
BERMUDA.
Position and physical features— The Red Clay of Bermuda- Zoology of Bermuda-
Birds of Bermuda — Comparison of the bird-faunas of Bermuda and the Azores —
Insects of Bermuda— Land MoUusca— Flora of Bermuda — Concluding remarks on
the Azores and Bermuda Pages 253—264
CHAPTER XIII
THE GALAPAGOS ISLANDS.
Position and physical features— Absence 'of indigenous Mammaha and Amphibia —
Reptiles- Birds— Insects and Land-shells — The Keelins Islands as illustrating the
manner in which Oceanic Islands are peopled— Flora of the Galapagos— Origin of
the Flora of the Galapagos— Coucluding Remarks . . . Pages 265—280
CHAPTER XIV.
ST. HELEXA.
Position ami physical features of St. Helena — Change etfected by European occupa-
tion — The Insects of St. Helena — Coleoptera — Peculiarities and origin of the
Coleoptera of St. Helena — Land-shells of St. Helena —Absence of Fresh-water
Organisms — Native vegetation of St. Helena — The relations of the St. Helena
Compositse— Concluding remarks on St. Helena .... Paijes 281 — 297
CHAPTER XV.
", THE SANDWICH ISLANDS.
Position and Physical features — Zoology of the Sandwich Islands — Birds— Reptiles —
Land-shells— Insects — Vegetation of the Sandwich Islands— Peculiar features of
the Hawaiian Flora — Antiquity of the Hawaiitm Fauna and Flora— Concluding
observations on the Fauna and Flora of the Sandwich Islands — General Remarks
on Oceanic Islands Vayes 298 — 311
CHAPTER XVI.
CONTINENTAL ISLANDS OF RECENT ORIGIN : GREAT BRITAIN.
Characteristic Features of Recent Continental Islands — Recent Physical Changes of
the British Isles — Proofs of Former Elevation— Submerged Forests — Buried River
Channels— Time of Last Union with the Continent— Why Britain is poor in
Species— Peculiar British Birds- Fresh-water Fishes — Cause of Great Speciality
iu Fishes — Peculiar British Insects— Lepidoptera confined to the British Isles —
Peculiarities of the Isle of JIan Lepidoptera— Coleoptera confined to the British
Isles— Trichoptera peculiar to the British Isles— Land and Fresh-water Shells —
Pecuharitius of the British Flora -Peculiarities of the Irish Flora— Peculiar
British Mosses and Hepaticse— Concluding Remarks on the Peculiarities of the
British Fauna and I'lora I'ai/es 312 347
CHAPTEK XVII.
B0RNEO AND JAVA.
Position and physical features of Borneo — Zoological features of Borneo : Mammalia
-Birds— The afEuities of the Bornean fauna— Java, its position and physical fea-
tures— General character of tlie fauna of Java— Differences between the fauna of
Java and that of the other Malay Islands— Special relations of the Javan fauna
to that of the Asiatic continent— Past geographical changes of Java and Borneo
—The Philippine Islands- Concluding Remarks on the Malay Islands
Faffts 348—362
CHAPTER XVIII.
JAPAN AND FORMOSA.
Japan, its position and Physical features— Zoological features of Japan— Mammalia
— Birds- Birds common to Great Britain and Japan— Birds peculiar to Japan
—Japan Birds recurring in distant areas— I'ormosa— Physical features of For-
mo.<:a— Animal life of Formosa— M.immalia— Land birds peculiar to Formosa—
Formosan birds recurring in India or Malaya— Comparison of faunas of Hainan,
Formosa, and Janau— General Remarks on Recent Continental Islands
CHAPTER XIX.
ANCIENT CONTINENTAL ISLANDS: THE MADAGASCAR GROUP
Remarks on Ancient Continental Islands— Physical features of Madagascar— Biolo-
gical features of Madagascar— Mammalia- Reptiles— Relation of Madagascar to
Africa— Early history of Africa and Madagascar— Anomalies of distribution and
how to explain them— The birds of Madagascar as indicating a supposed Lemu-
rian Continentr- Submerged Islands between Madagascar and India- Concluding
remarks ou "Lemuria"- The Mascarene Islands— The Comoro Islands— The Sey-
chelles Archipelago— Birds of the Seychelles— Reptiles and Amphibia— Fresh-water
Fishes-Land SheUs- Mauritius, BDurbon, and Rodriguez- Birds— Extinct Birds
and their probable origin— Reptiles— Flora of Madagascar and the Mascarene
Islands-Curious relations of Mascarene plants— Endemic genera of Mauritius and
Seychelles— Fragmentary character of the Mascarene Flora— Flora of Madagascar
allied to that of South Africa— Preponderance of Ferns in the Mascarene Flora
—Concluding Remarks on the Madagascar Group . . . rages 383—420
CHAPTER XX.
ANOMALOUS ISLANDS : CELEBES.
Anomalous relations of Celebes— Physical features of the Island— Zoological cha-
racter of the Islands around Celebes— The Malayan and Australian Banks— Zoo-
logy of Celebes : Mammalia— Probable derivation of the Mammals of Celebes —
Birds of Celebes — Bird-types peculiar to Celebes— Celebes not strictly a Conti-
nental Island— Peculiarities of the Insects of Celebes — Himalayan types of Birds
and Butterflies in Celebes— Peculiarities of shape and colour of Celebesian Butter-
flies — Concluding Eemarks- Appendix on the Birds of Celebes . Pages 421 — 441
CHAPTER XXI.
ANOMALOUS ISLANDS : NEW ZEALAND.
Position and Physical features of Xew Zealand— Zoological character of New Zea-
land — Mammalia — Wingless birds living and extinct — Recent existence of the
Moa — Past changes of New Zealand deduced from its wingless Birds — Birds and
Reptiles of New Zealand — Conclusions from the peculiarities of the New Zealand
Fauna Pages 442—456
CHAPTER XXII.
THE FLORA OF NEW ZEALAND : ITS AFFINITIES AND PROBABLE ORIGIN.
Relations of the New Zealand Flora to that of Australia — General features of the
Australian Flora — The Floras of South-eastern and South-western Australia —
Geological explanation of the differences of these two floras — The origin of the
Australian element in the New Zealand Flora — Tropical chai'acter of the New
Zealand Flora explained — Species common to New Zealand and Australia mostly
temperate forms — "Why easily dispersed plants have often restricted ranges —
Summary and Conclusion on the New Zealand Flora . . . Pages 457 — 478
CHAPTER XXIII.
ON THE ARCTIC ELEMENT IN SOUTH TEMPERATE FLORAS.
European species and genera of plants in the Southern Hemisphere — Aggressive power
of the Scandinavian flora— Means by which plants liave migrated from north to
south — Newly moved soil as affording temporary stations to migrating plants
Elevation and depression of the snow-liae as aiding the migration of plants
C'h.inges of climate favourable to migration — The migration from north to south
has been long going on— Geological changes as aiding migration — Proofs of mi-
gration by way of the Andes— Proofs of migration by way of the Himalayas and
Southern Asia— Proofs of migration by way of the African highlands— Supposed
connection of South Africa and Australia — The endemic genera of plants in New
Zealand — The absence of Southern types from the Northern Hemisphere
Concluding remarks on the New Zealand and South Temperate floras
CHAPTER XXIV.
SUMMARY AND CONCLCSION.
The present volume is the development and application of a theory— Statement of
the Biological and Physical causes of dispersal— Investigation of the facts of dis-
persal—of the means of di.spersal— of geographical changes affecting dispersal—
of climatal changes affecting dispersal— The Glacial Epocli and its causes— Alleged
ancient glacial epochs- Warm polar climates and their causes— Conclusions as to
geological climates— How far different from those of Mr. Croll— Supposed limita-
tions of geological time —Time amply sufficient both for geological and biological
development— Insular faunas and floras— The North Atlantic Islands— The Gala-
pagos— St. Helena and the Sandwich Islands— Great Britain as a recent Conti-
nental Island— Borneo and Java— Japan and Formosa— Madagascar as an ancient
Continental Island— Celebes and New Zealand as anomalous Islands— The Flora
of New Zealand and its origin— The European element m the South Temperate
Floras— Concluding Remarks Faaes 499—512
MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
1. Map showing the Distribution of the true Jays . . Frontispiece.
2. Map shotting the Zoological Regions 31
3. Map showing the Distribution of Parus Palustris . . . To face 64
4. A Glacier with Moraines (From Sir C. Lyell's Principles of Geology) . 105
5. Map of the Ancient Rhone Glacier (From Sir C. Lyell's Antiquity of Man) 107
6. Diagram showing the effects cf Excenteicity and Precession on Climate 1-3
7. Diagram of Escenthicitt and Trkcession 124
8. Map showing the Extent of the North and South Polar Ice . . . 133
9. Diagram showing Changes op Excenthiciit dvring Three Million Years 165
10. Outline Map of the Azores 239
11. Map of Bermuda and the American Coast 254
12. Section of Bermuda and adjacent Sea-bottom 255
13. Map of the Galapagos and ad.iacext Coasts of South America . . 267
14. Map of the Galapagos 267
15. Map of the South Atlantic, showing position of St. Helena . . . 282
16. Map of the Sandwich Islant)3 299
17. Map of the North Pacific, with its submerged Banks 300
18. Map showls-g the Bane connecting Britain with the Continent . 314
19. Map op Boeseo and Java, showing the Geeat Si/BMAeixe BAinc
OF Socth-Eastekn Asia 349
20. Map of Japan and Foemosa 364
21. Physical Sketch Map of Madaoascae (From Nature) 385
22. Map of Madagascae Geoup, showing Deiths of Sea 387
23. Map of The Indian Ocean 396
24. Map of Ceixbes and the scbboundino Islakds 423
25. Map showing Depths of Sea abound Attstbalia and New Zealand . 443
26. Map showing the peobadi.e condition of Acstealia doeino
TILE Cretaceous Epoch 465
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