**LIKE NEW DVD:ZEN MAMA PRENATAL YOGA WORKOUT-RAINBEAU MARS-PREGNANCY PREGNANT EXERCISE**
Rainbeau Mars (Actor)
ZenMama with Rainbeau Mars: Prenatal Yoga Workout
Disc is **MINT** Like New!!
Description
Your pregnancy, one of the most profound and transformational experiences of your life, is the time to take very special care of your baby and yourself. Practicing yoga during pregnancy can help you to become more sensitive to your bodys and your babys ever changing needs. In this program yoga instructor Rainbeau Mars provides a safe and effective pre-natal yoga practice that will help you to maintain a strong and centered body and mind. You will work through a sequence of postures that are not only designed to keep you happy in the moment, but also to prepare you for the experience of giving birth. Since your yoga practice during this special time will need to be adjusted depending on which trimester you are in, Rainbeau works with two assistants. Together, the three of them demonstrate how each posture should be practiced according to where you are in your pregnancy. Benefits of pre-natal yoga practice: Increases endurance and stamina Builds strength and flexibility Improves concentration and breath awareness!!!
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About this item
Product Information
Rated
NR
Not Rated
Run time 45 minutes
Number of discs 1
Format Color, NTSC
Language English
Actors Rainbeau Mars
Region code Region 1 (U.S. and Canada only)
Manufacturer Rainbeau Mars
Release date September 9, 2003
ASIN B0000A02WU
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REVIEWS :
5 out of 5 St*rs!!!
Buy this Program!
By Yasmime A. - November 1
Verified Purchase
Really wonderful program by the ever powerful Natual Journeys! I was so very pleased with this yoga series. Great and challenging poses with modifications offered. I felt energized and refreshed. I also felt like all the right muscles were streched and worked. What a difference from any other prenatal DVD I have done. Love this session/workout. Realistic, challenging and really enjoyable. I wish I found it earlier in my pregnancy and vow to use it through the rest!
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the BEST prenatal yoga video!
By Amanda C.-January 12,
Verified Purchase
This video far surpasses others I have tried. The instructor is wonderful - it felt like I was in a real class. The moves are not watered down or too easy, yet they are doable. I felt fantastic after doing this. She also does a great foot massage (as you stretch) and her relaxation at the end is superior to most yoga videos. I would highly recommend this to anyone, though it may be better for those who have done some yoga before. I will be buying every dvd of hers that I can get my hands on - once I deliver my baby!
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Surprisingly Awesome
By Peggy N.- March 6
I'm not a hardcore yogi by any means, although I have dabbled here and there. When I bought the DVD, I was just looking for anything to help me stay limber and relaxed. But I didn't use the DVD until I started experiencing back pain and some insomnia. I used the DVD (before bed) and wow! I was so relaxed and happy and I could've either stayed up or gone to bed, it didn't matter. My back pain was gone and I knew how to breathe through it and pose through it when it came along again.
If you watch the DVD through once before using it, you'll know where you're supposed to be. It's certainly not hard to get used to, and the modifications are quite helpful. As another review on here said, Rainbeau isn't cheesy or as hippie as one may assume she'll be. I really enjoyed her style and presence while doing my workout. Her voice is also soothing, which is a great help.
All in all, I am going to send this DVD to several people I know who are currently pregnant. I have to, having the results I've had!
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About the author
Internationally renowned holistic health and fitness guide Rainbeau Mars brings a lifetime of practicing yoga to her successful career as former global yoga ambassador for Adidas, and spokeswoman and founder of ra'yoKa, her integrative fitness system. As a coveted yoga instructor, Rainbeau has created seven bestselling yoga DVDs that have sold over a million copies worldwide. Alongside her acclaimed teacher training programs, Rainbeau continues to find new ways of sharing her holistic lifestyle secrets to enhance lives around the world.
SOME GENERAL INFO ABOUT Yoga
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the umbrella term yoga which includes religion, philosophy, and practices, For one of the six Hindu philosophy schools, see Yoga (philosophy), For the popular yoga that explains and emphasizes the physical practices or disciplines, see Hatha yoga, For other uses, see Yoga (disambiguation),
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This article contains Indic text, Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks or boxes, misplaced vowels or missing conjuncts instead of Indic text,
Yoga (/ˈjoʊɡə/;[1] Sanskrit, योग Listen) is a group of physical, mental, and spiritual practices or disciplines which originated in ancient India, There is a broad variety of Yoga schools, practices, and goals[2] in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism,[3][4][5] Among the most well-known types of yoga are Hatha yoga and Rāja yoga,[6]
The origins of yoga have been speculated to date back to pre-Vedic Indian traditions, it is mentioned in the Rigveda,[note 1] but most likely developed around the sixth and fifth centuries BCE, in ancient India's ascetic and śramaṇa movements,[8][note 2] The chronology of earliest texts describing yoga-practices is unclear, varyingly credited to Hindu Upanishads[9] and Buddhist Pāli Canon,[10] probably of third century BCE or later, The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali date from the first half of the 1st millennium CE,[11][12] but only gained prominence in the West in the 20th century,[13] Hatha yoga texts emerged around the 11th century with origins in tantra,[14][15]
Yoga gurus from India later introduced yoga to the west,[16] following the success of Swami Vivekananda in the late 19th and early 20th century,[16] In the 1980s, yoga became popular as a system of physical exercise across the Western world,[15] Yoga in Indian traditions, however, is more than physical exercise, it has a meditative and spiritual core,[17] One of the six major orthodox schools of Hinduism is also called Yoga, which has its own epistemology and metaphysics, and is closely related to Hindu Samkhya philosophy,[18]
Many studies have tried to determine the effectiveness of yoga as a complementary intervention for cancer, schizophrenia, asthma, and heart disease,[19][20] The results of these studies have been mixed and inconclusive, with cancer studies suggesting none to unclear effectiveness, and others suggesting yoga may reduce risk factors and aid in a patient's psychological healing process,[19][20]
Contents
1 Etymology
2 Goals
3 Schools
3,1 Hinduism
3,1,1 Classical yoga
3,1,2 Ashtanga yoga
3,1,3 Hatha yoga
3,1,4 Shaivism
3,2 Buddhism
3,3 Jainism
3,4 Tantra
4 History
4,1 Pre-Vedic India
4,2 Vedic period (1700–500 BCE)
4,2,1 Textual references
4,2,2 Vedic ascetic practices
4,3 Preclassical era (500–200 BCE)
4,3,1 Upanishads
4,3,2 Sutras of Hindu philosophies
4,3,3 Macedonian historical texts
4,3,4 Early Buddhist texts
4,3,5 Uncertainty with chronology
4,3,6 Bhagavad Gita
4,3,7 Mahabharata
4,4 Classical era (200 BCE – 500 CE)
4,4,1 Classical yoga
4,4,1,1 Samkhya
4,4,1,2 Yoga Sutras of Patanjali
4,4,1,3 Yoga and Vedanta
4,4,2 Yoga Yajnavalkya
4,4,3 Jainism
4,4,4 Yogacara school
4,5 Middle Ages (500–1500 CE)
4,5,1 Bhakti movement
4,5,2 Tantra
4,5,2,1 Vajrayana Buddhism
4,5,3 Hatha Yoga
4,5,4 Sikhism
4,6 Modern history
4,6,1 Reception in the West
4,6,2 Exercise and health applications
4,6,2,1 Potential benefits for adults
4,6,2,2 Physical injuries
4,6,2,3 Pediatrics
5 Physiology
6 Yoga and specialized meditation
6,1 Zen Buddhism
6,2 Vajrayana or Tibetan Buddhism
7 Reception in other religions
7,1 Christianity
7,2 Islam
8 International Day of Yoga
9 See also
10 Notes
11 References
11,1 Sources
12 Further reading
13 External links
Etymology[edit]
Statue of Shiva in Bangalore, Karnataka, India, performing yogic meditation in the Padmasana posture,
In Vedic Sanskrit, yoga (from the root yuj) means "to add", "to join", "to unite", or "to attach" in its most common literal sense, By figurative extension from the yoking or harnessing of oxen or horses, the word took on broader meanings such as "employment, use, application, performance" (compare the figurative uses of "to harness" as in "to put something to some use"), All further developments of the sense of this word are post-Vedic, More prosaic moods such as "exertion", "endeavour", "zeal", and "diligence" are also found in Indian epic poetry,[21]
There are very many compound words containing yoga in Sanskrit, Yoga can take on meanings such as "connection", "contact", "union", "method", "application", "addition" and "performance", In simpler words, Yoga also means "combined", For example, guṇáyoga means "contact with a cord"; chakráyoga has a medical sense of "applying a splint or similar instrument by means of pulleys (in case of dislocation of the thigh)"; chandráyoga has the astronomical sense of "conjunction of the moon with a constellation"; puṃyoga is a grammatical term expressing "connection or relation with a man", etc, Thus, bhaktiyoga means "devoted attachment" in the monotheistic Bhakti movement, The term kriyāyoga has a grammatical sense, meaning "connection with a verb", But the same compound is also given a technical meaning in the Yoga Sutras (2,1), designating the "practical" aspects of the philosophy, i,e, the "union with the supreme" due to performance of duties in everyday life[22]
According to Pāṇini, a 6th-century BCE Sanskrit grammarian, the term yoga can be derived from either of two roots, yujir yoga (to yoke) or yuj samādhau (to concentrate),[23] In the context of the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, the root yuj samādhau (to concentrate) is considered by traditional commentators as the correct etymology,[24] In accordance with Pāṇini, Vyasa who wrote the first commentary on the Yoga Sutras,[25] states that yoga means samādhi (concentration),[26]
According to Dasgupta, the term yoga can be derived from either of two roots, yujir yoga (to yoke) or yuj samādhau (to concentrate),[23] Someone who practices yoga or follows the yoga philosophy with a high level of commitment is called a yogi (may be applied to a man or a woman) or yogini (traditionally denoting a woman),[27]
Goals[edit]
The ultimate goal of Yoga is moksha (liberation), although the exact definition of what form this takes depends on the philosophical or theological system with which it is conjugated,
According to Jacobsen, "Yoga has five principal meanings:[28]
Yoga, as a disciplined method for attaining a goal;
Yoga, as techniques of controlling the body and the mind;
Yoga, as a name of one of the schools or systems of philosophy (darśana);
Yoga, in connection with other words, such as "hatha-, mantra-, and laya-," referring to traditions specialising in particular techniques of yoga;
Yoga, as the goal of Yoga practice,"[28]
According to David Gordon White, from the 5th century CE onward, the core principles of "yoga" were more or less in place, and variations of these principles developed in various forms over time:[29]
Yoga, is a meditative means of discovering dysfunctional perception and cognition, as well as overcoming it for release from suffering, inner peace and salvation; illustration of this principle is found in Hindu texts such as the Bhagavad Gita and Yogasutras, in a number of Buddhist Mahāyāna works, as well as Jain texts;[30]
Yoga, as the raising and expansion of consciousness from oneself to being coextensive with everyone and everything; these are discussed in sources such as in Hinduism Vedic literature and its Epic Mahābhārata, Jainism Praśamaratiprakarana, and Buddhist Nikaya texts;[31]
Yoga, as a path to omniscience and enlightened consciousness enabling one to comprehend the impermanent (illusive, delusive) and permanent (true, transcendent) reality; examples are found in Hinduism Nyaya and Vaisesika school texts as well as Buddhism Mādhyamaka texts, but in different ways;[32]
Yoga, as a technique for entering into other bodies, generating multiple bodies, and the attainment of other supernatural accomplishments; these are, states White, described in Tantric literature of Hinduism and Buddhism, as well as the Buddhist Sāmaññaphalasutta;[33] James Mallinson, however, disagrees and suggests that such fringe practices are far removed from the mainstream Yoga's goal as meditation-driven means to liberation in Indian religions,[34]
White clarifies that the last principle relates to legendary goals of "yogi practice", different from practical goals of "yoga practice," as they are viewed in South Asian thought and practice since the beginning of the Common Era, in the various Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain philosophical schools,[35]
Schools[edit]
The term "yoga" has been applied to a variety of practices and methods, including Jain and Buddhist practices, In Hinduism these include Jnana Yoga, Bhakti Yoga, Karma Yoga, Laya Yoga and Hatha Yoga,
The so-called Raja Yoga refers to Ashtanga Yoga, the eight limbs to be practiced to attain samadhi, as described in the Yoga Sutras of Pantajali,[36] The term raja yoga originally referred to the ultimate goal of yoga, which is usually samadhi,[37] but was popularised by Vivekananda as the common name for Ashtanga Yoga,[38]
Hinduism[edit]
Classical yoga[edit]
Yoga is considered as a philosophical school in Hinduism,[39] Yoga, in this context, is one of the six āstika schools of Hinduism (those which accept the Vedas as source of knowledge),[40][41]
Due to the influence of Vivekananda, the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali are nowadays considered as the foundational scripture of classical yoga, a status which it only acquired in the 20th century,[38] Before the twentieth century, other works were considered as the most central works, such as the Bhagavad Gita and the Yoga Vasistha,[38] while Tantric Yoga and Hatha Yoga prevailed over Ashtanga Yoga,[38]
Ashtanga yoga[edit]
Main articles: Yoga Sutras of Patanjali and Rāja yoga
Swami Vivekananda equated raja yoga with the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali,[42]
Yoga as described in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali refers to Ashtanga yoga,[38] The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali is considered as a central text of the Yoga school of Hindu philosophy,[43] It is often called "Rāja yoga", "yoga of the kings," a term which originally referred to the ultimate, royal goal of yoga, which is usually samadhi,[37] but was popularised by Vivekananda as the common name for Ashtanga Yoga,[38]
Ashtanga yoga incorporates epistemology, metaphysics, ethical practices, systematic exercises and self-development techniques for body, mind and spirit,[44] Its epistemology (pramanas) is same as the Samkhya school, Both accept three reliable means to knowledge – perception (pratyākṣa, direct sensory observations), inference (anumāna) and testimony of trustworthy experts (sabda, agama), Both these orthodox schools are also strongly dualistic, Unlike the Sāṃkhya school of Hinduism, which pursues a non-theistic/atheistic rationalist approach,[45][46] the Yoga school of Hinduism accepts the concept of a "personal, yet essentially inactive, deity" or "personal god",[47][48] Along with its epistemology and metaphysical foundations, the Yoga school of Hindu philosophy incorporates ethical precepts (yamas and niyamas) and an introspective way of life focused on perfecting one's self physically, mentally and spiritually, with the ultimate goal being kaivalya (liberated, unified, content state of existence),[44][49][50]
Hatha yoga[edit]
Main article: Hatha yoga
A sculpture of Gorakshanath, a celebrated 11th century yogi of Nath tradition and a major proponent of Hatha yoga,[51]
Hatha yoga, also called hatha vidyā, is a kind of yoga focusing on physical and mental strength building exercises and postures described primarily in three texts of Hinduism:[52][53][54]
Hatha Yoga Pradipika, Svātmārāma (15th century)
Shiva Samhita, author unknown (1500[55] or late 17th century)
Gheranda Samhita by Gheranda (late 17th century)
Many scholars also include the preceding Goraksha Samhita authored by Gorakshanath of the 11th century in the above list,[52] Gorakshanath is widely considered to have been responsible for popularizing hatha yoga as we know it today,[56][57][58]
Vajrayana Buddhism, founded by the Indian Mahasiddhas,[59] has a series of asanas and pranayamas, such as tummo (Sanskrit caṇḍālī)[60] and trul khor which parallel hatha yoga,
Shaivism[edit]
Main articles: Shaivism, Shaiva Siddhanta, and Nath
In Shaivism, yoga is used to unite kundalini with Shiva,[61] See also 'tantra' below,
Buddhism[edit]
Main articles: Buddhist meditation, Dhyāna in Buddhism, Yogacara, and Vajrayana
16th century Buddhist artwork in Yoga posture,
Buddhist meditation encompasses a variety of meditation techniques that aim to develop mindfulness, concentration, supramundane powers, tranquility, and insight,
Core techniques have been preserved in ancient Buddhist texts and have proliferated and diversified through teacher-student transmissions, Buddhists pursue meditation as part of the path toward Enlightenment and Nirvana,[note 3] The closest words for meditation in the classical languages of Buddhism are bhāvanā[note 4] and jhāna/dhyāna,[note 5]
Jainism[edit]
Main article: Jain meditation
Jain meditation has been the central practice of spirituality in Jainism along with the Three Jewels,[62] Meditation in Jainism aims at realizing the self, attain salvation, take the soul to complete freedom,[63] It aims to reach and to remain in the pure state of soul which is believed to be pure conscious, beyond any attachment or aversion, The practitioner strives to be just a knower-seer (Gyata-Drashta), Jain meditation can be broadly categorized to the auspicious Dharmya Dhyana and Shukla Dhyana and inauspicious Artta and Raudra Dhyana,[citation needed]
Tantra[edit]
Main articles: Tantra, Yogi, and Siddhi
Samuel states that Tantrism is a contested concept,[64] Tantra yoga may be described, according to Samuel, as practices in 9th to 10th century Buddhist and Hindu (Saiva, Shakti) texts, which included yogic practices with elaborate deity visualizations using geometrical arrays and drawings (mandala), fierce male and particularly female deities, transgressive life stage related rituals, extensive use of chakras and mantras, and sexual techniques, all aimed to help one's health, long life and liberation,[64][65]
History[edit]
The origins of yoga are a matter of debate,[66] There is no consensus on its chronology or specific origin other than that yoga developed in ancient India, Suggested origins are the Indus Valley Civilization (3300–1900 BCE)[67] and pre-Vedic Eastern states of India,[68] the Vedic period (1500–500 BCE), and the śramaṇa movement,[69] According to Gavin Flood, continuities may exist between those various traditions:
[T]his dichotomization is too simplistic, for continuities can undoubtedly be found between renunciation and vedic Brahmanism, while elements from non-Brahmanical, Sramana traditions also played an important part in the formation of the renunciate ideal,[70][note 6]
Pre-philosophical speculations of yoga begin to emerge in the texts of c, 500–200 BCE, Between 200 BCE–500 CE philosophical schools of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism were taking form and a coherent philosophical system of yoga began to emerge,[72] The Middle Ages saw the development of many satellite traditions of yoga, Yoga came to the attention of an educated western public in the mid 19th century along with other topics of Indian philosophy,
Pre-Vedic India[edit]
Main article: Indus Valley Civilization
Yoga may have pre-Vedic elements,[67][68] Some state yoga originated in the Indus Valley Civilization,[73] Marshall,[74] Eliade[9] and other scholars suggest that the Pashupati seal discovered in Indus Valley Civilization sites depict figures in positions resembling a common yoga or meditation pose, This interpretation is considered speculative and uncertain by more recent analysis of Srinivasan[9] and may be a case of projecting "later practices into archeological findings",[75]
Vedic period (1700–500 BCE)[edit]
Main article: Vedic period
According to Crangle, Indian researchers have generally favoured a linear theory, which attempts "to interpret the origin and early development of Indian contemplative practices as a sequential growth from an Aryan genesis",[76][note 7] just like traditional Hinduism regards the Vedas to be the source of all spiritual knowledge,[77][note 8]
Ascetic practices, concentration and bodily postures described in the Vedas may have been precursors to yoga,[80][81] According to Geoffrey Samuel, "Our best evidence to date suggests that [yogic] practices developed in the same ascetic circles as the early sramana movements (Buddhists, Jainas and Ajivikas), probably in around the sixth and fifth centuries BCE,"[8]
According to Zimmer, Yoga philosophy is reckoned to be part of the non-Vedic system, which also includes the Samkhya school of Hindu philosophy, Jainism and Buddhism:[68] "[Jainism] does not derive from Brahman-Aryan sources, but reflects the cosmology and anthropology of a much older pre-Aryan upper class of northeastern India [Bihar] – being rooted in the same subsoil of archaic metaphysical speculation as Yoga, Sankhya, and Buddhism, the other non-Vedic Indian systems,"[82][note 9]
Textual references[edit]
The first use of the root of word "yoga" is in hymn 5,81,1 of the Rig Veda, a dedication to rising Sun-god in the morning (Savitri), where it has been interpreted as "yoke" or "yogically control",[85][86][note 10]
The earliest evidence of Yogis and Yoga tradition is found in the Keśin hymn 10,136 of the Rigveda, states Karel Werner,[7]
The Yogis of Vedic times left little evidence of their existence, practices and achievements, And such evidence as has survived in the Vedas is scanty and indirect, Nevertheless, the existence of accomplished Yogis in Vedic times cannot be doubted,
— Karel Werner, Yoga and the Ṛg Veda[7]
Rigveda, however, does not describe yoga and there is little evidence as to what the practices were,[7] Early references to practices that later became part of yoga, are made in Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, the earliest Hindu Upanishad,[note 11] For example, the practice of pranayama (consciously regulating breath) is mentioned in hymn 1,5,23 of Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (c, ~ 900 BCE), and the practice of pratyahara (concentrating all of one's senses on self) is mentioned in hymn 8,15 of Chandogya Upanishad (c, ~ 800–700 BCE),[89][note 12]
Vedic ascetic practices[edit]
Ascetic practices (tapas), concentration and bodily postures used by Vedic priests to conduct yajna (sacrifice), might have been precursors to yoga,[note 13] Vratya, a group of ascetics mentioned in the Atharvaveda, emphasized on bodily postures which may have evolved into yogic asanas,[80] Early Samhitas also contain references to other group ascetics such as munis, the keśin, and vratyas,[92] Techniques for controlling breath and vital energies are mentioned in the Brahmanas (texts of the Vedic corpus, c, 1000–800 BCE) and the Atharvaveda,[80][93] Nasadiya Sukta of the Rig Veda suggests the presence of an early contemplative tradition,[note 14]
Preclassical era (500–200 BCE)[edit]
Yoga concepts begin to emerge in the texts of c, 500–200 BCE such as the Pali Canon, the middle Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita and Shanti Parva of the Mahabharata,[96][note 15]
Upanishads[edit]
The first known appearance of the word "yoga", with the same meaning as the modern term, is in the Katha Upanishad,[9][99] probably composed between the fifth and third century BCE,[100][101] where it is defined as the steady control of the senses, which along with cessation of mental activity, leading to a supreme state,[92][note 16] Katha Upanishad integrates the monism of early Upanishads with concepts of samkhya and yoga, It defines various levels of existence according to their proximity to the innermost being Ātman, Yoga is therefore seen as a process of interiorization or ascent of consciousness,[103][104] It is the earliest literary work that highlights the fundamentals of yoga, White states:
The earliest extant systematic account of yoga and a bridge from the earlier Vedic uses of the term is found in the Hindu Katha Upanisad (Ku), a scripture dating from about the third century BCE[…] [I]t describes the hierarchy of mind-body constituents—the senses, mind, intellect, etc,—that comprise the foundational categories of Sāmkhya philosophy, whose metaphysical system grounds the yoga of the Yogasutras, Bhagavad Gita, and other texts and schools (Ku3,10–11; 6,7–8),[105]
The hymns in Book 2 of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad, another late first millennium BCE text, states a procedure in which the body is held in upright posture, the breath is restrained and mind is meditatively focussed, preferably inside a cave or a place that is simple, plain, of silence or gently flowing water, with no noises nor harsh winds,[106][104]
The Maitrayaniya Upanishad, likely composed in a later century than Katha and Shvetashvatara Upanishads but before Patanjali's Yoga Sutra, mentions sixfold yoga method – breath control (pranayama), introspective withdrawal of senses (pratyahara), meditation (dhyana), mind concentration (dharana), philosophical inquiry/creative reasoning (tarka), and absorption/intense spiritual union (samadhi),[9][104][107]
In addition to the Yoga discussion in above Principal Upanishads, twenty Yoga Upanishads as well as related texts such as Yoga Vasistha, composed in 1st and 2nd millennium CE, discuss Yoga methods,[108][109]
Sutras of Hindu philosophies[edit]
Yoga is discussed in the ancient foundational Sutras of Hindu philosophy, The Vaiśeṣika Sūtra of the Vaisheshika school of Hinduism, dated to have been composed sometime between 6th and 2nd century BCE discusses Yoga,[110][111][note 17] According to Johannes Bronkhorst, an Indologist known for his studies on early Buddhism and Hinduism and a professor at the University of Lausanne, Vaiśeṣika Sūtra describes Yoga as "a state where the mind resides only in the soul and therefore not in the senses",[113] This is equivalent to pratyahara or withdrawal of the senses, and the ancient Sutra asserts that this leads to an absence of sukha (happiness) and dukkha (suffering), then describes additional yogic meditation steps in the journey towards the state of spiritual liberation,[113]
Similarly, Brahma sutras – the foundational text of the Vedanta school of Hinduism, discusses yoga in its sutra 2,1,3, 2,1,223 and others,[114] Brahma sutras are estimated to have been complete in the surviving form sometime between 450 BCE to 200 CE,[115][116] and its sutras assert that yoga is a means to gain "subtlety of body" and other powers,[114] The Nyaya sutras – the foundational text of the Nyaya school, variously estimated to have been composed between the 6th-century BCE and 2nd-century CE,[117][118] discusses yoga in sutras 4,2,38–50, This ancient text of the Nyaya school includes a discussion of yogic ethics, dhyana (meditation), samadhi, and among other things remarks that debate and philosophy is a form of yoga,[119][120][121]
Macedonian historical texts[edit]
Alexander the Great reached India in the 4th century BCE, Along with his army, he took Greek academics with him who later wrote memoirs about geography, people and customs they saw, One of Alexander's companion was Onesicritus, quoted in Book 15, Sections 63–65 by Strabo, who describes yogins of India,[122] Onesicritus claims those Indian yogins (Mandanis ) practiced aloofness and "different postures – standing or sitting or lying naked – and motionless",[123]
Onesicritus also mentions his colleague Calanus trying to meet them, who is initially denied audience, but later invited because he was sent by a "king curious of wisdom and philosophy",[123] Onesicritus and Calanus learn that the yogins consider the best doctrine of life as "rid the spirit of not only pain, but also pleasure", that "man trains the body for toil in order that his opinions may be strengthened", that "there is no shame in life on frugal fare", and that "the best place to inhabit is one with scantiest equipment or outfit",[122][123] These principles are significant to the history of spiritual side of yoga,[122] These may reflect the ancient roots of "undisturbed calmness" and "mindfulness through balance" in later works of Hindu Patanjali and Buddhist Buddhaghosa respectively, states Charles Rockwell Lanman;[122] as well as the principle of Aparigraha (non-possessiveness, non-craving, simple living) and asceticism discussed in later Hinduism and Jainism,[citation needed]
Early Buddhist texts[edit]
Werner states, "The Buddha was the founder of his [Yoga] system, even though, admittedly, he made use of some of the experiences he had previously gained under various Yoga teachers of his time,"[124] He notes:[10]
"But it is only with Buddhism itself as expounded in the Pali Canon that we can speak about a systematic and comprehensive or even integral school of Yoga practice, which is thus the first and oldest to have been preserved for us in its entirety,"[10]
The chronology of completion of these yoga-related Pali Canons, however, is unclear, just like ancient Hindu texts,[125][126] Early known Buddhist sources like the Majjhima Nikāya mention meditation, while the Anguttara Nikāya describes Jhāyins (meditators) that resemble early Hindu descriptions of Muni, Kesins and meditating ascetics,[127] but these meditation-practices are not called yoga in these texts,[128] The earliest known specific discussion of yoga in the Buddhist literature, as understood in modern context, is from the third- to fourth-century CE scriptures of the Buddhist Yogācāra school and fourth- to fifth-century Visuddhimagga of Buddhaghosa,[128]
A yoga system that predated the Buddhist school is Jain yoga, But since Jain sources postdate Buddhist ones, it is difficult to distinguish between the nature of the early Jain school and elements derived from other schools,[10] Most of the other contemporary yoga systems alluded in the Upanishads and some Pali canons are lost to time,[129][130][note 18]
The early Buddhist texts describe meditative practices and states, some of which the Buddha borrowed from the śramaṇa tradition,[132][133] The Pali canon contains three passages in which the Buddha describes pressing the tongue against the palate for the purposes of controlling hunger or the mind, depending on the passage,[134] However, there is no mention of the tongue being inserted into the nasopharynx as in true khecarī mudrā, The Buddha used a posture where pressure is put on the perineum with the heel, similar to even modern postures used to stimulate Kundalini,[135]
Uncertainty with chronology[edit]
Alexander Wynne, author of The Origin of Buddhist Meditation, observes that formless meditation and elemental meditation might have originated in the Upanishadic tradition,[136] The earliest reference to meditation is in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, one of the oldest Upanishads,[92] Chandogya Upanishad describes the five kinds of vital energies (prana), Concepts used later in many yoga traditions such as internal sound and veins (nadis) are also described in the Upanishad,[80] Taittiriya Upanishad defines yoga as the mastery of body and senses,[137]
Bhagavad Gita[edit]
Krishna narrating the Gita to Arjuna,
Main article: Bhagavad Gita
The Bhagavad Gita ('Song of the Lord'), uses the term "yoga" extensively in a variety of ways, In addition to an entire chapter (ch, 6) dedicated to traditional yoga practice, including meditation,[138] it introduces three prominent types of yoga:[139]
Karma yoga: The yoga of action,[140]
Bhakti yoga: The yoga of devotion,[140]
Jnana yoga: The yoga of knowledge,[141][142]
The Gita consists of 18 chapters and 700 shlokas (verses),[143] with each chapter named as a different yoga, thus delineating eighteen different yogas,[143][144] Some scholars divide the Gita into three sections, with the first six chapters with 280 shlokas dealing with Karma yoga, the middle six containing 209 shlokas with Bhakti yoga, and the last six chapters with 211 shlokas as Jnana yoga; however, this is rough because elements of karma, bhakti and jnana are found in all chapters,[143]
Mahabharata[edit]
Description of an early form of yoga called nirodhayoga (yoga of cessation) is contained in the Mokshadharma section of the 12th chapter (Shanti Parva) of the Mahabharata, The verses of the section are dated to c, 300–200 BCE, Nirodhayoga emphasizes progressive withdrawal from the contents of empirical consciousness such as thoughts, sensations etc, until purusha (Self) is realized, Terms like vichara (subtle reflection), viveka (discrimination) and others which are similar to Patanjali's terminology are mentioned, but not described,[145] There is no uniform goal of yoga mentioned in the Mahabharata, Separation of self from matter, perceiving Brahman everywhere, entering into Brahman etc, are all described as goals of yoga, Samkhya and yoga are conflated together and some verses describe them as being identical,[146] Mokshadharma also describes an early practice of elemental meditation,[147]
Mahabharata defines the purpose of yoga as the experience of uniting the individual ātman with the universal Brahman that pervades all things,[146]
Classical era (200 BCE – 500 CE)[edit]
This period witnessed many texts of Buddhism, Hinduism and Jainism discussing and systematically compiling yoga methods and practices, Of these, Patanjali's Yoga Sutras are considered as a key work,
Classical yoga[edit]
During the period between the Mauryan and the Gupta era (c, 200 BCE–500 CE) philosophical schools of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism were taking form and a coherent philosophical system of yoga began to emerge,[72]
Yoga as a philosophy is mentioned in Sanskrit texts dated to be completed between 200 BCE–200 CE, Kauṭilya's Arthasastra in verse 1,2,10, for example, states that there are three categories of anviksikis (philosophies) – Samkhya (nontheistic), Yoga (theistic) and Cārvāka (atheistic materialism),[148][149]
Samkhya[edit]
Further information: Samkhya
Many traditions in India began to adopt systematic methodology by about first century CE, Of these, Samkhya was probably one of the oldest philosophies to begin taking a systematic form,[150] Patanjali systematized Yoga, building them on the foundational metaphysics of Samkhya, In the early works, the Yoga principles appear together with the Samkhya ideas, Vyasa's commentary on the Yoga Sutras, also called the Samkhyapravacanabhasya (Commentary on the Exposition of the Sankhya Philosophy), describes the relation between the two systems,[151] The two schools have some differences as well, Yoga accepted the conception of "personal god", while Samkhya developed as a rationalist, non-theistic/atheistic system of Hindu philosophy,[45][152][153] Sometimes Patanjali's system is referred to as Seshvara Samkhya in contradistinction to Kapila's Nirivara Samkhya,[154]
The parallels between Yoga and Samkhya were so close that Max Müller says that "the two philosophies were in popular parlance distinguished from each other as Samkhya with and Samkhya without a Lord,"[155]
Yoga Sutras of Patanjali[edit]
Main articles: Raja Yoga and Yoga Sutras of Patanjali
Traditional Hindu depiction of Patanjali as an avatar of the divine serpent Shesha,
Yoga Sutras of Patanjali[156]
Pada (Chapter) English meaning Sutras
Samadhi Pada On being absorbed in spirit
51
Sadhana Pada On being immersed in spirit
55
Vibhuti Pada On supernatural abilities and gifts
56
Kaivalya Pada On absolute freedom
34
In Hindu philosophy, yoga is the name of one of the six orthodox (which accept the testimony of Vedas) philosophical schools,[157][158] Karel Werner, author of Yoga And Indian Philosophy, believes that the process of systematization of yoga which began in the middle and Yoga Upanishads culminated with the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali,[note 19]
There are numerous parallels in the concepts in ancient Samkhya, Yoga and Abhidharma Buddhist schools of thought, particularly from 2nd century BCE to 1st century AD, notes Larson,[160] Patanjali's Yoga Sutras is a synthesis of these three traditions, From Samkhya, Yoga Sutras adopt the "reflective discernment" (adhyavasaya) of prakrti and purusa (dualism), its metaphysical rationalism, as well its three epistemic methods to gaining reliable knowledge,[160] From Abhidharma Buddhism's idea of nirodhasamadhi, suggests Larson, Yoga Sutras adopt the pursuit of altered state of awareness, but unlike Buddhist's concept of no self nor soul, Yoga is physicalist and realist like Samkhya in believing that each individual has a self and soul,[160] The third concept Yoga Sutras synthesize into its philosophy is the ancient ascetic traditions of meditation and introspection, as well as the yoga ideas from middle Upanishads such as Katha, Shvetashvatara and Maitri,[160]
Patanjali's Yoga Sutras are widely regarded as the first compilation of the formal yoga philosophy,[161] The verses of Yoga Sutras are terse, Many later Indian scholars studied them and published their commentaries, such as the Vyasa Bhashya (c, 350–450 CE),[162] Patanjali's yoga is also referred to as Raja yoga,[163] Patanjali defines the word "yoga" in his second sutra:
योग: चित्त-वृत्ति निरोध:
(yogaḥ citta-vṛtti-nirodhaḥ)
- Yoga Sutras 1,2
This terse definition hinges on the meaning of three Sanskrit terms, I, K, Taimni translates it as "Yoga is the inhibition (nirodhaḥ) of the modifications (vṛtti) of the mind (citta)",[164] Swami Vivekananda translates the sutra as "Yoga is restraining the mind-stuff (Citta) from taking various forms (Vrittis),"[165] Edwin Bryant explains that, to Patanjali, "Yoga essentially consists of meditative practices culminating in attaining a state of consciousness free from all modes of active or discursive thought, and of eventually attaining a state where consciousness is unaware of any object external to itself, that is, is only aware of its own nature as consciousness unmixed with any other object,"[44][166][167]
If the meaning of yoga is understood as the practice of nirodha (mental control), then its goal is "the unqualified state of niruddha (the perfection of that process)",[168] according to Baba Hari Dass, In that context, "yoga (union) implies duality (as in joining of two things or principles); the result of yoga is the nondual state", and "as the union of the lower self and higher Self, The nondual state is characterized by the absence of individuality; it can be described as eternal peace, pure love, Self-realization, or liberation,"[169]
Patanjali's writing also became the basis for a system referred to as "Ashtanga Yoga" ("Eight-Limbed Yoga"), This eight-limbed concept is derived from the 29th Sutra of the Book 2 of Yoga Sutras, They are:
Yama (The five "abstentions"): Ahimsa (Non-violence, non-harming other living beings),[170] Satya (truthfulness, non-falsehood),[171] Asteya (non-stealing),[172] Brahmacharya (celibacy, fidelity to one's partner),[172] and Aparigraha (non-avarice, non-possessiveness),[171]
Niyama (The five "observances"): Śauca (purity, clearness of mind, speech and body),[173] Santosha (contentment, acceptance of others and of one's circumstances),[174] Tapas (persistent meditation, perseverance, austerity),[175] Svādhyāya (study of self, self-reflection, study of Vedas),[176] and Ishvara-Pranidhana (contemplation of God/Supreme Being/True Self),[174]
Asana: Literally means "seat", and in Patanjali's Sutras refers to the seated position used for meditation,
Pranayama ("Suspending Breath"): Prāna, breath, "āyāma", to restrain or stop, Also interpreted as control of the life force,
Pratyahara ("Abstraction"): Withdrawal of the sense organs from external objects,
Dharana ("Concentration"): Fixing the attention on a single object,
Dhyana ("Meditation"): Intense contemplation of the nature of the object of meditation,
Samadhi ("Liberation"): merging consciousness with the object of meditation,
Yoga and Vedanta[edit]
Yoga and Vedanta are the two largest surviving schools of Hindu traditions, They share many thematic principles, concepts and belief in self/soul, but diverge in degree, style and some of their methods, Epistemologically, Yoga school accepts three means to reliable knowledge, while Advaita Vedanta accepts six ways,[177] Yoga disputes the monism of Advaita Vedanta,[178] Yoga school believes that in the state of moksha, each individual discovers the blissful, liberating sense of himself or herself as an independent identity; Advaita Vedanta, in contrast, believes that in the state of moksha, each individual discovers the blissful, liberating sense of himself or herself as part of Oneness with everything, everyone and the Universal Self, They both hold that the free conscience is aloof yet transcendent, liberated and self-aware, Further, Advaita Vedanta school enjoins the use of Patanjali's yoga practices and the reading of Upanishads for those seeking the supreme good, ultimate freedom and jivanmukti,[178]
Yoga Yajnavalkya[edit]
Main article: Yoga Yajnavalkya
संयोगो योग इत्युक्तो जीवात्मपरमात्मनोः॥
saṁyogo yoga ityukto jīvātma-paramātmanoḥ॥
Yoga is union of the individual self (jivātma) with the supreme self (paramātma),
—Yoga Yajnavalkya[179]
The Yoga Yajnavalkya is a classical treatise on yoga attributed to the Vedic sage Yajnavalkya, It takes the form of a dialogue between Yajnavalkya and Gargi, a renowned philosopher,[180] The text contains 12 chapters and its origin has been traced to the period between the second century BCE and fourth century CE,[181] Many yoga texts like the Hatha Yoga Pradipika, the Yoga Kundalini and the Yoga Tattva Upanishads have borrowed verses from or make frequent references to the Yoga Yajnavalkya,[182] The Yoga Yajnavalkya discusses eight yoga Asanas – Swastika, Gomukha, Padma, Vira, Simha, Bhadra, Mukta and Mayura,[183] numerous breathing exercises for body cleansing,[184] and meditation,[185]
Jainism[edit]
Main article: Jainism
Tirthankara Parsva in Yogic meditation in the Kayotsarga posture,
According to Tattvarthasutra, 2nd century CE Jain text, yoga is the sum of all the activities of mind, speech and body,[5] Umasvati calls yoga the cause of "asrava" or karmic influx[186] as well as one of the essentials—samyak caritra—in the path to liberation,[186] In his Niyamasara, Acarya Kundakunda, describes yoga bhakti—devotion to the path to liberation—as the highest form of devotion,[187] Acarya Haribhadra and Acarya Hemacandra mention the five major vows of ascetics and 12 minor vows of laity under yoga, This has led certain Indologists like Prof, Robert J, Zydenbos to call Jainism, essentially, a system of yogic thinking that grew into a full-fledged religion,[188] The five yamas or the constraints of the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali bear a resemblance to the five major vows of Jainism, indicating a history of strong cross-fertilization between these traditions,[189][note 20]
Mainstream Hinduism's influence on Jain yoga is noticed as Haribhadra founded his eightfold yoga and aligned it with Patanjali's eightfold yoga,[191]
Yogacara school[edit]
Main article: Yogacara
In the late phase of Indian antiquity, on the eve of the development of Classical Hinduism, the Yogacara movement arises during the Gupta period (4th to 5th centuries), Yogacara received the name as it provided a "yoga," a framework for engaging in the practices that lead to the path of the bodhisattva,[192] The yogacara sect teaches "yoga" as a way to reach enlightenment,[193]
Middle Ages (500–1500 CE)[edit]
Middle Ages saw the development of many satellite traditions of yoga, Hatha yoga emerged in this period,[194]
Bhakti movement[edit]
Main article: Bhakti Yoga
The Bhakti movement was a development in medieval Hinduism which advocated the concept of a personal God (or "Supreme Personality of Godhead"), The movement was initiated by the Alvars of South India in the 6th to 9th centuries, and it st*rted gaining influence throughout India by the 12th to 15th centuries,[195] Shaiva and Vaishnava bhakti traditions integrated aspects of Yoga Sutras, such as the practical meditative exercises, with devotion,[196] Bhagavata Purana elucidates the practice of a form of yoga called viraha (separation) bhakti, Viraha bhakti emphasizes one pointed concentration on Krishna,[197]
Tantra[edit]
Tantra is a genre of yoga that arose in India no later than the 5th century CE,[198][note 21] George Samuel states, "Tantra" is a contested term, but may be considered as a school whose practices appeared in mostly complete form in Buddhist and Hindu texts by about 10th century CE,[64] Over its history, some ideas of Tantra school influenced the Hindu, Bon, Buddhist, and Jain traditions, Elements of Tantric yoga rituals were adopted by and influenced state functions in medieval Buddhist and Hindu kingdoms in East and Southeast Asia,[200][201]
By the turn of the first millennium, hatha yoga emerged from tantra,[14][15]
Vajrayana Buddhism[edit]
Main article: Vajrayana
Vajrayana is also known as Tantric Buddhism and Tantrayāna, Its texts were compiled st*rting with 7th century and Tibetan translations were completed in 8th century CE, These tantra yoga texts were the main source of Buddhist knowledge that was imported into Tibet,[202] They were later translated into Chinese and other Asian languages, helping spread ideas of Tantric Buddhism, The Buddhist text Hevajra Tantra and Caryāgiti introduced hierarchies of chakras,[203] Yoga is a significant practice in Tantric Buddhism,[60][204][205]
Hatha Yoga[edit]
Main articles: Hatha yoga and Hatha Yoga Pradipika
The earliest references to hatha yoga are in Buddhist works dating from the eighth century,[206] The earliest definition of hatha yoga is found in the 11th century Buddhist text Vimalaprabha, which defines it in relation to the center channel, bindu etc,[207] Hatha yoga synthesizes elements of Patanjali's Yoga Sutras with posture and breathing exercises,[208] It marks the development of asanas (plural) into the full body 'postures' now in popular usage[209] and, along with its many modern variations, is the style that many people associate with the word yoga today,[210]
Sikhism[edit]
Various yogic groups had become prominent in Punjab in the 15th and 16th century, when Sikhism was in its nascent stage, Compositions of Guru Nanak, the founder of Sikhism, describe many dialogues he had with Jogis, a Hindu community which practiced yoga,[211] Guru Nanak rejected the austerities, rites and rituals connected with Hatha Yoga,[212] He propounded the path of Sahaja yoga or Nama yoga (meditation on the name) instead,[213] The Guru Granth Sahib states:
Listen "O Yogi, Nanak tells nothing but the truth, You must discipline your mind, The devotee must meditate on the Word Divine, It is His grace which brings about the union, He understands, he also sees, Good deeds help one merge into Divination,"[214]
Modern history[edit]
Reception in the West[edit]
Ustrasana Urdhva Prasarita Ekapadasana
Pawanmuktasana Eka Pada Koundinyasana
Trikonasana Janusirsasana
Bhujangasana Siddhasana
Various yoga asanas
Yoga came to the attention of an educated western public in the mid-19th century along with other topics of Indian philosophy, In the context of this budding interest, N, C, Paul published his Treatise on Yoga Philosophy in 1851,
The first Hindu teacher to actively advocate and disseminate aspects of yoga to a western audience, Swami Vivekananda, toured Europe and the United States in the 1890s,[215] The reception which Swami Vivekananda received built on the active interest of intellectuals, in particular the New England Transcendentalists, among them R, W, Emerson (1803–1882), who drew on German Romanticism and the interest of philosophers and scholars like G,W,F, Hegel (1770–1831), the brothers August Wilhelm Schlegel (1767–1845) and Karl Wilhelm Friedrich Schlegel (1772–1829), Max Mueller (1823–1900), Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860) and others who had (to varying degrees) interests in things Indian,[216]
Theosophists also had a large influence on the American public's view of Yoga,[217] Esoteric views current at the end of the 19th century provided a further basis for the reception of Vedanta and of Yoga with its theory and practice of correspondence between the spiritual and the physical,[218] The reception of Yoga and of Vedanta thus entwined with each other and with the (mostly Neoplatonism-based) currents of religious and philosophical reform and transformation throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, M, Eliade, himself rooted in the Romanian currents of these traditions,[citation needed] brought a new element into the reception of Yoga with the strong emphasis on Tantric Yoga in his seminal book: Yoga: Immortality and Freedom,[note 22] With the introduction of the Tantra traditions and philosophy of Yoga, the conception of the "transcendent" to be attained by Yogic practice shifted from experiencing the "transcendent" ("Atman-Brahman" in Advaitic theory) in the mind to the body itself,[219]
The American born yogi by the name of Pierre Arnold Bernard, after his travels through the lands of Kashmir and Bengal, founded the Tantrik Order of America in 1905, His teachings gave many westerners their first glimpse into the practices of yoga and tantra,[220]
The modern scientific study of yoga began with the works of N, C, Paul and Major D, Basu in the late 19th century, and then continued in the 20th century with Sri Yogendra (1897–1989) and Swami Kuvalayananda,[221] Western medical researchers came to Swami Kuvalayananda's Kaivalyadhama Health and Yoga Research Center, st*rting in 1928, to study Yoga as a science,[222]
The West,[clarification needed] in the early 21st century typically associates the term "yoga" with Hatha yoga and its asanas (postures) or as a form of exercise,[223] During the 1910s and 1920s in the USA, yoga suffered a period of bad publicity due largely to the backlash against immigration, a rise in puritanical values, and a number of scandals,[examples needed] In the 1930s and 1940s yoga began to gain more public acceptance as a result of celebrity endorsement,[citation needed] In the 1950s the United States saw another period of paranoia against yoga,[217] but by the 1960s, western interest in Hindu spirituality reached its peak, giving rise to a great number of Neo-Hindu schools specifically advocated to a western public, During this period, most of the influential Indian teachers of yoga came from two lineages, those of Sivananda Saraswati (1887–1963) and of Tirumalai Krishnamacharya (1888–1989),[224] Teachers of Hatha yoga who were active in the west in this period included B,K,S, Iyengar (1918–2014), K, Pattabhi Jois (1915–2009), Swami Vishnu-devananda (1927–1993), and Swami Satchidananda (1914–2002),[225][226][227] Yogi Bhajan brought Kundalini Yoga to the United States in 1969,[228] Comprehensive, classical teachings of Ashtanga Yoga, Samkhya, the subtle body theory, Fitness Asanas, and tantric elements were included in the yoga teachers training by Baba Hari Dass (1923–), in the United States and Canada,[229]
A second "yoga boom" followed in the 1980s, as Dean Ornish, a follower of Swami Satchidananda, connected yoga to heart health, legitimizing yoga as a purely physical system of health exercises outside of counter-culture or esotericism circles, and unconnected to any religious denomination,[215] Numerous asanas seemed modern in origin, and strongly overlapped with 19th and early-20th century Western exercise traditions,[230]
A group of people practicing yoga in 2012,
Since 2001, the popularity of yoga in the USA has risen constantly, The number of people who practiced some form of yoga has grown from 4 million (in 2001) to 20 million (in 2011), It has drawn support from world leaders such as Barack Obama who stated, "Yoga has become a universal language of spiritual exercise in the United States, crossing many lines of religion and cultures,,,, Every day, millions of people practice yoga to improve their health and overall well-being, That's why we're encouraging everyone to take part in PALA (Presidential Active Lifestyle Award), so show your support for yoga and answer the challenge",[231]
The American College of Sports Medicine supports the integration of yoga into the exercise regimens of healthy individuals as long as properly-trained professionals deliver instruction, The College cites yoga's promotion of "profound mental, physical and spiritual awareness" and its benefits as a form of stretching, and as an enhancer of breath control and of core strength,[232]
Exercise and health applications[edit]
Main article: Yoga as exercise or alternative medicine
Yoga has been studied and is increasingly recommended to promote relaxation, reduce stress and some medical conditions such as premenstrual syndrome in Europe as well as in the United States,[233] According to Dupler and Frey, Yoga is a low-impact activity that can provide the same benefits as "any well-designed exercise program, increasing general health and stamina, reducing stress, and improving those conditions brought about by sedentary lifestyles", It is particularly suited, add Dupler and Frey, as a physical therapy routine, and as a regimen to strengthen and balance all parts of the body,[233] Yoga has also been used as a complete exercise program and physical therapy routine,[233]
In 2015 the Australian Government's Department of Health published the results of a review of alternative therapies that sought to determine if any were suitable for being covered by health insurance; Yoga was one of 17 practices evaluated for which no clear evidence of effectiveness was found, with the caveat that "Reviewers were limited in drawing definite conclusions, not only due to a lack of studies for some clinical conditions, but also due to the lack of information reported in the reviews and potentially in the primary studies,"[234]
While the practice of yoga continues to rise in contemporary American culture, sufficient and adequate knowledge of the practice's origins does not, According to Andrea R, Jain, Yoga is being marketed as a supplement to a cardio routine with health benefits, but in Hinduism it is more than exercise and incorporates meditation with spiritual benefits,[235]
Potential benefits for adults[edit]
While much of the medical community regards the results of yoga research as significant, others point to many flaws which undermine results, Much of the research on yoga has taken the form of preliminary studies or clinical trials of low methodological quality, including small sample sizes, inadequate blinding, lack of randomization, and high risk of bias,[236][237][238] Long-term yoga users in the United States have reported musculoskeletal and mental health improvements, as well as reduced symptoms of asthma in asthmatics,[239] There is evidence to suggest that regular yoga practice increases brain GABA levels, and yoga has been shown to improve mood and anxiety more than some other metabolically-matched exercises, such as walking,[240][241] The three main focuses of Hatha yoga (exercise, breathing, and meditation) make it beneficial to those suffering from heart disease, Overall, studies of the effects of yoga on heart disease suggest that yoga may reduce high blood-pressure, improve symptoms of heart failure, enhance cardiac rehabilitation, and lower cardiovascular risk factors,[242] For chronic low back pain, specialist Yoga for Healthy Lower Backs has been found 30% more beneficial than usual care alone in a UK clinical trial,[243] Other smaller studies support this finding,[244][245] The Yoga for Healthy Lower Backs programme is the dominant treatment for society (both cheaper and more effective than usual care alone) due to 8,5 fewer days off work each year,[246] A research group from Boston University School of Medicine also tested yoga's effects on lower-back pain, Over twelve weeks, one group of volunteers practiced yoga while the control group continued with standard treatment for back pain, The reported pain for yoga participants decreased by one third, while the standard treatment group had only a five percent drop, Yoga participants also had a drop of 80% in the use of pain medication,[247]
There has been an emergence of studies investigating yoga as a complementary intervention for cancer patients, Yoga is used for treatment of cancer patients to decrease depression, insomnia, pain, and fatigue and to increase anxiety control,[248] Mindfulness Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) programs include yoga as a mind-body technique to reduce stress, A study found that after seven weeks the group treated with yoga reported significantly less mood disturbance and reduced stress compared to the control group, Another study found that MBSR had showed positive effects on sleep anxiety, quality of life, and spiritual growth in cancer patients,[249]
Yoga has also been studied as a treatment for schizophrenia,[250] Some encouraging, but inconclusive, evidence suggests that yoga as a complementary treatment may help alleviate symptoms of schizophrenia and improve health-related quality of life,[20]
Implementation of the Kundalini Yoga Lifestyle has shown to help substance abuse addicts increase their quality of life according to psychological questionnaires like the Behavior and Symptom Identification Scale and the Quality of Recovery Index,[251]
Yoga has been shown in a study to have some cognitive functioning (executive functioning, including inhibitory control) acute benefit,[252]
A 2016 systematic review and meta-analysis found no evidence that yoga was effective for metabolic syndrome,[253]
Physical injuries[edit]
See also: Sports injury
A small percentage of yoga practitioners each year suffer physical injuries analogous to sports injuries;[254] therefore, caution and common sense are recommended,[255] Yoga has been criticized for being potentially dangerous and being a cause for a range of serious medical conditions including thoracic outlet syndrome, degenerative arthritis of the cervical spine, spinal stenosis, retinal tears, damage to the common fibular nerve, "Yoga foot drop,"[256] etc, An exposé of these problems by William Broad published in January, 2012 in The New York Times Magazine[257] resulted in controversy within the international yoga community, Broad, a science writer, yoga practitioner, and author of The Science of Yoga: The Risks and the Rewards,[258] had suffered a back injury while performing a yoga posture,[259] Torn muscles, knee injuries,[260] and headaches are common ailments which may result from yoga practice,[261]
An extensive survey of yoga practitioners in Australia showed that about 20% had suffered some physical injury while practicing yoga, In the previous 12 months 4,6% of the respondents had suffered an injury producing prolonged pain or requiring medical treatment, Headstands, shoulder stands, lotus and half lotus (seated cross-legged position), forward bends, backward bends, and handstands produced the greatest number of injuries,[254]
Some yoga practitioners do not recommend certain yoga exercises for women during menstruation, for pregnant women, or for nursing mothers, However, meditation, breathing exercises, and certain postures which are safe and beneficial for women in these categories are encouraged,[262]
Among the main reasons that experts cite for causing negative effects from yoga are beginners' competitiveness and instructors' lack of qualification, As the demand for yoga classes grows, many people get certified to become yoga instructors, often with relatively little training, Not every newly certified instructor can evaluate the condition of every new trainee in their class and recommend refraining from doing certain poses or using appropriate props to avoid injuries, In turn, a beginning yoga student can overestimate the abilities of their body and strive to do advanced poses before their body is flexible or strong enough to perform them,[257][261]
Vertebral artery dissection, a tear in the arteries in the neck which provide blood to the brain can result from rotation of the neck while the neck is extended, This can occur in a variety of contexts, but is an event which could occur in some yoga practices, This is a very serious condition which can result in a stroke,[263][264]
Acetabular labral tears, damage to the structure joining the femur and the hip, have been reported to have resulted from yoga practice,[265]
Pediatrics[edit]
It is claimed that yoga can be an excellent training for children and adolescents, both as a form of physical exercise and for breathing, focus, mindfulness, and stress relief: many school districts have considered incorporating yoga into their P,E, programs, The Encinitas, California school district gained a San Diego Superior Court Judge's approval to use yoga in P,E,, holding against the parents who claimed the practice was intrinsically religious and hence should not be part of a state funded program,[266]
Physiology[edit]
Seven chakras of a yogin
Main article: Yoga physiology
Over time, an extended yoga physiology developed, especially within the tantric tradition and hatha yoga, It pictures humans as composed of three bodies or five sheaths which cover the atman, The three bodies are described within the Mandukya Upanishad, which adds a fourth state, turiya, while the five sheaths (pancha-kosas) are described in the Taittiriya Upanishad,[267] They are often integrated:
Sthula sarira, the Gross body, comprising the Annamaya Kosha[268]
Suksma sarira, the Subtle body, composed of;
the Pranamaya Kosha (Vital breath or Energy),
Manomaya Kosha (Mind)
the Vijnanamaya Kosha (Intellect)[268]
Karana sarira, the Causal body, comprising the Anandamaya Kosha (Bliss)[268]
Within the subtle body energy flows through the nadis or channels, and is concentrated within the chakras,
Yoga and specialized meditation[edit]
Main articles: Dhyāna in Buddhism, Dhyana in Hinduism, and Samadhi
Zen Buddhism[edit]
Zen, the name of which derives from the Sanskrit "dhyāna" via the Chinese "ch'an"[note 23] is a form of Mahayana Buddhism, The Mahayana school of Buddhism is noted for its proximity with yoga,[270] In the west, Zen is often set alongside yoga; the two schools of meditation display obvious family resemblances,[271] This segregation deserves attention because yogic practices integrally exist within the Zen Buddhist school,[note 24] Certain essential elements of yoga are important both for Buddhism in general and for Zen in particular,[272]
Vajrayana or Tibetan Buddhism[edit]
In the Nyingma tradition, the path of meditation practice is divided into nine yanas, or vehicles, which are said to be increasingly profound,[273] The last six are described as "yoga yanas": "Kriya yoga", "Upa yoga," "Yoga yana," "Mahā yoga," "Anu yoga" and the ultimate practice, "Ati yoga,"[274] The Sarma traditions also include Kriya, Upa (called "Charya"), and Yoga, with the Anuttara yoga class substituting for Mahayoga and Atiyoga,[275]
Other tantra yoga practices include a system of 108 bodily postures practiced with breath and heart rhythm, The Nyingma tradition also practices Yantra yoga (Tib, "Trul khor"), a discipline that includes breath work (or pranayama), meditative contemplation and precise dynamic movements to centre the practitioner,[276] The body postures of Tibetan ancient yogis are depicted on the walls of the Dalai Lama's summer temple of Lukhang, A semi-popular account of Tibetan yoga by Chang (1993) refers to caṇḍalī (Tib, "tummo"), the generation of heat in one's own body, as being "the very foundation of the whole of Tibetan yoga,"[277] Chang also claims that Tibetan yoga involves reconciliation of apparent polarities, such as prana and mind, relating this to theoretical implications of tantrism,
Reception in other religions[edit]
Christianity[edit]
Main articles: Christian meditation, A Christian reflection on the New Age, and Aspects of Christian meditation
Some Christians integrate yoga and other aspects of Eastern spirituality with prayer and meditation, This has been attributed to a desire to experience God in a more complete way,[278] In 2013, Monsignor Raffaello Martinelli, servicing Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, having worked for over 23 years with Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger (Pope Benedict XVI),[279] said that for his Meditation, a Christian can learn from other religious traditions (zen, yoga, controlled respiration, Mantra), quoting Aspects of Christian meditation: "Just as "the Catholic Church rejects nothing of what is true and holy in these religions," neither should these ways be rejected out of hand simply because they are not Christian, On the contrary, one can take from them what is useful so long as the Christian conception of prayer, its logic and requirements are never obscured, It is within the context of all of this that these bits and pieces should be taken up and expressed anew,"[280] Previously, the Roman Catholic Church, and some other Christian organizations have expressed concerns and disapproval with respect to some eastern and New Age practices that include yoga and meditation,[281][282][283]
In 1989 and 2003, the Vatican issued two documents: Aspects of Christian meditation and "A Christian reflection on the New Age," that were mostly critical of eastern and New Age practices, The 2003 document was published as a 90-page handbook detailing the Vatican's position,[284] The Vatican warned that concentration on the physical aspects of meditation "can degenerate into a cult of the body" and that equating bodily states with mysticism "could also lead to psychic disturbance and, at times, to moral deviations," Such has been compared to the early days of Christianity, when the church opposed the gnostics' belief that salvation came not through faith but through a mystical inner knowledge,[278] The letter also says, "one can see if and how [prayer] might be enriched by meditation methods developed in other religions and cultures"[285] but maintains the idea that "there must be some fit between the nature of [other approaches to] prayer and Christian beliefs about ultimate reality,"[278] Some fundamentalist Christian organizations consider yoga to be incompatible with their religious background, considering it a part of the New Age movement inconsistent with Christianity,[286]
Another view holds that Christian meditation can lead to religious pluralism, This is held by an interdenominational association of Christians that practice it, "The ritual simultaneously operates as an anchor that maintains, enhances, and promotes denominational activity and a sail that allows institutional boundaries to be crossed," [287]
Islam[edit]
In early 11th century, the Persian scholar Al Biruni visited India, lived with Hindus for 16 years, and with their help translated several significant Sanskrit works into Arabic and Persian languages, One of these was Patanjali's Yogasutras,[288][289] Al Biruni's translation preserved many of the core themes of Patañjali 's Yoga philosophy, but certain sutras and analytical commentaries were restated making it more consistent with Islamic monotheistic theology,[288][290] Al Biruni's version of Yoga Sutras reached Persia and Arabian peninsula by about 1050 AD, Later, in the 16th century, the hath yoga text Amritakunda was translated into Arabic and then Persian,[291] Yoga was, however, not accepted by mainstream Sunni and Shia Islam, Minority Islamic sects such as the mystic Sufi movement, particularly in South Asia, adopted Indian yoga practises, including postures and breath control,[292][293] Muhammad Ghawth, a Shattari Sufi and one of the translators of yoga text in 16th century, drew controversy for his interest in yoga and was persecuted for his Sufi beliefs,[294]
Malaysia's top Islamic body in 2008 passed a fatwa, prohibiting Muslims from practicing yoga, saying it had elements of Hinduism and that its practice was blasphemy, therefore haraam,[295] Some Muslims in Malaysia who had been practicing yoga for years, criticized the decision as "insulting,"[296] Sisters in Islam, a women's rights group in Malaysia, also expressed disappointment and said yoga was just a form of exercise,[297] This fatwa is legally enforceable,[298] However, Malaysia's prime minister clarified that yoga as physical exercise is permissible, but the chanting of religious mantras is prohibited,[299]
In 2009, the Council of Ulemas, an Islamic body in Indonesia, passed a fatwa banning yoga on the grounds that it contains Hindu elements,[300] These fatwas have, in turn, been criticized by Darul Uloom Deoband, a Deobandi Islamic seminary in India,[301] Similar fatwas banning yoga, for its link to Hinduism, were issued by the Grand Mufti Ali Gomaa in Egypt in 2004, and by Islamic clerics in Singapore earlier,[302]
In Iran, as of May 2014, according to its Yoga Association, there were approximately 200 yoga centres in the country, a quarter of them in the capital Tehran, where groups can often be seen practising in parks, This has been met by opposition among conservatives,[303] In May 2009, Turkey's head of the Directorate of Religious Affairs, Ali Bardakoğlu, discounted personal development techniques such as reiki and yoga as commercial ventures that could lead to extremism, His comments were made in the context of reiki and yoga possibly being a form of proselytization at the expense of Islam,[304]
International Day of Yoga[edit]
On 11 December 2014, The 193-member United Nations General Assembly approved by consensus, a resolution establishing 21 June as 'International Day of Yoga',[305] The declaration of this day came after the call for the adoption of 21 June as International Day of Yoga by Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi during his address to UN General Assembly on 27 September 2014,[306][307][308][309][310] In suggesting 21 June, which is one of the two solstices, as the International Day of Yoga, Narendra Modi had said that the date is the longest day of the year in the Northern Hemisphere and has special significance in many parts of the world,[311]
The first International Day of Yoga was observed world over on 21 June 2015, About 35000 people, including Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi and a large number of dignitaries, performed 21 Yoga asanas (yoga postures) for 35 minutes at Rajpath in New Delhi, The day devoted to Yoga was observed by millions across the world,[312] The event at Rajpath established two Guinness records – largest Yoga Class with 35985 people and the record for the most nationalities participating in it- eighty four,[313]
See also[edit]
icon Yoga portal
Hinduism portal
India portal
Yoga physiology
List of asanas
List of yoga schools
Yoga series
Yogis
Notes[edit]
^ Karel Werner states that the existence of accomplished Yogis in Vedic times cannot be doubted, citing the Kesin hymn of the Rigveda as evidence of a Yoga tradition in the Vedic era,[7]
^ Buddhists, Jainas and Ajivikas[8]
^ For instance, Kamalashila (2003), p, 4, states that Buddhist meditation "includes any method of meditation that has Enlightenment as its ultimate aim," Likewise, Bodhi (1999) writes: "To arrive at the experiential realization of the truths it is necessary to take up the practice of meditation,,,, At the climax of such contemplation the mental eye … shifts its focus to the unconditioned state, Nibbana,,,," A similar although in some ways slightly broader definition is provided by Fischer-Schreiber et al, (1991), p, 142: "Meditation – general term for a multitude of religious practices, often quite different in method, but all having the same goal: to bring the consciousness of the practitioner to a state in which he can come to an experience of 'awakening,' 'liberation,' 'enlightenment,'" Kamalashila (2003) further allows that some Buddhist meditations are "of a more preparatory nature" (p, 4),
^ The Pāli and Sanskrit word bhāvanā literally means "development" as in "mental development," For the association of this term with "meditation," see Epstein (1995), p, 105; and, Fischer-Schreiber et al, (1991), p, 20, As an example from a well-known discourse of the Pali Canon, in "The Greater Exhortation to Rahula" (Maha-Rahulovada Sutta, MN 62), Ven, Sariputta tells Ven, Rahula (in Pali, based on VRI, n,d,): ānāpānassatiṃ, rāhula, bhāvanaṃ bhāvehi, Thanissaro (2006) translates this as: "Rahula, develop the meditation [bhāvana] of mindfulness of in-&-out breathing," (Square-bracketed Pali word included based on Thanissaro, 2006, end note,)
^ See, for example, Rhys Davids & Stede (1921–25), entry for "jhāna1"; Thanissaro (1997); as well as, Kapleau (1989), p, 385, for the derivation of the word "zen" from Sanskrit "dhyāna," PTS Secretary Dr, Rupert Gethin, in describing the activities of wandering ascetics contemporaneous with the Buddha, wrote:
",,,[T]here is the cultivation of meditative and contemplative techniques aimed at producing what might, for the lack of a suitable technical term in English, be referred to as 'altered states of consciousness', In the technical vocabulary of Indian religious texts such states come to be termed 'meditations' ([Skt,:] dhyāna / [Pali:] jhāna) or 'concentrations' (samādhi); the attainment of such states of consciousness was generally regarded as bringing the practitioner to deeper knowledge and experience of the nature of the world," (Gethin, 1998, p, 10,)
^ Gavin Flood: "These renouncer traditions offered a new vision of the human condition which became incorporated, to some degree, into the worldview of the Brahman householder, The ideology of asceticism and renunciation seems, at first, discontinuous with the brahmanical ideology of the affirmation of social obligations and the performance of public and domestic rituals, Indeed, there has been some debate as to whether asceticism and its ideas of retributive action, reincarnation and spiritual liberation, might not have originated outside the orthodox vedic sphere, or even outside Aryan culture: that a divergent historical origin might account for the apparent contradiction within 'Hinduism' between the world affirmation of the householder and the world negation of the renouncer, However, this dichotomization is too simplistic, for continuities can undoubtedly be found between renunciation and vedic Brahmanism, while elements from non-Brahmanical, Sramana traditions also played an important part in the formation of the renunciate ideal, Indeed there are continuities between vedic Brahmanism and Buddhism, and it has been argued that the Buddha sought to return to the ideals of a vedic society which he saw as being eroded in his own day,"[71]
^ See also Gavin Flood (1996), Hinduism, p,87–90, on "The orthogenetic theory" and "Non-Vedic origins of renunciation",[66]
^ Post-classical traditions consider Hiranyagarbha as the originator of yoga,[78][79]
^ Zimmer's point of view is supported by other scholars, such as Niniam Smart, in Doctrine and argument in Indian Philosophy, 1964, p,27–32 & p,76,[83] and S,K, Belvakar & Inchegeri Sampradaya in History of Indian philosophy, 1974 (1927), p,81 & p,303–409,[83] See Crangle 1994 page 5–7,[84]
^ Original Sanskrit: युञ्जते मन उत युञ्जते धियो विप्रा विप्रस्य बृहतो विपश्चितः। वि होत्रा दधे वयुनाविदेक इन्मही देवस्य सवितुः परिष्टुतिः॥१॥[87]
Translation 1: Seers of the vast illumined seer yogically [युञ्जते, yunjante] control their minds and their intelligence,,, (…)[85]
Translation 2: The illumined yoke their mind and they yoke their thoughts to the illuminating godhead, to the vast, to the luminous in consciousness;
the one knower of all manifestation of knowledge, he alone orders the things of the sacrifice, Great is the praise of Savitri, the creating godhead,[86]
^ Flood: ",,,which states that, having become calm and concentrated, one perceives the self (atman), within oneself,"[88]
^ Original Sanskrit: स्वाध्यायमधीयानो धर्मिकान्विदधदात्मनि सर्वैन्द्रियाणि संप्रतिष्ठाप्याहिँसन्सर्व भूतान्यन्यत्र तीर्थेभ्यः स खल्वेवं वर्तयन्यावदायुषं ब्रह्मलोकमभिसंपद्यते न च पुनरावर्तते न च पुनरावर्तते॥ १॥ – Chandogya Upanishad, VIII,15[90]
Translation 1 by Max Muller, The Upanishads, The Sacred Books of the East – Part 1, Oxford University Press: (He who engages in) self study, concentrates all his senses on the Self, never giving pain to any creature, except at the tîrthas, he who behaves thus all his life, reaches the world of Brahman, and does not return, yea, he does not return,
[91]
^
Jacobsen writes that "Bodily postures are closely related to the tradition of tapas, ascetic practices in the Vedic tradition, The use by Vedic priests of ascetic practices in their preparations for the performance of the sacrifice might be precursor to Yoga,"[80]
Whicher believes that "the proto-Yoga of the Vedic rishis is an early form of sacrificial mysticism and contains many elements characteristic of later Yoga that include: concentration, meditative observation, ascetic forms of practice (tapas), breath control,,,"[81]
^ * Wynne states that "The Nasadiyasukta, one of the earliest and most important cosmogonic tracts in the early Brahminic literature, contains evidence suggesting it was closely related to a tradition of early Brahminic contemplation, A close reading of this text suggests that it was closely related to a tradition of early Brahminic contemplation, The poem may have been composed by contemplatives, but even if not, an argument can be made that it marks the beginning of the contemplative/meditative trend in Indian thought,"[94]
Miller suggests that the composition of Nasadiya Sukta and Purusha Sukta arises from "the subtlest meditative stage, called absorption in mind and heart" which "involves enheightened experiences" through which seer "explores the mysterious psychic and cosmic forces,,,",[95]
Jacobsen writes that dhyana (meditation) is derived from Vedic term dhih which refers to "visionary insight", "thought provoking vision",[95]
^ Ancient Indian literature was transmitted and preserved through an oral tradition,[97] For example, the earliest written Pali Canon text is dated to the later part of 1st century BCE, many centuries after the Buddha's death,[98]
^ For the date of this Upanishad see also Helmuth von Glasenapp, from the 1950 Proceedings of the "Akademie der Wissenschaften und Literatur"[102]
^ The currently existing version of Vaiśeṣika Sūtra manuscript was likely finalized sometime between 2nd century BCE and the st*rt of the common era,[112] Wezler has proposed that the Yoga related text may have been inserted into this Sutra later, among other things; however, Bronkhorst finds much to disagree on with Wezler,[113]
^ On the dates of the Pali canon, Gregory Schopen writes, "We know, and have known for some time, that the Pali canon as we have it — and it is generally conceded to be our oldest source — cannot be taken back further than the last quarter of the first century BCE, the date of the Alu-vihara redaction, the earliest redaction we can have some knowledge of, and that — for a critical history — it can serve, at the very most, only as a source for the Buddhism of this period, But we also know that even this is problematic,,, In fact, it is not until the time of the commentaries of Buddhaghosa, Dhammapala, and others — that is to say, the fifth to sixth centuries CE — that we can know anything definite about the actual contents of [the Pali] canon,"[131]
^ Werner writes, "The word Yoga appears here for the first time in its fully technical meaning, namely as a systematic training, and it already received a more or less clear formulation in some other middle Upanishads,,,,Further process of the systematization of Yoga as a path to the ultimate mystic goal is obvious in subsequent Yoga Upanishads and the culmination of this endeavour is represented by Patanjali's codification of this path into a system of the eightfold Yoga,"[159]
^ Worthington writes, "Yoga fully acknowledges its debt to Jainism, and Jainism reciprocates by making the practice of yoga part and parcel of life,"[190]
^ The earliest documented use of the word "Tantra" is in the Rigveda (X,71,9),[199] The context of use suggests the word tantra in Rigveda means "technique",
^ Eliade, Mircea, Yoga – Immortality and Freedom, Princeton, 1958: Princeton Univ,Pr, (original title: Le Yoga, Immortalité et Liberté, Paris, 1954: Libr, Payot)
^ "The Meditation school, called 'Ch'an' in Chinese from the Sanskrit 'dhyāna,' is best known in the West by the Japanese pronunciation 'Zen'"[269]
^ Exact quote: "This phenomenon merits special attention since yogic roots are to be found in the Zen Buddhist school of meditation,"[272]
References[edit]
^ "yoga, n,", OED Online, Oxford University Press, September 2015, Retrieved 9 September 2015,
^ White 2011,
^ Denise Lardner Carmody, John Carmody (1996), Serene Compassion, Oxford University Press US, p, 68,
^ Stuart Ray Sarbacker, Samādhi: The Numinous and Cessative in Indo-Tibetan Yoga, SUNY Press, 2005, pp, 1–2,
^ a b Tattvarthasutra [6,1], see Manu Doshi (2007) Translation of Tattvarthasutra, Ahmedabad: Shrut Ratnakar p, 102
^ Kimberly Lau (2000), New Age Capitalism, University of Pennsylvania Press, ISBN 978-0812217292, page 100
^ a b c d Karel Werner (1977), Yoga and the Ṛg Veda: An Interpretation of the Keśin Hymn (RV 10, 136), Religious Studies, Vol, 13, No, 3, page 289–302
^ a b c Samuel 2008, p, 8,
^ a b c d e Mark Singleton (2010), Yoga Body: The Origins of Modern Posture Practice, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-539534-1, pages 25–34
^ a b c d Werner (1977) p, 119–20
^ Whicher, pp, 1–4, chronology on pp, 41–42
^ W, Y, Evans-Wentz (2000), Tibetan Yoga and Secret Doctrines, 3rd Edition, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-513314-1, Chapters 7 and 8
^ White 2014, p, xvi–xvii,
^ a b James Mallinson, "Sāktism and Hathayoga," 28 June 2012, http://www,khecari,com/resources/SaktismHathayoga,pdf [accessed 19 September 2013] pg, 20, Quote: "The techniques of hatha yoga are not taught in Sanskrit texts until the 11th century or thereabouts,"
^ a b c Burley, Mikel (2000), Hatha Yoga: Its Context, Theory and Practice, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, p, 16, "It is for this reason that hatha-yoga is sometimes referred to as a variety of 'Tantrism',"
^ a b White 2011, p, 2,
^ * Marek Jantos (2012), in Oxford Textbook of Spirituality in Healthcare (Editors: Mark Cobb et al,), Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-957139-0, pages 362–363
James M, Nelson (2009), Psychology, Religion, and Spirituality, Springer, ISBN 978-1-4419-2769-9, pages 78–82
Jean Varenne (1977), Yoga and the Hindu Tradition, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-0-226-85116-7, Preface and Introduction
^ * Mikel Burley (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga: An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-64887-5, See Introduction section;
John A, Grimes (1989), A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-0100-2, page 70
^ a b * Smith, Kelly B,; Pukall, Caroline F, (May 2009), "An evidence-based review of yoga as a complementary intervention for patients with cancer", Psycho-Oncology, 18 (5): 465–475, doi:10,1002/pon,1411, PMID 18821529,
Sharma, Manoj; Haider, Taj (October 2012), "Yoga as an Alternative and Complementary Treatment for Asthma: A Systematic Review", Journal of Evidence-Based Complementary & Alternative Medicine, 17 (3): 212–217, doi:10,1177/2156587212453727,
Innes, Kim E,; Bourguignon, Cheryl (November–December 2005), "Risk Indices Associated with the Insulin Resistance Syndrome, Cardiovascular Disease, and Possible Protection with Yoga: A Systematic Review", Journal of the American Board of Family Medicine, 18 (6): 491–519, doi:10,3122/jabfm,18,6,491,
^ a b c Vancampfort, D,; Vansteeland, K,; Scheewe, T,; Probst, M,; Knapen, J,; De Herdt, A,; De Hert, M, (July 2012), "Yoga in schizophrenia: a systematic review of randomised controlled trials", Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 126 (1): 12–20, doi:10,1111/j,1600-0447,2012,01865,x,, art,nr, 10,1111/j,1600-0447,2012,01865,x
^ Monier Monier-Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary: ,,,with Special Reference to Greek, Latin, Gothic, German, Anglo-Saxon,, Clarendon, p, 804,
^ Whicher, p, 6–7,
^ a b Dasgupta, Surendranath (1975), A History of Indian Philosophy, 1, Delhi, India: Motilal Banarsidass, p, 226, ISBN 81-208-0412-0,
^ Bryant 2009, p, 5,
^ Bryant 2009, p, xxxix,
^ Aranya, Swami Hariharananda (2000), Yoga Philosophy of Patanjali with Bhasvati, Calcutta, India: University of Calcutta, p, 1, ISBN 81-87594-00-4,
^ American Heritage Dictionary: "Yogi, One who practices yoga," Websters: "Yogi, A follower of the yoga philosophy; an ascetic,"
^ a b Jacobsen, p, 4,
^ White 2011, p, 6,
^ White 2011, pp, 6–8,
^ White 2011, pp, 8–9,
^ White 2011, pp, 9–10,
^ White 2011, pp, 10–12,
^ Mallinson, James (2013), "The Yogīs' Latest Trick", Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Cambridge University Press (CUP), 24 (1): 165–180, doi:10,1017/s1356186313000734,
^ White 2011, p, 11,
^ Hari Dass 1978,
^ a b Mallinson 2011, p, 770,
^ a b c d e f White 2014, p, xvi,
^ Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, London, George Allen & Unwin Ltd,, 1971 edition, Volume II, pp, 19–20,
^ Flood 1996, pp, 82, 224–49
^ Changing World Religions, Cults & Occult,
^ Swami Vivekananda, Raja Yoga, ISBN 978-1500746940
^ Whicher, pp, 41–43
^ a b c Edwin Bryant (2011, Rutgers University), The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali IEP
^ a b Lloyd Pflueger, Person Purity and Power in Yogasutra, in Theory and Practice of Yoga (Editor: Knut Jacobsen), Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120832329, pages 38–39
^ Mike Burley (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga – An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-64887-5, pages 43–46
^ Kovoor T, Behanan (2002), Yoga: Its Scientific Basis, Dover, ISBN 978-0-486-41792-9, pages 56–58
^ Mike Burley (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga – An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-64887-5, page 39, 41
^ Mike Burley (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga – An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-64887-5, pages 38–46
^ Wade Dazey (2008) on pages 421–423, and Lloyd Pflueger on pages 46–52, in Theory and Practice of Yoga : 'Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson, Editor: Knut A, Jacobsen, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120832329
^ Akshaya Kumar Banerjea (1983), Philosophy of Gorakhnath with Goraksha-Vacana-Sangraha, Motilal Banarsidass, pp, xxi, ISBN 978-81-208-0534-7,
^ a b See Kriyananada, page 112,
^ See Burley, page 73,
^ See Introduction by Rosen, pp 1–2,
^ See translation by Mallinson,
^ On page 140, David Gordon White says of Gorakshanath: ",,, hatha yoga, in which field he was India's major systematizer and innovator,"
^ Bajpai writes on page 524: "Nobody can dispute about the top ranking position of Sage Gorakshanath in the philosophy of Yoga,"
^ Eliade writes of Gorakshanath on page 303: ",,,he accomplished a new synthesis among certain Shaivist traditions (Pashupata), tantrism, and the doctrines (unfortunately, so imperfectly known) of the siddhas – that is, of the perfect yogis,"
^ Davidson, Ronald, Indian Esoteric Buddhism, Columbia University Press, 2002, pg,169–235,
^ a b Lama Yeshe (1998), The Bliss of Inner Fire, Wisdom Publications, pp, 135–141,
^ Larson, p, 142,
^ Mahapragya, Acharya (2004), "Foreword", Jain Yog, Aadarsh Saahitya Sangh,
^ Tulsi, Acharya (2004), "blessings", Sambodhi, Aadarsh Saahitya Sangh, OCLC 39811791,
^ a b c Samuel 2008, p, 9,
^ Mukunda Stiles, Tantra Yoga Secrets, Weiser, ISBN 978-1-57863-503-0, pages 3–7
^ a b Flood 1996, p, 87–90,
^ a b Crangle 1994, p, 4–7,
^ a b c Zimmer 1951, p, 217, 314,
^ Samuel 2010,
^ Flood 1996, p, 77,
^ Flood 1996, p, 76–77,
^ a b Larson, p, 36,
^ Samuel 2008, p, 2–3,
^ Possehl (2003), pp, 144–145
^ Samuel 2010, p, 2–10,
^ Crangle 1994, p, 4,
^ Crangle 1994, p, 5,
^ Feuerstein, Georg (2001), The Yoga Tradition: Its History, Literature, Philosophy and Practice, Arizona, USA: Hohm Press, p, Kindle Locations 7299–7300, ISBN 978-1-890772-18-5,
^ Aranya, Swami Hariharananda (2000), "Introduction", Yoga Philosophy of Patanjali with Bhasvati, Calcutta, India: University of Calcutta, p, xxiv, ISBN 81-87594-00-4,
^ a b c d e Jacobsen, p, 6,
^ a b Whicher, p, 12,
^ Zimmer 1951, p, 217,
^ a b Crangle 1994, p, 7,
^ Crangle 1994, p, 5–7,
^ a b Burley, Mikel (2000), Hatha Yoga: Its Context, Theory and Practice, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, p, 25, ISBN 978-8120817067,
^ a b Sri Aurobindo (1916, Reprinted 1995), A Hymn to Savitri V,81, in The Secret of Veda, ISBN 978-0-914955-19-1, page 529
^ Sanskrit:
Source: Rigveda Book 5, Chapter 81 Wikisource
^ Flood 1996, p, 94–95,
^ Mircea Eliade (2009), Yoga: Immortality and Freedom, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-14203-6, pages 117–118
^ wikisource, Chandogya Upanishad, अष्टमोऽध्यायः॥ पञ्चदशः खण्डः॥
^ Translation 2 by GN Jha: Chandogya Upanishad VIII,15, page 488
^ a b c Flood, p, 94–95,
^ Whicher, p, 13,
^ Wynne, p, 50,
^ a b Whicher, p, 11,
^ Larson, p, 34–35, 53,
^ Wynne, Alexander (2004), "The Oral Transmission of the Early Buddhist Literature", Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, 27 (1): 97–128,
^ Donald Lopez (2004), Buddhist Scriptures, Penguin Books, pp, xi–xv, ISBN 978-0-14-190937-0
^ Flood 1996, p, 95,
^ Stephen Phillips (2009), Yoga, Karma, and Rebirth: A Brief History and Philosophy, Columbia University Press, pp, 28–30, ISBN 978-0-231-14485-8,
^ Patrick Olivelle (1998), The Early Upanishads: Annotated Text and Translation, Oxford University Press, pp, 12–13, ISBN 978-0-19-512435-4,
^ "Vedanta and Buddhism, A Comparative Study", Archived from the original on 4 February 2013, Retrieved 29 August 2012,
^ Whicher, p, 18–19,
^ a b c Jacobsen, p, 8,
^ White 2011, p, 4,
^ See: Original Sanskrit: Shvetashvatara Upanishad Book 2, Hymns 8–14;
English Translation: Paul Deussen (German: 1897; English Translated by Bedekar & Palsule, Reprint: 2010), Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Vol 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814677, pages 309–310
Secondary Source Review: Mark Singleton (2010), Yoga Body: The Origins of Modern Posture Practice, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-539534-1, page 26
^ Feuerstein, Georg (January–February 1988), "Introducing Yoga's Great Literary Heritage", Yoga Journal (78): 70–5,
^ TRS Ayyangar (1938), The Yoga Upanishads The Adyar Library, Madras
^ David Gordon White (2011), Yoga in Practice, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691140865, pages 97–112
^ Bimal Krishna Matilal 1977, pp, 56-59,
^ Jeaneane D, Fowler 2002, pp, 98-99,
^ Bimal Krishna Matilal 1977, p, 54,
^ a b c Johannes Bronkhorst (1993), The Two Traditions of Meditation in Ancient India, Motilal Banarsidass, p, 64, ISBN 978-81-208-1114-0,
^ a b Stephen Phillips (2009), Yoga, Karma, and Rebirth: A Brief History and Philosophy, Columbia University Press, pp, 281 footnote 36, ISBN 978-0-231-14485-8,
^ Andrew J, Nicholson (2013), Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History, Columbia University Press, p, 26, ISBN 978-0-231-14987-7,, Quote: "From a historical perspective, the Brahmasutras are best understood as a group of sutras composed by multiple authors over the course of hundreds of years, most likely composed in its current form between 400 and 450 BCE,"
^ NV Isaeva (1992), Shankara and Indian Philosophy, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-1281-7, page 36, Quote: ""on the whole, scholars are rather unanimous, considering the most probable date for Brahmasutra sometime between the 2nd-century BCE and the 2nd-century CE"
^ Jeaneane Fowler (2002), Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism, Sussex Academic Press, ISBN 978-1898723943, page 129
^ B, K, Matilal (1986), "Perception, An Essay on Classical Indian Theories of Knowledge", Oxford University Press, p, xiv,
^ Stephen Phillips (2009), Yoga, Karma, and Rebirth: A Brief History and Philosophy, Columbia University Press, pp, 281 footnote 40, 297, ISBN 978-0-231-14485-8,
^ SC Vidyabhushana (1913, Translator), The Nyâya Sutras, The Sacred Book of the Hindus, Volume VIII, Bhuvaneshvar Asrama Press, pages 137–139
^ Karl Potter (2004), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies: Indian metaphysics and epistemology, Volume 2, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120803091, page 237
^ a b c d Charles R Lanman, The Hindu Yoga System, Harvard Theological Review, Volume XI, Number 4, Harvard University Press, pages 355–359
^ a b c Strabo, Geography Book XV, Chapter 1, see Sections 63–65, Loeb Classical Library edition, Harvard University Press, Translator: HL Jones, Archived by: University of Chicago
^ Karel Werner (1998), Yoga and the Indian Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120816091, page 131
^ Samuel 2008, pp, 31–32,
^ Mark Singleton (2010), Yoga Body: The Origins of Modern Posture Practice, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-539534-1, Chapter 1
^ Bronkhorst, Johannes (1993), The Two Traditions of Meditation in Ancient India, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120816435, pages 1–24
^ a b White 2011, pp, 5–6,
^ Douglass, Laura (2011), "Thinking Through The Body: The Conceptualization Of Yoga As Therapy For Individuals With Eating Disorders", Academic Search Premier: 83, Retrieved 19 February 2013,
^ Datta, Amaresh (1988), Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature: devraj to jyoti, Sahitya Akademi, p, 1809, ISBN 978-81-260-1194-0,
^ Wynne, pp, 3–4,
^ Richard Gombrich, "Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo," Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1988, p, 44,
^ Barbara Stoler Miller, "Yoga: Discipline of Freedom: the Yoga Sutra Attributed to Patanjali; a Translation of the Text, with Commentary, Introduction, and Glossary of Keywords," University of California Press, 1996, p, 8,
^ Mallinson, James, 2007, The Khecarīvidyā of Adinathā, London: Routledge, pg,17–19,
^ James Mallinson, "Sāktism and Hathayoga," 6 March 2012, PDF file [accessed 10 June 2012] pgs, 20–21 "The Buddha himself is said to have tried both pressing his tongue to the back of his mouth, in a manner similar to that of the hathayogic khecarīmudrā, and ukkutikappadhāna, a squatting posture which may be related to hathayogic techniques such as mahāmudrā, mahābandha, mahāvedha, mūlabandha, and vajrāsana in which pressure is put on the perineum with the heel, in order to force upwards the breath or Kundalinī,"
^ Wynne, pp, 44–45,58,
^ Whicher, p, 17,
^ Jacobsen, p, 10,
^ Flood, p, 96,
^ a b Jacobsen, p, 10–11,
^ E, Easwaran, Essence of the Bhagavad Gita, Nilgiri Press, ISBN 978-1-58638-068-7, pages 117–118
^ Jack Hawley (2011), The Bhagavad Gita, ISBN 978-1-60868-014-6, pages 50, 130; Arvind Sharma (2000), Classical Hindu Thought: An Introduction, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-564441-8, pages 114–122
^ a b c Bibek Debroy (2005), The Bhagavad Gita, Penguin Books, ISBN 978-0-14-400068-5, Introduction, pages x–xi
^ Jacobsen, p, 46,; Georg Feuerstein (2011), The Bhagavad Gita – A New Translation, Shambhala, ISBN 978-1-59030-893-6
^ Whicher, p, 25–26,
^ a b Jacobsen, p, 9,
^ Wynne, p, 33,
^ Original Sanskrit: साङ्ख्यं योगो लोकायतं च इत्यान्वीक्षिकी |
English Translation: Arthasastra Book 1, Chapter 2 Kautiliya, R Shamasastry (Translator), page 9
^ Olivelle, Patrick (2013), King, Governance, and Law in Ancient India: Kautilya's Arthasastra, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-989182-5, see Introduction
^ Larson, p, 38,
^ Radhankrishnan, Indian Philosophy, London, George Allen & Unwin Ltd,, 1971 edition, Volume II, p, 342,
^ Mike Burley (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga – An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-64887-5, pages 31–46
^ For yoga acceptance of samkhya concepts, but with addition of a category for God, see: Radhakrishnan and Moore, p, 453,
^ Radhankrishnan, Indian Philosophy, London, George Allen & Unwin Ltd,, 1971 edition, Volume II, p, 344,
^ Müller (1899), Chapter 7, "Yoga Philosophy," p, 104,
^ Stiles 2001, p, x,
^ For an overview of the six orthodox schools, with detail on the grouping of schools, see: Radhakrishnan and Moore, "Contents," and pp, 453–487,
^ For a brief overview of the yoga school of philosophy see: Chatterjee and Datta, p, 43,
^ Werner, p, 24,
^ a b c d Larson, pp, 43–45
^ For Patanjali as the founder of the philosophical system called yoga see: Chatterjee and Datta, p, 42,
^ Larson, p, 21–22,
^ For "raja yoga" as a system for control of the mind and connection to Patanjali's Yoga Sutras as a key work, see: Flood (1996), pp, 96–98,
^ For text and word-by-word translation as "Yoga is the inhibition of the modifications of the mind," See: Taimni, p, 6,
^ Vivekanada, p, 115,
^ Bryant 2009, p, 10,
^ Bryant 2009, p, 457,
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^ James Mallinson, "Sāktism and Hathayoga," 28 June 2012, <URL> [accessed 19 September 2013] pgs, 2 "In its earliest definition, in Pundarīka's eleventh-century Vimalaprabhā commentary on the Kālacakratantra, hathayoga is said to bring about the "unchanging moment" (aksaraksana) "through the practice of nāda by forcefully making the breath enter the central channel and through restraining the bindu of the bodhicitta in the vajra of the lotus of wisdom", While the means employed are not specified, the ends, in particular restraining bindu, semen, and making the breath enter the central channel, are similar to those mentioned in the earliest descriptions of the practices of hathayoga, to which I now turn,"
^ Larson, p, 140,
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^ Biffl, Walter L,; Moore, Ernest E,; Elliott, J, Paul; Ray, Charles; Offner, Patrick J,; Franciose, Reginald J,; Brega, Kerry E,; Burch, Jon M, (May 2000), "The Devastating Potential of Blunt Vertebral Arterial Injuries", Annals of Surgery, 231 (5): 672–681, doi:10,1097/00000658-200005000-00007, PMC 1421054free to read, PMID 10767788,
^ Critchley, E, M, (June 1984), "Non-atheromatous causes of cerebral infarction" (PDF), Postgraduate Medical Journal, 60 (704): 386–390, doi:10,1136/pgmj,60,704,386, PMC 2417905free to read, PMID 6379628, Retrieved 21 November 2012,
^ Kang, Chan; Hwang, Deuk-Soo; Cha, Soo-Min (December 2009), "Acetabular Labral Tears in Patients with Sports Injury", Clinics in Sports Injury, 1 (4): 230–235, doi:10,4055/cios,2009,1,4,230, PMC 2784964free to read, PMID 19956481,
^ Daniel June (2 July 2013), "California Judge Says Yoga is Secular, Approves its Use in Schools", JD Journal,
^ David Frawley, Yoga and the Sacred Fire: Self-Realization and Planetary Transformation, p,288
^ a b c J,Jagadeesan, The Fourth Dimension, Sai Towers Publishing, p, 13, ISBN 9788178990927,
^ The Buddhist Tradition in India, China, and Japan, Edited by William Theodore de Bary, pp, 207–208, ISBN 0-394-71696-5
^ Dumoulin, Heinrich & Knitter, p, 22,
^ Dumoulin, Heinrich & Knitter, p, xviii,
^ a b Dumoulin, Heinrich & Knitter, p, 13,
^ The Lion's Roar: An Introduction to Tantra by Chogyam Trungpa, Shambhala, 2001 ISBN 1-57062-895-5
^ "Secret of the Vajra World: The Tantric Buddhism of Tibet" by Ray, Reginald A, Shambhala: 2002, pp, 37–38 ISBN 1-57062-917-X
^ "Secret of the Vajra World: The Tantric Buddhism of Tibet" by Ray, Reginald A, Shambhala: 2002, p, 57 ISBN 1-57062-917-X
^ "Yantra Yoga: The Tibetan Yoga of Movement" by Chogyal Namkhai Norbu, Snow Lion, 2008, ISBN 1-55939-308-4
^ Chang, G,C,C, (1993), "Tibetan Yoga," New Jersey: Carol Publishing Group, p, 7 ISBN 0-8065-1453-1
^ a b c Steinfels, Peter (7 January 1990), "Trying to Reconcile the Ways of the Vatican and the East", New York Times, Retrieved 5 December 2008,
^ http://www,sancarlo,pcn,net/Francais/RM1,htm Bishop Raffaello Martinelli presentation
^ http://www,webdiocesi,chiesacattolica,it/cci_new/documenti_diocesi/80/2013-01/23-236/AdA-201301-Opera-Completa,pdf Argomenti di Attualità mons, Raffaello Martinelli ed, gennaio 2013 Page 135
^ "Vatican sounds New Age alert", BBC, 4 February 2003, Retrieved 27 August 2013,
^ Teasdale, Wayne (2004), Catholicism in dialogue: conversations across traditions, Rowman & Littlefield, p, 74, ISBN 0-7425-3178-3,
^ Mohler, R, Albert Jr, "The Subtle Body – Should Christians Practice Yoga?", Retrieved 14 January 2011,
^ Handbook of vocational psychology by W, Bruce Walsh, Mark Savickas 2005 ISBN 0-8058-4517-8 page 358
^ "1989 Letter from Vatican to Bishops on Some Aspects of Christian Meditation", Ewtn,com, Retrieved 28 November 2012,
^ Dr Ankerberg, John & Dr Weldon, John, Encyclopedia of New Age Beliefs, Harvest House Publishers, 1996
^ Mermis–Cava, Jonathan (2009), "An Anchor and a Sail: Christian Meditation as the Mechanism for a Pluralist Religious Identity", Sociology of Religion,
^ a b S Pines and T Gelblum (Translators from Arabic to English, 1966), Al-Bīrūni (Translator from Sanskrit to Arabic, ~ 1035 AD), and Patañjali, Al-Bīrūnī's Arabic Version of Patañjali's "Yogasūtra", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, Vol, 29, No, 2 (1966), pages 302–325
^ David White (2014), The "Yoga Sutra of Patanjali" – A Biography, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-1-4008-5005-1
^ Philipp Maas (2013), A Concise Historiography of Classical Yoga Philosophy, in Periodization and Historiography of Indian Philosophy (Editor: Eli Franco), Sammlung de Nobili, Institut für Südasien-, Tibet- und Buddhismuskunde der Universität Wien, ISBN 978-3-900271-43-5, pages 53–90, OCLC 858797956
^ Satish Chandra (2007), Historiography, Religion, and State in Medieval India, ISBN 978-8124100356, pages 135–136
^ Ernst, C, W, (2005), "Situating Sufism and Yoga", Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 15: 15–43, doi:10,1017/S1356186304004675,
^ "Situating Sufism and Yoga" (PDF), Retrieved 5 September 2010,
^ Carl W, Ernst, Persecution and Circumspection in Shattari Sufism, in Islamic Mysticism Contested: Thirteen Centuries of Debate and Conflict (Editors: Fred De Jong and Berndt Radtke), Brill, 1999
^ "Sidang Media – Fatwa Yoga", Islam,gov,my, Archived from the original on 6 January 2009, Retrieved 5 September 2010, Quote: The Fatwas of Religious Council in Islamic affairs on Yoga, After carefully studied various reports and factual data, the Council unanimously agreed that this ancient India religious teachings, which involves physical and mental exercises, are Hinduism in nature known as wahdat al-wujud philosophy (oneness of existence; the realization of identity between the Self in man, Atman; and the Divine, BRAHMAN: ‘Brahman is all, and Atman is Brahman'), It is prohibited (haram) for Muslims to practice it,
^ Top Islamic body: Yoga is not for Muslims – MSNBC
^ "Mixed reactions to yoga ban", Thest*r,com,my, 23 November 2008, Retrieved 5 September 2010,
^ Paul Babie and Neville Rochow (2012), Freedom of Religion Under Bills of Rights, University of Adelaide Press, ISBN 978-0-9871718-0-1, page 98
^ "Malaysia leader: Yoga for Muslims OK without chant," Saudi Gazette
^ "Indonesian clerics issue yoga ban", BBC News, 25 January 2009, Retrieved 6 April 2010,
^ "rediff,com: Why give yoga religious connotation: Deoband", Specials,rediff,com, 29 January 2009, Retrieved 5 September 2010,
^ Andrea R, Jain (2014), Selling Yoga: From Counterculture to Pop Culture, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-939024-3, page 195; Archive: Find alternative to yoga, urges Jakim New Strait Times, Malaysia
^ "The perils of yoga: Conservative clerics are wary of a popular pastime", Economist,com,
^ "It's OK to stretch, just don't believe", Hurriyet,com,tr, Retrieved 5 September 2010,
^ UN Declared 21 June as International Day of Yoga
^ UN should adopt an International Yoga Day: Modi
^ India leader proposes International Yoga Day
^ PM Modi asks world leaders to adopt International Yoga Day
^ Narendra Modi asks world leaders to adopt International Yoga Day
^ UN-declares-June-21-as-International-Day-of-Yoga/articleshow/45480636,cms UN Adopts 21 June as International Yoga Day]
^ UN declares 21 June as 'International Day of Yoga'
^ Massive turnout
^ "PM Modi Leads Yoga Session, India Sets Guinness Records: 10 Developments", NDTV, Retrieved 21 June 2015,
Sources[edit]
Bryant, Edwin (2009), The Yoga Sutras of Patañjali: A New Edition, Translation, and Commentary, New York, USA: North Point Press, ISBN 978-0-86547-736-0,
Crangle, Edward Fitzpatrick (1994), The Origin and Development of Early Indian Contemplative Practices, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag
Dhillon, Dalbir Singh (1988), Sikhism, Origin and Development, Atlantic Publishers, GGKEY:BYKZE4QTGJH,
De Michelis, Elizabeth (2004), A History of Modern Yoga, London: Continuum, ISBN 0-8264-8772-6,
Dumoulin, Heinrich; Heisig, James W,; Knitter, Paul F, (2005), Zen Buddhism: a History: India and China, World Wisdom, Inc, ISBN 978-0-941532-89-1,
Eliade, Mircea (1958), Yoga: Immortality and Freedom, Princeton: Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-14203-6,
Feuerstein, Georg (1996), The Shambhala Guide to Yoga, 1st ed, Boston & London: Shambhala Publications,
Flood, Gavin D, (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press
Fowler, Jeaneane D, (2012), The Bhagavad Gita: A Text and Commentary for Students, Sussex Academic Press, ISBN 978-1-84519-346-1,
Goldberg, Philip (2010), American Veda, From Emerson and the Beatles to Yoga and Meditation, How Indian Spirituality Changed the West, New York: Harmony Books, ISBN 978-0-385-52134-5,
Gambhirananda, Swami (1998), Madhusudana Sarasvati Bhagavad_Gita: With the annotation Gūḍhārtha Dīpikā, Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama Publication Department, ISBN 81-7505-194-9,
Hari Dass, Baba (1978), Ashtanga Yoga Primer, Santa Cruz: Sri Ram Publishing, pp, bk, cover, ISBN 978-0-918100-04-7
Jacobsen, Knut A,; Larson, Gerald James (2005), Theory And Practice of Yoga: Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson, BRILL, ISBN 978-90-04-14757-7,
Larson, Gerald James (2008), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies: Yoga: India's philosophy of meditation, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-3349-4,
Lidell, Lucy (1983), The Sivananda Companion to Yoga (PDF), London: Gaia Books Limited, ISBN 0-684-87000-2,
Mallinson, James (2011), "Haṭha Yoga", in Jacobsen, Knut A,; Basu, Helene, Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Volume Three, BRILL
McEvilley, Thomas (2002), The shape of ancient thought, Allworth Communications, ISBN 978-1-58115-203-6,
Müller, Max (1899), Six Systems of Indian Philosophy; Samkhya and Yoga, Naya and Vaiseshika, Calcutta: Susil Gupta (India) Ltd, ISBN 0-7661-4296-5, Reprint edition; Originally published under the title of "The Six Systems of Indian Philosophy,"
Possehl, Gregory (2003), The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective, AltaMira Press, ISBN 978-0-7591-0172-2,
Radhakrishnan, S,; Moore, CA (1967), A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy, Princeton, ISBN 0-691-01958-4,
Samuel, Geoffrey (2008), The Origins of Yoga and Tantra, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-69534-3
Satyananda, Swami (2008), Asana Pranayama Mudra Bandha (PDF), Munger: Yoga Publications Trust, ISBN 978-81-86336-14-4,
Taimni, I, K, (1961), The Science of Yoga, Adyar, India: The Theosophical Publishing House, ISBN 81-7059-212-7,
Werner, Karel (1998), Yoga And Indian Philosophy (1977, Reprinted in 1998), Motilal Banarsidass Publ, ISBN 81-208-1609-9,
Whicher, Ian (1998), The Integrity of the Yoga Darśana: A Reconsideration of Classical Yoga, SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-3815-2,
White, David Gordon (2011), Yoga, Brief History of an Idea (Chapter 1 of "Yoga in practice") (PDF), Princeton University Press
White, David Gordon (2014), The "Yoga Sutra of Patanjali": A Biography, Princeton University Press
Worthington, Vivian (1982), A History of Yoga, Routledge, ISBN 0-7100-9258-X,
Wynne, Alexander "The Origin of Buddhist Meditation," Routledge, 2007, ISBN 1-134-09741-7,
Zimmer, Heinrich (1951), Philosophies of India, New York, New York: Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-01758-1 Bollingen Series XXVI; Edited by Joseph Cambell,
Zydenbos, Robert, Jainism Today and Its Future, München: Manya Verlag, 2006, p, 66
Further reading[edit]
De Michelis, Elizabeth (2005), A History of Modern Yoga, Continuum,
External links[edit]
Find more about
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v t e
Yoga
v t e
Asanas
Articles related to Yoga
-----
,
,
Terms and phrases
Align B,K,S, Iyengar back to wall bend forward bend knees Bend left knee Bend right knee blanket body Breathe normally calf muscles chair seat chair to wall Chdir comfortable completing both sides elbow elongate spine Exhale Extend arms extend heels flexibility floor forearms forward from hips front thigh muscles hand on floor Hints And Cautions Inhale and lift inner thigh muscles Iyengar yoga knee and place left foot left thigh lift chest lower leg mat or rug Pelvic Tilt pelvis Place chair place feet Place hands place right pose relieves pose stretches pregnancy Reclining relax arms release Release pose Reverse pose right foot right hip right thigh roll sacroiliac joint sciatica Shoulder Stretch Sit on mat sitting position small pillow Stand with back standing poses straighten legs stretch arms stretches hamstring thigh and shin tighten front thigh toes trimester upper back uterus Wide Leg Stretch Widen legs yoga poses
---------------------
SOME GENERAL INFO ABOUT Yoga Journal
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This
article contains content that is written like an advertisement, Please
help improve it by removing promotional content and inappropriate
external links, and by adding encyclopedic content written from a
neutral point of view, (April 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this
template message)
Yoga Journal
Editor Carin Gorrell
Former editors Kaitlin Quistgaard
Frequency 9xs a year + 5 SIPs
Publisher Melissa Strome
Total circulation
(December 2014) 375,618[1]
Year founded 1975
First issue May 1975
Company Active Interest Media
Based in Boulder, CO[2]
Language English
Website www,yogajournal,com
ISSN 0191-0965
Yoga
Journal is an American media company that publishes a magazine, a
website, DVDs, tablet editions, and puts on conferences devoted to yoga,
food and nutrition, fitness, wellness, and fashion and beauty,
Contents [hide]
1 Beginnings and growth
2 Editorial Focus
3 Yoga in America
4 Yoga Journal LIVE!
5 International editions
6 References
7 External links
Beginnings and growth[edit]
Yoga
Journal was st*rted in May 1975 by the California Yoga Teachers
Association, which included William Staniger, Chairman (aka William
Golden since 1982), Rama Jyoti Vernon, President, Janis Paulsen,
Secretary/Treasurer, and board members Ike and Judith Lasater, Rose
Garfinkle, and Jean Girardot, William Staniger was Yoga Journal's
founding editor, Judith Lasater was Copy Editor, Janis Paulsen, Elmer
Brunsman, and Jean Girardot were Assistant Editors, and Ike Lasater was
Business and Advertising Director, Their goal was to create a magazine
that would unite the growing yoga community and provide "material that
combines the essence of classical yoga with the latest understandings of
modern science,"
By the mid-1990s, as yoga's popularity in
America grew, circulation for Yoga Journal reached 66,000, During these
years, key figures at the magazine included former publisher Michael
Glicksohn, former editors-in-chief Stephen Bodian and Rick Fields and
former longtime managing editor Linda Cogozzo, In the fall of 1998, John
Abbott, a former investment banker at Citicorp and an avid yoga
practitioner, bought the magazine, and brought in Kathryn Arnold as
editor-in-chief, In January 2000, they redesigned and relaunched the
magazine, Since their arrival, the paid circulation has grown from
90,000 to 350,000; the readership is now over 1,300,000,[3]
Yoga
Journal has won many major media awards including five consecutive
Western Publications Association's Maggie Awards for "Best Health and
Fitness Magazine," and the Award's top honor for "Best Overall Consumer
Publication,"[4] The magazine has won four Folio Editorial Excellence
Awards for "Best Health and Fitness Magazine " in the country,
In
September 2006, the magazine was bought by enthusiast publisher Active
Interest Media which publishes Vegetarian Times, Backpacker, and other
consumer enthusiast titles,[5] Forbes magazine has called the Yoga
Journal website "the Web's most expansive and impressive Yoga site,"[6]
Editorial Focus[edit]
Each
issue of Yoga Journal contains several in-depth feature stories that
touch on the themes of yoga, food and nutrition, fitness, wellness, and
fashion and beauty, as well as the following columns and sections:
Column Definition
Basics
Yoga Journal's most popular column,[7] Presents yoga asana and
philosophy in an easily accessible format for people who are new to
yoga,
Eat Well This award-winning column examines the connections between health, spirit, and food,
Home Practice Tools for doing yoga in the privacy of your own home
Yogapedia
In-depth instruction on moving from the simplest form of a pose to the
most advanced, Written by authoritative master yoga teachers, What's
the Buzz Covers trends, news, fashion, people, places, and things
that make the world of yoga fun[citation needed] and rewarding[citation
needed]
Be Well Information on herbal remedies, Ayurvedic
medicine, nutrition, bodywork, and other modes of natural healing that
can be part of a yogic lifestyle
Wisdom How yoga philosophy can provide modern practitioners with a road map for living a more evolved life,
Travel Features writers who explore themselves while exploring the world,
Yoga in America[edit]
Yoga
Journal's 2012 survey, Yoga in America found the yoga market to be
worth more than $10 billion per year, The data, collected by the Harris
Interactive Service Bureau (HISB), shows that 20,4 million people
practice yoga in America,[8]
Yoga Journal LIVE![edit]
Yoga
Journal hosts several major events conferences a year with top yoga
teachers in the United States, including Rodney Yee, Ana Forrest, Seane
Corn, Tias Little, and many others,
International editions[edit]
Yoga
Journal currently has 11 international editions which are published in
Australia, China, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Korea, Russia, Spain,
Thailand and Turkey,
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "eCirc for Consumer Magazines", Alliance for Audited Media, December 31, 2012, Retrieved June 21, 2013,
Jump up ^ "Yoga Journal", Active Interest Media, Retrieved December 10, 2015,
Jump up ^ "Yoga Journal", Yoga Journal, Retrieved 2010-09-27,
Jump up ^ "WPA - Western Publications Association", Wpa-online,org, 2010-04-24, Retrieved 2010-09-27,
Jump up ^ http://www,foliomag,com/viewmedia,asp?prmMID=6492&prmID=285
Jump up ^ "Best of the Web", Forbes,com, Retrieved 2010-09-27,
Jump up ^ "Yoga Journal History",
Jump up ^ http://www,yogajournal,com/press/yoga_in_america
External links[edit]
Official website
[show] v t e
Active Interest Media
[show] v t e
Yoga
Categories:
1975 establishments in CaliforniaAmerican sports magazinesMagazines
established in 1975Magazines published in CaliforniaMagazines published
in ColoradoMedia in Boulder, ColoradoMedia in the San Francisco Bay
AreaPublishing companies based in the San Francisco Bay AreaYoga media
---------------
SOME GENERAL INFO ABOUT Baptiste Yoga™
Baptiste
Yoga™ was founded in the 1940's by Walt Baptiste and through his son
Baron, it has evolved into a practice that holds true to the spirit of
its creation while remaining accessible to anyone today, The physical
aspects of Baptiste Yoga™ style are inspired by the Hatha Yoga teachings
of Krishnamacharya and his students Iyengar and Desikachar, whom Baron
Baptiste studied with personally from a young age,
The Baptiste Yoga™
practice and programs are designed to empower you with the focus,
training and insight you need to achieve consistent results in the most
important areas of your life, A potent physical yoga practice,
meditation practice and active self inquiry are used as tools of
transformation – encouraging participants to reclaim their full
potential, discover creativity, awaken passion, and create authenticity,
confidence and new possibilities,
Baron Baptiste and the Baptiste
Institute (BI) offer world-class yoga instruction adapting the practices
and processes to individual needs and talents – placing emphasis on
clear language and a strategic technique that makes Baptiste Yoga™
accessible to everyone regardless of fitness level, age, experience or
background,
The Baptiste Yoga™ practice supports you to raise your
vitality and physical power and empower you to create accelerated
results in your overall body strength and confidence, This practice will
challenge and support you in attaining the results you desire and
deserve in your life,
Baptiste Yoga™ is practiced by people across
the world and from all walks of life; from professional athletes;
parents, teachers, Fortune 500 executives, and community leaders;
individuals who have shaken depression, dissolved anxiety or lost weight
and kept it off; people who have created inner peace, passionate
relationships; sparked inspiration in their life’s work and created new
possibilities in virtually every realm of life,
The Baptiste
Methodology™ turns out high impact yoga teachers who become empowered
leaders in their communities and who live inspired lives of
contribution, Upon engaging in the Baptiste practice and methodology,
you enter a partnership that will give you your true growing edge, but
you must step up as well, The Baptiste practice inspires a commitment, a
passion and a focus that your life deserves, Baptiste yoga teachers,
programs and studio communities bring you extraordinary resources for
powerfully improving the quality of your personal and professional life,
Living
the practice and using the tools of Baptiste Yoga™ you can truly
experience the powerful momentum that comes from living life at the
peak, The distinctions, practices and tools of Baptiste Yoga™
supercharge those aspects of your self and your life where you are
already able and successful and produce breakthroughs in power and
ability where your vitality and way of being or dealing with your life
circumstances and challenges has been less than optimal,
The Baptiste
Methodology™ allows for real results in an astonishingly short amount
of time, People often notice and comment that they are amazed that such
potent and concrete results can be produced in so quickly, In addition
to its teachers, Baptiste Yoga™ is known for the quality of its
students, the illustriousness and significant contributions to society
and community of its program alumni,
All Baptiste teachers, programs
and studios promise an experience that will not only stretch, strengthen
and empower you in body and being, but that will be more FUN than you
have ever imagined possible, We don’t pretend that our partnership in
your empowerment will be effortless — but it will be extraordinarily
rewarding,
Your time has now come for action, Welcome to the world of Baptiste Yoga™,
---------
SOME GENERAL INFO ABOUT shtanga vinyasa yoga
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Power yoga)
This
article is about a style of yoga consisting of six series founded by K,
Pattabhi Jois, For the eightfold yoga path, a system first described in
Patañjali's Yoga Sutras, see Raja (Ashtanga) Yoga,
Ashtanga yoga
Founder K, Pattabhi Jois
Established late 20th century
Derivative forms Vinyasa yoga; Flow yoga - employs connecting asanas without use of specific series'
Practice emphases
Employs Vinyasa, or connecting asanas,
Related schools
Iyengar Yoga
K, Pattabhi Jois teaching Ashtanga yoga with Larry Schultz, mid 1980s,
Ashtanga
Vinyasa Yoga, usually referred to simply as Ashtanga yoga, is a style
of yoga codified[1][2] and popularized by K, Pattabhi Jois and is often
promoted as a modern-day form of classical Indian yoga,[3] Jois began
his yoga studies in 1927 at the age of 12, and by 1948 had established
the Ashtanga Yoga Research Institute for teaching the specific yoga
practice known as Ashtanga (Sanskrit for "eight-limbed") Yoga,[4]
Ashtanga Yoga is named after the eight limbs of yoga mentioned in the
Yoga Sutras of Patanjali,[5]
"Power yoga" and "vinyasa yoga" are
generic terms that may refer to any type of vigorous yoga exercise
derived from Ashtanga yoga,[6]
Contents [hide]
1 Principles
1,1 Breath
1,2 Connection between breath and bandhas
1,3 Drishti
1,4 Vinyasa
1,5 Daily Practice
1,6 Mysore Style
1,7 Sequences & Series
1,8 Method of Instruction
1,9 Tradition
2 Sources
3 Eight Limbs of Ashtanga
3,1 Bandhas
3,2 Drishtis
3,3 Mantras
4 Confusion with Power Yoga
5 Media and Injury
6 See also
7 References
8 Sources
9 Further reading
10 External links
Principles[edit]
This
section needs additional citations for verification, Please help
improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources, Unsourced
material may be challenged and removed, (May 2011)
Breath[edit]
In
his book, "Yoga Mala," Pattabhi Jois recommends staying five to eight
breaths in a posture, or staying for as long as possible in a
posture,[7] Breathing instructions given are to do rechaka and puraka,
(exhale and inhale) as much as possible,[7] "It is sufficient, however,
to breathe in and out five to eight times in each posture," [7]
In
an interview regarding the length of the breath, Pattabhi Jois said,
"Inhale 10 seconds or 15 seconds then exhalation also 10 seconds or 15
seconds",[8] He goes on to clarify, "Your strength is 10 breathing is
doing possible, you do 10 breathing, 15 breathing you possible, you do
15 breathing, One hundred possible, 100 you do, 5 you do, 5 is possible,
5 you do,"[8]
Additionally, his son, Manju Jois, recommends taking more breaths in difficult postures,[9]
Pattabhi
Jois recommends breathing fully and deeply with the mouth closed, He
does not specifically refer to Ujjayi breathing,[7] However, Manju Jois
does, Manju Jois also refers to breathing called "‘dirgha rechaka
puraka’, meaning long, deep,slow exhales and inhales, It should be
dirgha,,, long, and like music, The sound is very important, You have to
do the Ujjayi pranayama," [9]
In late 2011, Sharath Jois, the
grandson of Pattabhi Jois, declared his feelings on the issue, stating
that Ujjayi breathing was not done in the asana practice, but also
stated that the breathing should be deep breathing with sound,[10] He
reiterated this notion in a conference in 2013 stating, "You do normal
breath, inhalation and exhalation with sound, Ujjayi breath is a type of
pra?ayama, This is just normal breath with free flow",[11]
In
2014 published on YouTube, Manju Jois dodges the question, "What is the
difference between Ujjayi breathing and free breathing?" by saying that
the breathing in Ashtanga should be long and deep with the sound like
the ocean, He also states that if you don't make sound, that is okay,
too, However he makes no distinction between the two terms and provides
no explanation,[12]
As far as other types of pranayama practice
in Ashtanga, the consensus seems to be that it should be practiced after
the asanas have been mastered, Pattabhi Jois originally taught
pranayama to those practicing the second series, and later changed his
mind, teaching pranayama after the third series,[13][14][15]
Sharath Jois recently produced a series of videos teaching alternate nostril breathing to beginner,[16]
Connection between breath and bandhas[edit]
Sharath Jois says, "Without bandhas, breathing will not be correct, and the asanas will give no benefit,"[17]
Drishti[edit]
Dristhi
is where you focus your eyes while in the asana, In the ashtanga yoga
method, there is a prescribed point of focus for every asana, There are
nine dristhis: the nose, between the eyebrows, navel, thumb, hands,
feet, up, right side and left side,[17]
Vinyasa[edit]
In the
words of Pattabhi Jois, "Vinyasa means 'breathing system,' Without
vinyasa, don't do asana, When vinyasa is perfect, the mind is under
control,"[18]
Vinyasa means breathing with movement, For each
movement, there is one breath, All asanas are assigned a certain number
of vinyasas,[17]
According to Sharath, "The purpose of vinyasa is
for internal cleansing, Breathing and moving together while performing
asanas makes the blood hot, or as Pattabhi Jois says, boils the blood,
Thick blood is dirty and causes disease in the body, The heat created
from yoga cleans the blood and makes it thin, so that it may circulate
freely,[19]
Sharath also claims that the heated blood removing
toxins, impurities and disease from the organs through sweat produced
during the practice, He claims that "it is only through sweat that
disease leaves the body and purification occurs,"[19]
Daily Practice[edit]
Students
are encouraged to practice six days a week, preferably in the morning,
and to take rest on Saturdays as well as the days of the full and new
moon, Women are also instructed to rest during menstruation, refraining
from any yoga practice,[19]
Mysore Style[edit]
The term
Mysore-style comes from the city Mysore, in Karnataka, India, where
Pattabhi Jois & T, Krishnamcharya taught, Students are expected to
memorize a sequence and practice in the same room as others without
being led by the teacher, The role of the teacher is to guide as well as
provide adjustments or assists in postures, Twice per week Mysore-style
classes are substituted with led classes, where the teacher takes a
group through the same series at the same time, [20]
Sequences & Series[edit]
Usually
an Ashtanga practice begins with five Surya Namaskar A and five B,
followed by a standing sequence,[21] Following this the pracitioner
begins one of six series, followed by what is called the closing
sequence,[21] The six series are:
The Primary series (Yoga Chikitsa: Yoga for Health or Yoga Therapy),
Intermediate series (Nadi Shodhana: The Nerve Purifier) (also called second series),
The Advanced Series (Sthira Bhaga: Centering of Strength):
Advanced A (also called third series),
Advanced B (also called fourth series),
Advanced C (also called fifth series) and
Advanced D (Sthira Bhagah) (also called sixth series),[21][22]
Nancy
Gilgoff reports that originally there were four series on the Ashtanga
syllabus: Primary, Intermediate, Advanced A, and Advanced B, A fifth
series of sorts was the "Rishi series," which Guruji said could be done
once a practitioner had "mastered" these four,[23] Anthony Gary Lopedota
also confirms this,[24]
Method of Instruction[edit]
According
to Sharath Jois, one must master poses before being given permission to
attempt any others that follow, However, Manju Jois disagrees, [9][25]
We also know from Manju's accounts of his father's instruction that
Pattabhi Jois also occasionally allowed students to practice in a non
linear format,[26]
Tradition[edit]
There is a lot of debate
over the term "traditional" as applied to Ashtanga Yoga, We know from
the students of Pattabhi Jois that he modified the sequence to suit the
practitioner,[27] Some of the differences include the addition or
subtraction of postures in the sequences,[18][21] changes to the vinyasa
(full and half vinyasa),[13][28][29] and specific practice
prescriptions to specific people,[27][30]
Nancy Gilgoff describes
many differences in the way she was taught ashtanga to the way it is
taught now, She notes that Pattabhi Jois originally left out seven
postures in the standing sequence, but later assigned Utthita Hasta
Padangusthasana and Ardha Baddha Padmottanasana before the Intermediate
Series was given,[23] She notes that Utkatasana, Virabhadrasana A &
B, Parivritta Trikonasana, and Parivritta Parsvakonasana were not in the
series at this point,[23]
She also notes that he and did not
give her vinyasas between sides or between variations of a pose (e,g,,
Janu Sirsasana A, B, and C were done together, then a vinyasa,[23]
Likewise Baddha Konasana, Upavishta Konasana, and Supta Konasana were
also grouped together without vinyasas between them, as were Ubhaya
Padangusthasana and Urdhva Mukha Paschimottanasana,[23]
According
to Gilgoff, Pattabhi Jois prescribed practice twice a day, primary and
intermediate, with no vinyasas between sides in Krounchasana,
Bharadvajasana, Ardha Matsyendrasana, Eka Pada Sirsasana, Parighasana,
and Gomukhasana in the intermediate series,[23] Shalabhasana to Parsva
Dhanurasana were done in a group, with a vinyasa only at the end,[23]
Ushtrasana through Kapotasana also were done all together, The same went
for Eka Pada Sirsasana through Yoganidrasana,[23] The closing sequence
included only Mudrasana, Padmasana, and Tolasana until the completion of
the Intermediate sequence, when the remainder of the closing sequence
was assigned,[23] Urdhva Dhanurasana and “drop-backs” were taught after
Intermediate Series,[23]
What's more, the Intermediate series
included Vrishchikasana after Karandavasana, and the series ended with
Gomukhasana,[23] He added Supta Urdhva Pada Vajrasana as well as the
seven headstands when David Williams asked for more,[23]
We can
also see the differences in the postures of the primary sequence as well
as other things by comparing the book "Yoga Mala" by Pattabhi Jois to
the present day yoga taught by his son Manju Jois, his grandson Sharath
Jois, and his two daughters Sharmilla and Saraswathi,
Sources[edit]
Pattabhi
Jois claimed to have learned the system of Ashtanga from
Krishnamcharya, who learned it from a text called Yoga Kurunta,[31] Jois
insists that the text described all of the asanas and vinyasas of the
sequences of the Ashtanga system (interview, Pattabhi Jois, September
25, 2005),[32]
However, the Yoga Kurunta text is said to have been eaten by ants, so it is impossible to verify his assertions,[32]
Additionaly,
it is unusual that the text is not mentioned as a source in either of
the books by Krishnamcharya, Yoga Makaranda (1934) and Yogasanagalu (c,
1941),[32]
According to Manju Jois, the sequences of Ashtanga
yoga were created by Krishnamcharya,[33] There is some evidence to
support this in his book Yoga Makaranda, which list nearly all postures
of the Pattabhi Jois Primary Series and several postures from the
intermediate and advanced series, described with reference to
vinyasa,[34]
Eight Limbs of Ashtanga[edit]
Pattabhi Jois never
made a distinction between his sequences of asana and the the 8 limbed
Ashtanga Yoga associated with Patanjali and the Yoga Sutras, It was his
belief that asana, the third limb, must be practiced first, and only
after could one master the other 7 limbs,[18][19]
The sage Patanjali outlined eight aspects—or "limbs"— of spiritual yogic practice in his Yoga Sutras:[35]
Sanskrit English
Yama moral codes
Niyama self-purification and study
Asana posture
Pranayama breath control
Pratyahara withdrawing of the mind from the senses
Dharana concentration
Dhyana deep meditation
Samadhi Union with the object of meditation[36]
Bandhas[edit]
Bandhas
are one of the three key principles in Ashtanga vinyasa yoga, alongside
breath and drishti, There are three principal bandhas which are
considered our internal body locks,
Mula Bandha, or root lock at the pelvic floor
U??iyana Bandha, drawing back the abdomen, 2 inches below the navel
Jala?dhara Bandha, throat lock, is achieved by lowering the chin slightly while raising the sternum,
Both
Pattabhi Jois and Sharath Jois recommend practicing Mula and Uddiyana
bandha even when not practicing asana, Pattabhi Jois has this to say:
"You complete exhale, take mulabandha, after inhale st*rting that time
you take uddiyana bandha, Both bandhas is very important,,, after
practice do not release them,,, You take practice, always, walking,
talking, sleeping, walk is going time, always you control
mulabandha,"[37]
Drishtis[edit]
Dristhi is where you focus
your eyes while in the asana, In the ashtanga yoga method, there is a
prescribed point of focus for every asana, There are nine dristhis: the
nose, between the eyebrows, navel, thumb, hands, feet, up, right side
and left side,[38]
Mantras[edit]
The Ashtanga practice is traditionally st*rted with the following Sanskrit mantra:[39]
vande guru?a? cara?aravinde sa?darsita svatma sukhavabodhe
ni?sreyase ja??galikayamane sa?sara halahala mohasantyai
abahu puru?akara? sa??khacakrasi dhari?am
sahasra sirasa? svetam pra?amami patañjalim
which is roughly translated into English as:
I bow to the lotus feet of the gurus,
The awakening happiness of one's own self revealed,
Beyond better, acting like the jungle physician,
Pacifying delusion, the poison of Samsara,
Taking the form of a man to the shoulders,
Holding a conch, a discus, and a sword,
One thousand heads white,
To Patanjali, I salute,
and closes with the mangala mantra:[40]
svastiprajabhya? paripalayanta? nyayena marge?a mahi? mahisa?
gobrahma?ebhya? subhamastu nitya? loka? samasta? sukhinobhavantu
which is roughly translated into English as:
May all be well with mankind,
Mat the leaders of the Earth protect in every way by keeping to the right path,
May there be goodness for those who know the Earth to be sacred,
May all the worlds be happy,
Confusion with Power Yoga[edit]
Power
Yoga is a style of yoga created by Beryl Bender Birch, in the late
80's,[41][42] Baron Baptiste, a Bikram enthusiast, put his own spin on
the Power Yoga style, and branded it,
Neither Baron Baptiste's
Power Yoga nor Beryl Bender Birch's Power Yoga are synonymous with
Ashtanga Yoga, In 1995, Pattabhi Jois wrote a letter to Yoga Journal
magazine expressing his disappointment at the association between his
Ashtanga Yoga, and the newly coined style Power Yoga, referring to it as
"ignorant bodybuilding,"[43] Yoga Journal Magazine: (scriptures),[43]
Media and Injury[edit]
In
an article published by The Economist, it was reported that "a good
number of Mr Jois's students seemed constantly to be limping around with
injured knees or backs because they had received his “adjustments,”
yanking them into Lotus, the splits or a backbend," Tim Miller, one of
Jois's students, indicates that "the adjustments were fairly
ferocious,"[44] Injuries related to Jois's Ashtanga Yoga have been the
subject of discussion in a Huffington Post article[45] and a Vanity Fair
article,[44] The high risk of injury from teachers can possibly be
attributed to an over-zealous and under-experienced approach, "The more
accomplished teachers—whose knowledge and personalities allow them to
approach their students’ bodies with a degree of insight and
sensitivity—often successfully embody the challenging but often
eventually nurturing atmosphere at AYRI, Others, often seemingly intent
on succeeding in getting students into poses, leaving a trail of injured
bodies in their wake,"[46]
In The Science of Yoga, William
Broad's findings on yoga injuries include a case where a patient was
diagnosed with a bulge in one of the vertebral discs causing numbness
and pain as a result of "her competitive edge" while practising Ashtanga
Yoga, The patient said, "I am a super-athlete, and thought I could do
anything,,, But I took it too quickly, I still needed to take baby
steps,"[47] In 2008, yoga researchers in Europe published a survey, that
lacked a control group therefore limiting internal validity, of
practitioners of Ashtanga Yoga indicating that 62 percent of the
respondents had suffered at least one injury that lasted longer than one
month,[48][49]
However the mass media has reported injuries in
other styles of yoga equally as often as in Ashtanga Yoga, For example,
Bikram Yoga, Hot yoga, and Iyengar Yoga have received equally bad
press,[50][51][48][52][53][54][55][56][57][58][59]
The long holds
in headstand and shoulderstand, considered essential postures to an
Iyengar practice, have been reported as being linked to serious injury
in numerous sources,[48][60][61][62] William J Broad had this to say:
"One of the saddest and most thoughtful letters came from an elderly man
who studied with Iyengar in India for 16 years, His list of personal
injuries included torn ligaments, damaged vertebrae, slipped disks,
deformed knees and ruptured blood vessels in his brain,"[63]
See also[edit]
Portal icon Yoga portal
K, Pattabhi Jois
References[edit]
Jump
up ^ Broad, William (2012), The Science of Yoga: The Risks and the
Rewards, New York, USA: Simon & Schuster, Inc, p, 99, ISBN
9781451641424,
Jump up ^ "Practice and All Is Coming", Yoga Journal, Archived from the original on 3 January 2012,
Jump up ^ "Ashtanga Yoga Background", Ashtanga,com, Archived from the original on 25 July 2011, Retrieved 2011-08-20,
Jump up ^ Jois, Sri K, Pattabhi, Yoga Mala, New York: North Point Press, 2002,
Jump up ^ Fromberg, Eden (12 January 2012), "Yogi Glenn Black Responds to New York Times Article on Yoga", The Huffington Post,
Jump up ^ Roberts, Sherry, "Yoga Styles", Yoga Movement, Retrieved 8 January 2012,
^ Jump up to: a b c d pg 108, Yoga Mala
^ Jump up to: a b http://aysnyc,org/index,php?option=com_content&task=view&id=100&Itemid=162
^
Jump up to: a b c
http://static1,1,sqspcdn,com/static/f/477116/5091764/1261014095430/Manju_Jois,pdf?token=%2BVAJGlnrwmABlUKlnr5OWV8el1E%3D
Jump up ^ http://yogarose,net/2012/08/13/the-long-and-the-short-of-it-on-the-ashtanga-breath-which-for-the-record-is-not-ujjayi/
Jump up ^ http://joisyoga,com/2013/06/16/conference-notes-with-sharath-jois-kpjayi-march-2013/
Jump up ^ Manju Mini Interview 2014 on youtube
^ Jump up to: a b http://www,ashtanga,com/html/article_miller_tim,html
Jump up ^ http://www,ashtanga-yoga-victoria,com/k-pattabhi-jois,html
Jump up ^ http://aysnyc,org/index,php?option=com_content&task=view&id=97&Itemid=184
Jump up ^ Yoga Breathing for Stress Relief with Sharath Jois
^ Jump up to: a b c http://kpjayi,org/the-practice
^ Jump up to: a b c Yoga Mala
^ Jump up to: a b c d http://kpjayi,org/the-institute/teachers
Jump up ^ Mysore Style
^ Jump up to: a b c d David Swenson, "The Practice Manual"
Jump up ^ http://www,ashtangayoga,info/
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l http://www,ashtangamaui,com/articles-by-nancy/
Jump up ^ http://ashtangayogatherapy,com/bio
Jump up ^ http://loveyogaanatomy,com/manju-jois-mini-interview/
Jump up ^ http://aysnyc,org/index,php?option=com_content&task=view&id=137&Itemid=161
^ Jump up to: a b http://theconfluencecountdown,com/2012/01/05/who-has-done-all-of-the-ashtanga-series-does-it-matter/
Jump up ^ http://ashtangayogashala,net/index,php?option=com_content&task=view&id=98&Itemid=162
Jump up ^ Lino Miele, Astanga Yoga Book - The Yoga of Breath
Jump up ^ http://yogamindmedicine,blogspot,co,uk/2012/07/reflections-on-guruji-portrait,html#more
Jump up ^ Eddie Sterne, Guruji: A Portrait of Sri K, Pattabhi Jois Through the Eyes of His Students
^ Jump up to: a b c Yoga Body
Jump up ^ http://ashtangayogashala,net/index,php?option=com_content&task=view&id=137&Itemid=184
Jump up ^ Yoga Makaranta by T, Krishnamacharya
Jump
up ^ Scott, John, Ashtanga Yoga: The Definitive Step-by-Step Guide to
Dynamic Yoga, New York: Three Rivers Press, 2000, Pp, 14-17,
Jump up ^
Gopal, Madan (1990), K,S, Gautam, ed, India through the ages,
Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting,
Government of India, p, 71,
Jump up ^ http://www,ashtangayogashala,net/index,php?option=com_content&task=view&id=116&Itemid=162
Jump up ^ "kpjayi,org/the-practice"
Jump up ^ "kpjayi,org/the-practice/opening-prayer"
Jump up ^ "kpjayi,org/the-practice/closing-prayer"
Jump up ^ "Yoga body: the origins of modern posture practice" by Oleh Mark Singleton,Page 176
Jump up ^ Birch, Beryl Bender (1995-01-17), "Power yoga: The total strength and flexibility workout", ISBN 978-0-02-058351-6,
^
Jump up to: a b "A letter from Sri,K, Pattabhi Jois to Yoga Journal,
Nov, 1995", Ashtanga Yoga Library, Retrieved 9 October 2014,
^ Jump
up to: a b McLean, Bethany (April 2012), "Yoga-for-Trophy-Wives Fitness
Fad That’s Alienating Discipline Devotees", Vanity Fair, archived from
the original on 12 January 2013
Jump up ^ Cahn, Lauren (3 August
2009), "Five Words That Do Not Belong In Yoga", Huffington Post,
archived from the original on 28 August 2012
Jump up ^ Singleton,
Mark; Byrne, Jean, eds, (2008), Yoga in the Modern World: Contemporary
Perspectives (Kindle Edition ed,), New York, USA: Routledge, p, 154,
ISBN 0415452589,
Jump up ^ Broad, William (2012), The Science of
Yoga: The Risks and the Rewards, New York, USA: Simon & Schuster,
Inc, p, 123, ISBN 9781451641424,
^ Jump up to: a b c Broad, William
(2012), The Science of Yoga: The Risks and the Rewards, New York, USA:
Simon & Schuster, Inc, pp, 133–134, ISBN 9781451641424,
Jump up ^
Mikkonen, Jani; Pederson, Palle; McCarthy, Peter William (2008), "A
Survey of Musculoskeletal Injury among Ashtanga Yoga Practitioners",
International Journal of Yoga Therapy (18): 59–64,
Jump up ^ http://www,consumerreports,org/cro/2014/02/dangers-of-hot-yoga/index,htm
Jump up ^ <http://www,womenshealthmag,com/fitness/bikram-yoga
Jump up ^ http://www,cbc,ca/news/canada/british-columbia/b-c-woman-suing-hot-yoga-studio-for-hip-injury-1,1281927
Jump
up ^
http://www,theglobeandmail,com/life/health-and-fitness/fitness/thinking-of-trying-hot-yoga-read-this-first/article583705/
Jump up ^ http://www,independent,co,uk/life-style/health-and-families/health-news/the-bikram-backlash-6154036,html
Jump up ^ http://newsarchive,medill,northwestern,edu/chicago/news-198217,html
Jump up ^ http://goaskalice,columbia,edu/hot-yoga-injuries
Jump up ^ http://www,alternativemedicine,com/balance/mind-body-connection/om-ouch
Jump up ^ http://www,cleveland,com/healthfit/index,ssf/2013/05/hot_yoga_is_gaining_popularity,html
Jump up ^ http://www,elephantjournal,com/2014/12/no-hot-yoga-for-me-thanks/
Jump up ^ http://www,nytimes,com/2012/01/08/magazine/how-yoga-can-wreck-your-body,html
Jump up ^ http://www,womenshealthmag,com/fitness/bikram-yoga
Jump up ^ http://www,huffingtonpost,com/eden-g-fromberg-do/yoga_b_1202465,html
Jump up ^ http://6thfloor,blogs,nytimes,com/2013/01/10/the-healing-power-of-yoga-controversy/
Sources[edit]
Sri
Krishna Pattabhi Jois, "Ashtanga Yoga", Ashtanga Yoga Research Center,
Archived from the original on 2007-06-30, Retrieved 2007-08-07,
Further reading[edit]
Jois,
Sri K, Pattabhi (2002) [Originally published in the Kannada language in
1962], Yoga Mala, New York: North Point Press, ISBN 978-0-86547-662-2,
OCLC 50567767,
Jois, Sri K, Pattabhi (2005), Suryanamaskara, New York: Ashtanga Yoga,
Maehle,
Gregor (2006), Ashtanga Yoga: Practice and Philosophy, Doubleview,
Western Australia: Kaivalya Publications, ISBN 978-0-9775126-0-7, OCLC
71245040,
Miele, Lino (1994), Astanga Yoga: Including the Benefits of Yoga Chikitsa; I & II Series, Rome, Italy: Lino Miele,
Scott,
John (2000), Ashtanga Yoga: The Definitive Step-By-Step Guide to
Dynamic Yoga, Stroud: Gaia Books, ISBN 978-1-85675-181-0, OCLC 44693722,
Swenson,
David (1999), Ashtanga Yoga: The Practice Manual, Austin, Texas:
Ashtanga Yoga Productions, ISBN 978-1-891252-08-2, OCLC 65221561,
External links[edit]
International Infopage for Ashtanga Yoga: practice series, teachers directory, source texts and more
Ashtanga Yoga - Understanding the Method, Interview with Manju Pattabhi Jois, in English and German (2009)
Official website of Sri K, Pattabhi Jois's Ashtanga Yoga Institute
[show] v t e
Yoga
Categories: Yoga stylesHatha yoga
------------------------
SOME GENERAL INFO ABOUT Bikram Yoga
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Bikram Yoga
Founder Bikram Choudhury
Established late 20th century
Practice emphases
Unchanging
sequence of postures in a heated room, designed as a rejuvenating
exercise to strengthen the entire body, from head to toe,
Bikram Yoga
is a system of yoga that Bikram Choudhury synthesized from traditional
hatha yoga techniques[1] and popularized beginning in the early
1970s,[2][3] All Bikram Yoga Beginning Series classes run for 90 minutes
and consist of the same series of 26 postures, including two breathing
exercises,[4] Bikram Yoga is ideally practiced in a room heated to 40 °C
(104 °F) with a humidity of 40%,[5] All official Bikram classes are
taught by Bikram-certified teachers, who have completed nine weeks of
training endorsed by Choudhury,[6] Bikram-certified teachers are taught a
standardized dialogue to run the class, but are encouraged to develop
their teaching skills the longer they teach, This results in varying
deliveries and distinct teaching styles,[5]
Contents [hide]
1 History
2 Health effects
3 Controversy
3,1 Competition
3,2 Copyright claims on Bikram Yoga
3,3 Sexual assault
4 The 26 Asanas (postures)
5 References
History[edit]
Bikram
Choudhury, founder of the Bikram Yoga system, is also the founder of
the Yoga College of India, Born in Calcutta in 1946, Choudhury began
practicing yoga at age four, He claims that he practiced yoga 4–6 hours
every day, At the age of thirteen, he won the National India Yoga
Championship, He was undefeated for the following three years and
retired as the undisputed All-India National Yoga Champion, Choudhury
later devised the 26 postures sequence and founded Bikram's Yoga College
of India, He has also written books and sings,[7]
As of 2006, he
had 1,650 yoga studios around the world,[8] In 2012, there were 330
studios in the United States and 600 worldwide,[9]
Health effects[edit]
After
practicing Bikram yoga three times per week for eight weeks, a 2013
study of healthy adults found that deadlift strength and flexibility
improved, and participants lost a small amount of body fat, However,
they found no improvements on cardiovascular measures,[10] The same
researcher found that women burned 330 calories and men 460 per
90-minute session, roughly the equivalent of walking briskly at about
3,5 miles per hour for 90 minutes,[11]
Excessive sweating caused
by the hot and humid conditions of a Bikram yoga room can result in
dehydration, There is also a risk of hyperthermia: overheating of the
human body, Symptoms include nausea, dizziness, fainting, and
potentially heat stroke, A strong focus on hydration before and after
class, combined with listening to one's body and resting during class
when necessary, reduces these risks,
Various conditions such as
multiple sclerosis, epilepsy, and some cardiac complications can cause
unique sensitivities to heat, Those struggling with these conditions are
encouraged to check with their doctors before beginning hot yoga,[12]
Additionally, those who take medications for depression, nervousness, or
insomnia may also wish to check with a doctor to determine if the heat
will exacerbate any medical conditions,
According to an article
in the Huffington Post, The health benefits of the additional heat are
"largely perceptual", because "People think the degree of sweat is the
quality of the workout, but that's not reality, It doesn't correlate to
burning more calories,",[13] A small study by the American Council of
Exercise found "no difference in the increase in core temperature or
heart rate between the two 60-minute sessions,"[13]
In Bikram's
Beginning Yoga Class (First Edition), Choudhury claims he conducted
medical studies at the Tokyo University Medical School validating the
medical benefits of his 26 postures, During one of the lawsuits,
defendants demanded copies of the "medical" studies and Choudhury
claimed he could not find them, In Bikram's Beginning Yoga Class (Second
Edition), Choudhury removed all references to medical studies,[14]
Controversy[edit]
Competition[edit]
This
section needs additional citations for verification, Please help
improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources, Unsourced
material may be challenged and removed, (June 2011)
Another
controversial component of Bikram Yoga pertains to the prevalence of
Yoga Asana Championships, regionally and nationally, While practitioners
of other forms of yoga maintain that competition contradicts the idea
of peace and unity, Choudhury contends, "Competition is the foundation
for all democratic societies, For without 'Competition', there is no
democracy,"[15][citation needed]
In India, where yoga originated,
yoga competitions have been around for over a century,[16] Yoga Sports
Federation which hosted The 9th Annual Bishnu Charan Ghosh Cup in June
2012 says that yoga competitions inspire both practicing yogis and
newcomers to sharpen their skills, Another aim of the Federation is to
turn Yoga Asana into a recognized Olympic sport,[17]
Copyright claims on Bikram Yoga[edit]
Main article: Copyright claims on Bikram Yoga
Choudhury
has claimed that Bikram Yoga is under copyright and that it could not
be taught or presented by anyone whom he had not authorized, Choudhury
began making those claims in 2011, In 2011 Choudhury st*rted a lawsuit
against Yoga to the People, a competing yoga studio founded by a former
student of Choudhury's and with a location near one of the Bikram Yoga
studios in New York, As a result of that lawsuit, the United States
Copyright Office issued a clarification that yoga postures (asanas)
could not be copyrighted in the way claimed by Choudhury, and that Yoga
to the People and others could continue to freely teach these exercises,
Sexual assault[edit]
Two
lawsuits accusing Choudhury of rape were filed in May 2013, in which a
Jane Doe alleges sexual battery, false imprisonment, discrimination,
harassment, and other counts in addition to the rape allegation, It
describes a cult-like atmosphere where Choudhury's followers help him
find young women to assault, "Other persons in defendant Bikram
Choudhury's inner circle, were aware of defendant Bikram Choudhury's
pattern and practice of causing, inducing or persuading young women to
enroll in teacher training classes to become yoga instructors only so he
can sexually assault and/or rape them," the lawsuit claims,[18]
The
suits paint a cult-like atmosphere at the training camps, Trainees were
allegedly told that Choudhury is on the same level as Jesus Christ or
the Buddha, that Bikram yoga can cure cancer and that practitioners will
be able to live to 100 years old, Trainees were bullied and humiliated
as well as praised, the suits say, and Choudhury allegedly gave lectures
in which he disparaged gays, Americans and made ethnic slurs, Jane Doe 2
claims that Choudhury recruits volunteers from overseas who are "so in
fear of defendant Bikram Choudhury's wrath that they will travel to the
US and risk violating immigration laws in order to serve him, Once in
the US these volunteers work for little or zero pay, "Their duties
include grooming him, massaging him, making his tea, bring[ing] him food
and being forced to submit to sexual assaults and rapes against their
will," the suit alleges,[19]
Minakshi "Micki"Jafa-Bodden served
as Head of Legal and International Affairs from Spring 2011 to March 13,
2013 when she claims she was "abruptly and unlawfully terminated"
according to the court documents filed on July 12, 2013 in the Superior
Court of California, Los Angeles, But perhaps the more serious matters
lie within the 2 years that Jafa-Bodden worked closely with Choudhury,
during which she claims she was victim and witness to Choudhury's
"severe, ongoing, pervasive and offensive conduct" especially to women,
as well as homosexuals, African Americans and basically every other
minority, The complaint is the fourth sex-based discrimination/sexual
harassment/rape related suit filed this year against Choudhury,[20]
Bikram
teacher Sarah Baughn filed a sexual harassment suit in March (just
before Jafa-Bodden was fired), and two other unnamed women filed similar
suits accusing Choudhury of sexual harassment, intimidation and rape in
May, Shea Law Offices and Shegerian & Associates, the attorneys
representing Baughn, now represent a total of six women claiming Bikram
sexually assaulted and/or raped them,[21] In an April, 2015 CNN
interview with Baughn and Bikram, Bikram spoke out for the first time
denying the allegations, Bikram went on to say "I have no intention to
have sex with any of my students or any women,,,Sometimes students, they
commit suicide, Lots of students of mine, they commit suicide because I
will not have sex with them",[22]
In April 2015, the accusations
raised larger questions in the yoga community, including an article by
the Washington Post "asking whether it's wise to put so much faith in a
guru",[23]
The 26 Asanas (postures)[edit]
The following are
the 26 postures of Bikram Yoga, These are taught in the Beginning Bikram
Yoga Class, The sequence is taught by people who have been trained and
certified by Bikram Choudhury,[24][25]
# Sanskrit English
1 ?????????
Pra?ayama
Standing Deep Breathing (lit, Breath Extension)
2 ????????????? with ??????????
Ardhacandrasana with Padahastasana
Half Moon Pose with Hands To Feet Pose
3 ????????
Utka?asana
Awkward Pose
4 ???????
Garu?asana
Eagle Pose
5 ???????? ????????????
Da??ayamana Janusir?asana
Standing Head To Knee Pose
6 ???????? ???????
Da??ayamana Dhanurasana
Standing Bow Pose
7 ???????????
Tulada??asana
Balancing Stick Pose
8 ???????? ????????? ???????????????
Da??ayamana Vibhaktapada Pascimottanasana
Standing Separate Leg Stretching Pose
9 ??????????
Triko?asana
Triangle Pose
10 ???????? ????????? ????????????
Da??ayamana Vibhaktapada Janusir?asana
Standing Separate Leg Head To Knee Pose
11 ??????
Ta?asana - This is the Sanskrit for first posture Mountain pose, The Sanskrit for Tree pose is Vriksasana
Tree Pose
12 ??????????????
Pada?gu??hasana
Toe Stand Pose
13 ?????
Savasana
Corpse Pose
14 ???????????
Pavanamuktasana
Wind Removing Pose
15 ??????????
Padahastasana
Situp
16 ?????????
Bhuja?gasana
Cobra Pose
17 ??????
Salabhasana
Locust Pose
18 ???????????
Pur?asalabhasana
Full Locust Pose
19 ???????
Dhanurasana
Bow Pose
20 ????????????
Suptavajrasana
Fixed Firm Pose (lit, Reclining Thunderbolt Pose)
21 ????????????
Ardhakurmasana
Half Tortoise Pose
22 ?????????
U??rasana
Camel Pose
23 ?????????
Sasa?gasana
Rabbit Pose
24 ???????????? with ???????????????
Janusir?asana with Pascimottanasana
Head To Knee Pose with Back Stretching Pose
25 ???????????????????
Ardhamatsyendrasana
Spine Twisting Pose (lit, Half Lord of the Fishes Pose)
26 ????????
Kapalabhati
Blowing In Firm Pose (lit, Skull Illuminating)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Bikram's Yoga College of India", Bikramyoga,com, Retrieved 2011-12-28,
Jump up ^ Corporate registration for "Bikram Choudhury Yoga, Inc," Number: C2288343
Jump up ^ Farrell, Maureen (September 3, 2009), "Bikram Yoga's New Twists", Forbes,com,
Jump up ^ Wilson, Cynthia, "Different types of yoga and their benefits", Womenio, Retrieved 26 September 2012,
^ Jump up to: a b "Bikram Yoga Basic", BikramYoga,com,
Jump up ^ "Yoga teacher training programs", Bikramyoga,com, Retrieved 2013-10-21,
Jump up ^ "Bikram Choudhury," last modified 2010, accessed April 4, 2012, http://www,bikramyoga,com/Bikram/bikram,php
Jump up ^ Shakespeare, Jocasta (10 June 2006), "Bend it like Bikram", The Guardian, Retrieved 4 April 2012,
Jump up ^ Moss, Rebecca (8 July 2012), "The Hot Yoga War", The Village Voice, Retrieved 4 April 2014,
Jump
up ^ Tracy, Brian L,; Cady E,F, Hart (2013), "Bikram Yoga Training and
Physical Fitness in Healthy Young Adults", Journal of Strength and
Conditioning Research 27 (3): 822–830, doi:10,1519/JSC,0b013e31825c340f,
ISSN 1064-8011, Retrieved 2014-07-31,
Jump up ^ de Yoanna, Michale
(2014-07-23), "Why hot yoga might not burn as many calories as you
thought", Colorado Public Radio, Retrieved 1 January 2015,
Jump up ^ "Bikram 101", Yoga,com,
^
Jump up to: a b Internicola, Dorene (August 5, 2013), "Hot Yoga:
Experts Say It's Safe, But Does It Really Have Added Benefits?",
Huffington Post (Reuters), Retrieved 31 July 2014,
Jump up ^ Bikram's Beginning Yoga Class (Second Edition)
Jump up ^ Official website
Jump up ^ Beck, Sara (11 June 2012), "Yoga Is Not Just Posing as Sport at World Event", The New York Times,
Jump up ^ "The 9th Annual Bishnu Charan Ghosh Cup", Bishnu Charan Ghosh Cup,
Jump
up ^ Yoga Journal "Rape Accusations Against Bikram Choudury"
http://blogs,yogajournal,com/yogabuzz/2013/05/rape-accusations-against-birkram-choudury,html
Jump up ^ The Raw
Story
"Millionaire Yoga Guru Bikram Choudhury Accused of Rape and Human
Trafficking"
http://www,rawstory,com/rs/2013/05/14/millionaire-yoga-guru-bikram-choudhury-accused-of-rape-and-human-trafficking/
Jump
up ^ Yoga Dork "Former Bikram Legal Advisor Files Extremely Disturbing
Lawsuit over Sexual Harassment, Discrimination, Assault"
http://yogadork,com/news/lawsuit-asana/bikrams-former-head-of-legal-files-extremely-disturbing-complaint-involving-sexual-harassment-discrimination/
Jump up ^ "Attorneys Speak Out as CNN Sheds New Light on Bikram Choudhury Sexual Assault Cases", Retrieved 7 April 2015,
Jump up ^ "Bikram yoga founder denies sex assault allegations", Retrieved 7 April 2015,
Jump
up ^ Shalva, Benjamin, "After sex scandal, a Bikram yogi asks whether
it’s wise to put so much faith in a guru", The Washington Post,
Retrieved 14 April 2015,
Jump up ^ "Bikram yoga 26 postures", BikramYoga,com,
Jump up ^ "26 Bikram Yoga Poses", www,bikramyogaposesguide,com,
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SOME GENERAL INFO ABOUT the Baptiste Institute -
is an organization changing lives by bringing yoga to the world as a leadership skill,
The
Baptiste Institute exists to make a difference and empower people to
realize and manifest what is of interest and of most importance to them,
We
inspire people to fulfill their purpose of making a difference for
themselves and others, Our tools and practices enable people to develop
themselves and others as leaders in their own lives,
We are committed to causing leaders who cause leaders first with themselves and then with others,
Don't wish for it,
Work for it!!!
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SOME GENERAL INFO ABOUT Pregnancy
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about humans, For pregnancy in other mammals, see Pregnancy (mammals), For pregnancy in fish, see Pregnancy in fish,
Pregnancy
PregnantWoman,jpg
A pregnant woman
Classification and external resources
Specialty Obstetrics, Midwifery
ICD-10 Z33
ICD-9-CM 650
DiseasesDB 10545
MedlinePlus 002398
eMedicine article/259724
MeSH D011247
[edit on Wikidata]
Pregnancy, also known as gravidity or gestation, is the time during which one or more offspring develops inside a woman,[1] A multiple pregnancy involves more than one offspring, such as with twins,[2] Pregnancy can occur by sexual intercourse or assisted reproductive technology, It usually lasts around 40 weeks from the last menstrual period (LMP) and ends in childbirth,[1][3] This is just over nine lunar months, where each month is about 29½ days,[1][3] When measured from conception it is about 38 weeks, An embryo is the developing offspring during the first eight weeks following conception, after which, the term fetus is used until birth,[3] Symptoms of early pregnancy may include missed periods, tender breasts, nausea and vomiting, hunger, and frequent urination,[4] Pregnancy may be confirmed with a pregnancy test,[5]
Pregnancy is typically divided into three trimesters, The first trimester is from week one through 12 and includes conception, Conception is when the sperm fertilizes the egg, The fertilized egg then travels down the fallopian tube and attaches to the inside of the uterus, where it begins to form the fetus and placenta,[1] The first trimester carries the highest risk of miscarriage (natural death of embryo or fetus),[6] The second trimester is from week 13 through 28, Around the middle of the second trimester, movement of the fetus may be felt, At 28 weeks, more than 90% of babies can survive outside of the uterus if provided high-quality medical care, The third trimester is from 29 weeks through 40 weeks,[1]
Prenatal care improves pregnancy outcomes,[7] Prenatal care may include taking extra folic acid, avoiding drugs and alcohol, regular exercise, blood tests, and regular physical examinations,[7] Complications of pregnancy may include high blood pressure of pregnancy, gestational diabetes, iron-deficiency anemia, and severe nausea and vomiting among others,[8] Term pregnancy is 37 to 41 weeks, with early term being 37 and 38 weeks, full term 39 and 40 weeks, and late term 41 weeks, After 41 weeks, it is known as post term, Babies born before 37 weeks are preterm and are at higher risk of health problems such as cerebral palsy,[1] Delivery before 39 weeks by labor induction or caesarean section is not recommended unless required for other medical reasons,[9]
About 213 million pregnancies occurred in 2012, of which, 190 million were in the developing world and 23 million were in the developed world, The number of pregnancies in women ages 15 to 44 is 133 per 1,000 women,[10] About 10% to 15% of recognized pregnancies end in miscarriage,[6] In 2013, complications of pregnancy resulted in 293,000 deaths, down from 377,000 deaths in 1990, Common causes include maternal bleeding, complications of abortion, high blood pressure of pregnancy, maternal sepsis, and obstructed labor,[11] Globally, 40% of pregnancies are unplanned, Half of unplanned pregnancies are aborted,[10] Among unintended pregnancies in the United States, 60% of the women used birth control to some extent during the month pregnancy occurred,[12]
Contents [hide]
1 Terminology
2 Signs and symptoms
3 Physiology
3,1 Initiation
3,2 Development of embryo and fetus
3,3 Maternal changes
3,4 Determining gestational age
3,5 Timing of childbirth
3,6 Childbirth
3,7 Postnatal period
4 Diagnosis
4,1 Physical signs
4,2 Biomarkers
4,3 Ultrasound
5 Management
5,1 Prenatal care
5,2 Nutrition
5,3 Weight gain
5,4 Medication
5,5 Recreational drugs
5,6 Environmental toxins
5,7 Sexual activity
5,8 Exercise
5,9 Sleep
6 Complications
7 Intercurrent diseases
8 Epidemiology
9 Society and culture
9,1 Arts
9,2 Infertility
9,3 Abortion
9,4 Legal protection
10 References
11 Further reading
12 External links
Terminology[edit]
William Hunter, Anatomia uteri humani gravidi tabulis illustrata, 1774
One scientific term for the state of pregnancy is gravidity (adjective "gravid"), Latin for "heavy" and a pregnant female is sometimes referred to as a gravida,[13] Similarly, the term parity (abbreviated as "para") is used for the number of times a female carries a pregnancy past 20 weeks of gestation, Twins and other multiple births are counted as one pregnancy and birth, A woman who has never been pregnant is referred to as a nulligravida, A woman who is (or has been only) pregnant for the first time is referred to as a primigravida,[14] and a woman in subsequent pregnancies as a multigravida or as multiparous,[13][15] Therefore, during a second pregnancy a woman would be described as gravida 2, para 1 and upon live delivery as gravida 2, para 2, In-progress pregnancies, abortions, miscarriages and/ or stillbirths account for parity values being less than the gravida number, In the case of twins, triplets, etc,, gravida number and parity value are increased by one only, Women who have never carried a pregnancy achieving more than 20 weeks of gestation age are referred to as nulliparous,[16]
Recent medical literature prefers the terminology preterm and postterm to premature and postmature, Preterm and postterm are defined above, whereas premature and postmature have historical meaning and relate more to the infant's size and state of development rather than to the stage of pregnancy,[17][18]
Signs and symptoms[edit]
Main article: Symptoms and discomforts of pregnancy
Melasma pigment changes to the face due to pregnancy
The symptoms and discomforts of pregnancy are those presentations and conditions that result from pregnancy but do not significantly interfere with activities of daily living or pose a threat to the health of the mother or baby, This is in contrast to pregnancy complications, Sometimes a symptom that is considered a discomfort can be considered a complication when it is more severe, For example, nausea can be a discomfort (morning sickness), but if, in combination with significant vomiting, it causes water-electrolyte imbalance it is a complication (hyperemesis gravidarum),
Common symptoms and discomforts of pregnancy include:
Tiredness,
Constipation
Pelvic girdle pain
Back pain
Braxton Hicks contractions, Occasional, irregular, and often painless contractions that occur several times per day,
Edema (swelling), Common complaint in advancing pregnancy, Caused by compression of the inferior vena cava (IVC) and pelvic veins by the uterus leads to increased hydrostatic pressure in lower extremities,
Increased urinary frequency, A common complaint referred by the gravida, caused by increased intravascular volume, elevated GFR (glomerular filtration rate), and compression of the bladder by the expanding uterus,
Urinary tract infection[19]
Varicose veins, Common complaint caused by relaxation of the venous smooth muscle and increased intravascular pressure,
Haemorrhoids (piles), Swollen veins at or inside the anal area, Caused by impaired venous return, straining associated with constipation, or increased intra-abdominal pressure in later pregnancy,[20]
Regurgitation, heartburn, and nausea,
Striae gravidarum, pregnancy-related stretch marks
Breast tenderness is common during the first trimester, and is more common in women who are pregnant at a young age,[21]
In addition, pregnancy may result in pregnancy complication such as deep vein thrombosis or worsening of an intercurrent disease in pregnancy,
Physiology[edit]
Timeline of pregnancy by gestational age
Initiation[edit]
See also: Human fertilization
Fertilization and implantation in humans
There are multiple definitions of the beginning of a pregnancy,[22] Healthcare providers normally count the initiation of pregnancy from the first day of the woman's last menstrual period, Using this date, the resulting fetal age is called the gestational age, This choice was a result of inability to discern the point in time when the actual conception happened, In in vitro fertilisation, gestational age is calculated by days from oocyte retrieval + 14 days (the 14 days before the known time of conception),[23]
Through an interplay of hormones that includes follicle stimulating hormone that stimulates folliculogenesis and oogenesis creates a mature egg cell, the female gamete, Fertilization is the event where the egg cell fuses with the male gamete, spermatozoon, After the point of fertilization, the fused product of the female and male gamete is referred to as a zygote or fertilized egg, The fusion of male and female gametes usually occurs following the act of sexual intercourse, Fertilization can also occur by assisted reproductive technology such as artificial insemination and in vitro fertilisation,
Fertilization (conception) is sometimes used as the initiation of pregnancy, with the derived age being termed fertilization age, Fertilization usually occurs about two weeks before the next expected menstrual period,
A third point in time is also considered by some people to be the true beginning of a pregnancy: This is time of implantation, when the future fetus attaches to the lining of the uterus, This is about a week to ten days after fertilization,[22] In this model, during the time between conception and implantation, the future fetus exists, but the woman is not considered pregnant,
Development of embryo and fetus[edit]
Main articles: Prenatal development, Human embryogenesis, and Fetus
The initial stages of human embryogenesis
The sperm and the egg cell, which has been released from one of the female's two ovaries, unite in one of the two fallopian tubes, The fertilized egg, known as a zygote, then moves toward the uterus, a journey that can take up to a week to complete, Cell division begins approximately 24 to 36 hours after the male and female cells unite, Cell division continues at a rapid rate and the cells then develop into what is known as a blastocyst, The blastocyst arrives at the uterus and attaches to the uterine wall, a process known as implantation,
The development of the mass of cells that will become the infant is called embryogenesis during the first approximately ten weeks of gestation, During this time, cells begin to differentiate into the various body systems, The basic outlines of the organ, body, and nervous systems are established, By the end of the embryonic stage, the beginnings of features such as fingers, eyes, mouth, and ears become visible, Also during this time, there is development of structures important to the support of the embryo, including the placenta and umbilical cord, The placenta connects the developing embryo to the uterine wall to allow nutrient uptake, waste elimination, and gas exchange via the mother's blood supply, The umbilical cord is the connecting cord from the embryo or fetus to the placenta,
After about ten weeks of gestational age, the embryo becomes known as a fetus, At the beginning of the fetal stage, the risk of miscarriage decreases sharply,[24] At this stage, a fetus is about 30 mm (1,2 inches) in length, the heartbeat is seen via ultrasound, and the fetus makes involuntary motions,[25] During continued fetal development, the early body systems, and structures that were established in the embryonic stage continue to develop, Sex organs begin to appear during the third month of gestation, The fetus continues to grow in both weight and length, although the majority of the physical growth occurs in the last weeks of pregnancy,
Electrical brain activity is first detected between the fifth and sixth week of gestation, It is considered primitive neural activity rather than the beginning of conscious thought, Synapses begin forming at 17 weeks, and begin to multiply quickly at week 28 until 3 to 4 months after birth,[26]
Embryo at 4 weeks after fertilization[27]
Fetus at 8 weeks after fertilization[28]
Fetus at 18 weeks after fertilization[29]
Fetus at 38 weeks after fertilization[30]
Relative size in 1st month (simplified illustration)
Relative size in 3rd month (simplified illustration)
Relative size in 5th month (simplified illustration)
Relative size in 9th month (simplified illustration)
Maternal changes[edit]
Main article: Maternal physiological changes in pregnancy
Breast changes as seen during pregnancy, The areolae are larger and darker,
During pregnancy, the woman undergoes many physiological changes, which are entirely normal, including cardiovascular, hematologic, metabolic, renal, and respiratory changes, Increases in blood sugar, breathing, and cardiac output are all required, Levels of progesterone and oestrogens rise continually throughout pregnancy, suppressing the hypothalamic axis and therefore also the menstrual cycle,
The fetus is genetically different from the woman and can be viewed as an unusually successful allograft,[31] The main reason for this success is increased immune tolerance during pregnancy,[32] Immune tolerance is the concept that the body is able to not mount an immune system response against certain triggers,[31]
Pregnancy is typically broken into three periods, or trimesters, each of about three months,[33][34] Each trimester is defined as 14 weeks, for a total duration of 42 weeks, although the average duration of pregnancy is 40 weeks,[35] While there are no hard and fast rules, these distinctions are useful in describing the changes that take place over time,
First trimester[edit]
The uterus as it changes in size over the duration of the trimesters
Minute ventilation increases by 40% in the first trimester,[36] The womb will grow to the size of a lemon by eight weeks, Many symptoms and discomforts of pregnancy like nausea and tender breasts appear in the first trimester,[37]
Second trimester[edit]
By the end of the second trimester, the expanding uterus has created a visible "baby bump", Although the breasts have been developing internally since the beginning of the pregnancy, most of the visible changes appear after this point,
Weeks 13 to 28 of the pregnancy are called the second trimester, Most women feel more energized in this period, and begin to put on weight as the symptoms of morning sickness subside and eventually fade away, The uterus, the muscular organ that holds the developing fetus, can expand up to 20 times its normal size during pregnancy,
Although the fetus begins to move during the first trimester, it is not until the second trimester that movement, often referred to as "quickening", can be felt, This typically happens in the fourth month, more specifically in the 20th to 21st week, or by the 19th week if the woman has been pregnant before, It is common for some women not to feel the fetus move until much later, During the second trimester, most women begin to wear maternity clothes,
Third trimester[edit]
The uterus expands making up a larger and larger portion of the woman's abdomen, At left anterior view with months labeled, at right lateral view labeling the last 4 weeks, During the final stages of gestation before childbirth the fetus and uterus will drop to a lower position,
Final weight gain takes place, which is the most weight gain throughout the pregnancy, The woman's abdomen will transform in shape as it drops due to the fetus turning in a downward position ready for birth, During the second trimester, the woman's abdomen would have been upright, whereas in the third trimester it will drop down low, The fetus moves regularly, and is felt by the woman, Fetal movement can become strong and be disruptive to the woman, The woman's navel will sometimes become convex, "popping" out, due to the expanding abdomen,
Head engagement, where the fetal head descends into cephalic presentation, relieves pressure on the upper abdomen with renewed ease in breathing, It also severely reduces bladder capacity, and increases pressure on the pelvic floor and the rectum,
It is also during the third trimester that maternal activity and sleep positions may affect fetal development due to restricted blood flow, For instance, the enlarged uterus may impede blood flow by compressing the vena cava when lying flat, which is relieved by lying on the left side,[38]
Determining gestational age[edit]
The mean pregnancy length has been estimated to be 283,4 days of gestational age as timed from the first day of the last menstrual period and 280,6 days when retrospectively estimated by obstetric ultrasound measurement of the fetal biparietal diameter (BPD) in the second trimester,[39] Other algorithms take into account other variables, such as whether this is the first or subsequent child, the mother's race, age, length of menstrual cycle, and menstrual regularity, In order to have a standard reference point, the normal pregnancy duration is assumed by medical professionals to be 280 days (or 40 weeks) of gestational age,
The best method of determining gestational age is ultrasound during the first trimester of pregnancy, This is typically accurate within seven days,[40] This means that fewer than 5 percent of births occur on the day of being 40 weeks of gestational age; 50 percent of births are within a week of this duration, and about 80 percent are within 2 weeks,[39] For the estimation of due date, mobile apps essentially always give consistent estimations compared to each other and correct for leap year, while pregnancy wheels made of paper can differ from each other by 7 days and generally do not correct for leap year,[41] Once the estimated due date (EDD) is established, it should rarely be changed, as the determination of gestational age is most accurate earlier in the pregnancy,[42]
The most common system used among healthcare professionals is Naegele's rule, which was developed in the early 19th century, This calculates the expected due date from the first day of the last normal menstrual period (LMP or LNMP) regardless of factors known to make this inaccurate, such as a shorter or longer menstrual cycle length, Pregnancy most commonly lasts for 40 weeks according to this LNMP-based method, assuming that the woman has a predictable menstrual cycle length of close to 28 days and conceives on the 14th day of that cycle,
The average time to birth has been estimated to be 268 days (38 weeks and two days) from ovulation, with a standard deviation of 10 days or coefficient of variation of 3,7%,[43]
Accurate dating of pregnancy is important, because it is used in calculating the results of various prenatal tests, (for example, in the triple test), A decision may be made to induce labour if a fetus is perceived to be overdue, Furthermore, if ultrasound dating predicts a later due date than LMP, this might indicate slowed fetal growth and require closer review,
The stage of pregnancy defined as the beginning of legal fetal viability varies around the world, It sometimes incorporates weight as well as gestational age,[44] It ranges from 16 weeks in Norway, to 20 weeks in the US and Australia, 24 weeks in the UK and 26 weeks in Italy and Spain,[44][45][46]
Timing of childbirth[edit]
Further information: Preterm birth and Postterm pregnancy
Stages of pregnancy term
stage st*rts ends
Preterm[47]
-
at 37 weeks
Early term[48] 37 weeks 39 weeks
Full term[48] 39 weeks 41 weeks
Late term[48] 41 weeks 42 weeks
Postterm[48] 42 weeks
-
In the ideal childbirth labor begins on its own when a woman is "at term",[49] Pregnancy is considered at term when gestation has lasted between 37 and 42 weeks,[48]
Events before completion of 37 weeks are considered preterm,[47] Preterm birth is associated with a range of complications and should be avoided if possible,[50]
Sometimes if a woman's water breaks or she has contractions before 39 weeks, birth is unavoidable,[48] However, spontaneous birth after 37 weeks is considered term and is not associated with the same risks of a pre-term birth,[51] Planned birth before 39 weeks by Caesarean section or labor induction, although "at term", results in an increased risk of complications,[52] This is from factors including underdeveloped lungs of newborns, infection due to underdeveloped immune system, feeding problems due to underdeveloped brain, and jaundice from underdeveloped liver,[53]
Babies born between 39 and 41 weeks gestation have better outcomes than babies born either before or after this range,[48] This special time period is called "full term",[48] Whenever possible, waiting for labor to begin on its own in this time period is best for the health of the mother and baby,[49] The decision to perform an induction must be made after weighing the risks and benefits, but is safer after 39 weeks,[49]
Events after 42 weeks are considered postterm,[48] When a pregnancy exceeds 42 weeks, the risk of complications for both the woman and the fetus increases significantly,[54][55] Therefore, in an otherwise uncomplicated pregnancy, obstetricians usually prefer to induce labour at some stage between 41 and 42 weeks,[56]
Childbirth[edit]
Main article: Childbirth
Childbirth, referred to as labor and delivery in the medical field, is the process whereby an infant is born,[51]
A woman is considered to be in labour when she begins experiencing regular uterine contractions, accompanied by changes of her cervix – primarily effacement and dilation, While childbirth is widely experienced as painful, some women do report painless labours, while others find that concentrating on the birth helps to quicken labour and lessen the sensations, Most births are successful vaginal births, but sometimes complications arise and a woman may undergo a cesarean section,
During the time immediately after birth, both the mother and the baby are hormonally cued to bond, the mother through the release of oxytocin, a hormone also released during breastfeeding, Studies show that skin-to-skin contact between a mother and her newborn immediately after birth is beneficial for both the mother and baby, A review done by the World Health Organization found that skin-to-skin contact between mothers and babies after birth reduces crying, improves mother–infant interaction, and helps mothers to breastfeed successfully, They recommend that neonates be allowed to bond with the mother during their first two hours after birth, the period that they tend to be more alert than in the following hours of early life,[57]
Postnatal period[edit]
Main article: Postnatal
The postnatal period, also referred to as the puerperium, begins immediately after delivery and extends for about six weeks,[51] During this period, the mother's body begins the return to pre-pregnancy conditions that includes changes in hormone levels and uterus size,[51]
Diagnosis[edit]
The beginning of pregnancy may be detected either based on symptoms by the pregnant woman herself, or by using a medical test(s), 1/475 women at 20 weeks and 1/2500 women at delivery, refuse to acknowledge that they are pregnant (denial of pregnancy),[58] Some non-pregnant women have a very strong belief that they are pregnant along with some of the physical changes, This condition is known as pseudocyesis or false pregnancy,[59]
Physical signs[edit]
Further information: Symptoms and discomforts of pregnancy
Linea nigra in a woman at 22 weeks pregnant
Most pregnant women experience a number of symptoms,[60] which can signify pregnancy, A number of early medical signs are associated with pregnancy,[61][62] These signs include:
the presence of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) in the blood and urine
missed menstrual period
implantation bleeding that occurs at implantation of the embryo in the uterus during the third or fourth week after last menstrual period
increased basal body temperature sustained for over 2 weeks after ovulation
Chadwick's sign (darkening of the cervix, vagina, and vulva)
Goodell's sign (softening of the vaginal portion of the cervix)
Hegar's sign (softening of the uterus isthmus)
Pigmentation of linea alba – Linea nigra, (darkening of the skin in a midline of the abdomen, caused by hyperpigmentation resulting from hormonal changes, usually appearing around the middle of pregnancy),[61][62]
Darkening of the nipples and areolas due to an increase in hormones,[63]
Biomarkers[edit]
Further information: Pregnancy test
Pregnancy detection can be accomplished using one or more various pregnancy tests,[64] which detect hormones generated by the newly formed placenta, serving as biomarkers of pregnancy,[65] Blood and urine tests can detect pregnancy 12 days after implantation,[66] Blood pregnancy tests are more sensitive than urine tests (giving fewer false negatives),[67] Home pregnancy tests are urine tests, and normally detect a pregnancy 12 to 15 days after fertilization,[68] A quantitative blood test can determine approximately the date the embryo was conceived because HCG doubles every 36 to 48 hours,[51] A single test of progesterone levels can also help determine how likely a fetus will survive in those with a threatened miscarriage (bleeding in early pregnancy),[69]
Ultrasound[edit]
Main article: Obstetric ultrasonography
Obstetric ultrasonography can detect some congenital diseases at an early stage, estimate the due date, and detect multiple pregnancies,[70] The resultant estimated gestational age and due date of the fetus are slightly more accurate than methods based on last menstrual period,[71] Ultrasound is used to measure the nuchal fold in order to screen for Downs syndrome,[72]
Management[edit]
Prenatal care[edit]
Main articles: Prenatal care and pre-conception counseling
Pre-conception counseling is care that is provided to a woman and/ or couple to discuss conception, pregnancy, current health issues and recommendations for the period before pregnancy,[73]
Prenatal medical care is the medical and nursing care recommended for women during pregnancy, time intervals and exact goals of each visit differ by country,[74] Women who are high risk have better outcomes if they are seen regularly and frequently by a medical professional than women who are low risk,[75] A woman can be labeled as high risk for different reasons including previous complications in pregnancy, complications in the current pregnancy, current medical diseases, or social issues,[76][77]
The aim of good prenatal care is prevention, early identification, and treatment of any medical complications,[78] A basic prenatal visit consists of measurement of blood pressure, fundal height, weight and fetal heart rate, checking for symptoms of labor, and guidance for what to expect next,[73]
Nutrition[edit]
Main article: Nutrition and pregnancy
Nutrition during pregnancy is important to ensure healthy growth of the fetus,[79] Nutrition during pregnancy is different from the non-pregnant state,[79] There are increased energy requirements and specific micronutrient requirements,[79] Women benefit from education to encourage a balanced energy and protein intake during pregnancy,[80] Some women may need professional medical advice if their diet is affected by medical conditions, food allergies, or specific religious/ ethical beliefs,[81]
Adequate periconceptional (time before and right after conception) folic acid (also called folate or Vitamin B9) intake has been shown to decrease the risk of fetal neural tube defects, such as spina bifida,[82] The neural tube develops during the first 28 days of pregnancy, a urine pregnancy test is not usually positive until 14 days post-conception, explaining the necessity to guarantee adequate folate intake before conception,[68][83] Folate is abundant in green leafy vegetables, legumes, and citrus,[84] In the United States and Canada, most wheat products (flour, noodles) are fortified with folic acid,[85]
DHA omega-3 is a major structural fatty acid in the brain and retina, and is naturally found in breast milk,[86] It is important for the woman to consume adequate amounts of DHA during pregnancy and while nursing to support her well-being and the health of her infant,[86] Developing infants cannot produce DHA efficiently, and must receive this vital nutrient from the woman through the placenta during pregnancy and in breast milk after birth,[87]
Several micronutrients are important for the health of the developing fetus, especially in areas of the world where insufficient nutrition is common,[88] Whereas micronutrient supplementation for the mother has been found to reduce the risk of low birth weight, several studies reported variable effects on mortality in the newborn in developing countries,[88][89] In developed areas, such as Western Europe and the United States, certain nutrients such as Vitamin D and calcium, required for bone development, may require supplementation,[90][91][92] Vitamin E supplementation has not been shown to improve birth outcomes,[93] Zinc supplementation has been associated with a decrease in preterm birth, but it is unclear whether it is causative,[94] Daily iron supplementation reduces the risk of maternal anemia,[95] Studies of routine daily iron supplementation for all pregnant women in developed countries found improvement in blood iron levels, without a clear clinical benefit,[96]
Women are counseled to avoid certain foods, because of the possibility of contamination with bacteria or parasites that can cause illness,[97] Careful washing of fruits and raw vegetables may remove these pathogens, as may thoroughly cooking leftovers, meat, or processed meat,[98] Unpasteurized dairy and deli meats may contain Listeria, which can cause neonatal meningitis, stillbirth and miscarriage,[99] Pregnant women are also more prone to Salmonella infections, can be in eggs and poultry, which should be thoroughly cooked,[100] Cat feces and undercooked meats may contain the parasite Toxoplasma gondii and can cause toxoplasmosis,[98] Practicing good hygiene in the kitchen can reduce these risks,[101]
Women are also counseled to eat seafood in moderation and to eliminate seafood known to be high in mercury because of the risk of birth defects,[100] Pregnant women are counseled to consume caffeine in moderation, because large amounts of caffeine are associated with miscarriage,[51] However, the relationship between caffeine, birthweight, and preterm birth is unclear,[102]
Weight gain[edit]
The amount of healthy weight gain during a pregnancy varies,[103] Weight gain is related to the weight of the baby, the placenta, extra circulatory fluid, larger tissues, and fat and protein stores,[79] Most needed weight gain occurs later in pregnancy,[104]
The Institute of Medicine recommends an overall pregnancy weight gain for those of normal weight (body mass index of 18,5–24,9), of 11,3–15,9 kg (25–35 pounds) having a singleton pregnancy,[105] Women who are underweight (BMI of less than 18,5), should gain between 12,7–18 kg (28–40 lbs), while those who are overweight (BMI of 25–29,9) are advised to gain between 6,8–11,3 kg (15–25 lbs) and those who are obese (BMI>30) should gain between 5–9 kg (11–20 lbs),[106]
During pregnancy, insufficient or excessive weight gain can compromise the health of the mother and fetus,[104] The most effective intervention for weight gain in underweight women is not clear,[104] Being or becoming overweight in pregnancy increases the risk of complications for mother and fetus, including cesarean section, gestational hypertension, pre-eclampsia, macrosomia and shoulder dystocia,[103] Excessive weight gain can make losing weight after the pregnancy difficult,[103][107]
Around 50% of women of childbearing age in developed countries like the United Kingdom are overweight or obese before pregnancy,[107] Diet modification is the most effective way to reduce weight gain and associated risks in pregnancy,[107] A diet that has foods with a low glycemic index may help prevent the onset of gestational diabetes,[108]
Medication[edit]
Main article: Pharmaceutical drugs in pregnancy
Drugs used during pregnancy can have temporary or permanent effects on the fetus,[109] Anything (including drugs) that can cause permanent deformities in the fetus are labeled as teratogens,[110] In the U,S,, drugs were classified into categories A,B,C,D and X based on the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) rating system to provide therapeutic guidance based on potential benefits and fetal risks,[111] Drugs, including some multivitamins, that have demonstrated no fetal risks after controlled studies in humans are classified as Category A,[109] On the other hand, drugs like thalidomide with proven fetal risks that outweigh all benefits are classified as Category X,[109]
Recreational drugs[edit]
The use of recreational drugs in pregnancy can cause various pregnancy complications,[51]
Ethanol during pregnancy can cause fetal alcohol syndrome and fetal alcohol spectrum disorder,[51] Studies have shown that light to moderate drinking during pregnancy might not pose a risk to the fetus, although no amount of alcohol during pregnancy can be guaranteed to be absolutely safe,[112]
Tobacco smoking during pregnancy can cause a wide range of behavioral, neurological, and physical difficulties,[113] Smoking during pregnancy causes twice the risk of premature rupture of membranes, placental abruption and placenta previa,[114] Smoking is associated with 30% higher odds of preterm birth,[115]
Prenatal cocaine exposure is associated with premature birth, birth defects and attention deficit disorder,[51]
Prenatal methamphetamine exposure can cause premature birth and congenital abnormalities,[116] Short-term neonatal outcomes show small deficits in infant neurobehavioral function and growth restriction,[117] Long-term effects in terms of impaired brain development may also be caused by methamphetamine use,[116]
Cannabis in pregnancy has been shown to be teratogenic in large doses in animals, but has not shown any teratogenic effects in humans,[51]
Environmental toxins[edit]
Main article: Environmental toxins in pregnancy
Intrauterine exposure to environmental toxins in pregnancy has the potential to cause adverse effects on the development of the embryo/fetus and to cause pregnancy complications,[51] Air pollution has been associated with low birth weight infants,[118] Conditions of particular severity in pregnancy include mercury poisoning and lead poisoning,[51] To minimize exposure to environmental toxins, the American College of Nurse-Midwives recommends: checking whether the home has lead paint, washing all fresh fruits and vegetables thoroughly and buying organic produce, and avoiding cleaning products labeled "toxic" or any product with a warning on the label,[119]
Sexual activity[edit]
Main article: Sexual activity during pregnancy
Most women can continue to engage in sexual activity throughout pregnancy,[120] Most research suggests that during pregnancy both sexual desire and frequency of sexual relations decrease,[121][122] In context of this overall decrease in desire, some studies indicate a second-trimester increase, preceding a decrease during the third trimester,[123][124]
Sex during pregnancy is a low-risk behavior except when the healthcare provider advises that sexual intercourse be avoided for particular medical reasons,[120] For a healthy pregnant woman, there is no safe or right way to have sex during pregnancy,[120] Pregnancy alters the vaginal flora with a reduction in microscopic species/genus diversity,[125]
Exercise[edit]
Lifting objects can be safe during pregnancy,
Regular aerobic exercise during pregnancy appears to improve (or maintain) physical fitness,[126] Physical exercise during pregnancy does appear to decrease the risk of C-section,[127]
The Clinical Practice Obstetrics Committee of Canada recommends that "All women without contraindications should be encouraged to participate in aerobic and strength-conditioning exercises as part of a healthy lifestyle during their pregnancy",[128] Although an upper level of safe exercise intensity has not been established, women who were regular exercisers before pregnancy and who have uncomplicated pregnancies should be able to engage in high intensity exercise programs,[128] In general, participation in a wide range of recreational activities appears to be safe, with the avoidance of those with a high risk of falling such as horseback riding or skiing or those that carry a risk of abdominal trauma, such as soccer or hockey,[129]
The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists reports that in the past, the main concerns of exercise in pregnancy were focused on the fetus and any potential maternal benefit was thought to be offset by potential risks to the fetus, However, they write that more recent information suggests that in the uncomplicated pregnancy, fetal injuries are highly unlikely,[129] They do, however, list several circumstances when a woman should contact her health care provider before continuing with an exercise program: vaginal bleeding, dyspnea before exertion, dizziness, headache, chest pain, muscle weakness, preterm labor, decreased fetal movement, amniotic fluid leakage, and calf pain or swelling (to rule out thrombophlebitis),[129]
Sleep[edit]
It has been suggested that shift work and exposure to bright light at night should be avoided at least during the last trimester of pregnancy to decrease the risk of psychological and behavioral problems in the newborn,[130]
Complications[edit]
Main article: Complications of pregnancy
Each year, ill health as a result of pregnancy is experienced (sometimes permanently) by more than 20 million women around the world,[131] In 2013 complications of pregnancy resulted in 293,000 deaths down from 377,000 deaths in 1990, Common causes include maternal bleeding (44,000), complications of abortion (44,000), high blood pressure of pregnancy (29,000), maternal sepsis (24,000), and obstructed labor (19,000),[11]
The following are some examples of pregnancy complications:
Pregnancy induced hypertension
Anemia[132]
Postpartum depression
Postpartum psychosis
Thromboembolic disorders, The leading cause of death in pregnant women in the US,[133]
PUPPP a skin disease that develops around the 32nd week (Pruritic Urticarial Papules and Plaques of Pregnancy), Signs are red plaques, papules, and itchiness around the belly button that then spreads all over the body except for the inside of hands and face,
Ectopic pregnancy, implantation of the embryo outside the uterus,
Hyperemesis gravidarum, excessive nausea and vomiting that is more severe than normal morning sickness,
There is also an increased susceptibility and severity of certain infections in pregnancy,
Intercurrent diseases[edit]
Main article: Intercurrent disease in pregnancy
A pregnant woman may have intercurrent diseases, defined as disease not directly caused by the pregnancy, but that may become worse or be a potential risk to the pregnancy,
Diabetes mellitus and pregnancy deals with the interactions of diabetes mellitus (not restricted to gestational diabetes) and pregnancy, Risks for the child include miscarriage, growth restriction, growth acceleration, fetal obesity (macrosomia), polyhydramnios (too much amniotic fluid), and birth defects,
Systemic lupus erythematosus and pregnancy Pregnancy in the setting of SLE confers an increased rate of fetal death in utero, spontaneous abortion (miscarriage), and of neonatal lupus,
Thyroid disease in pregnancy can, if uncorrected, cause adverse effects on fetal and maternal well-being, The deleterious effects of thyroid dysfunction can also extend beyond pregnancy and delivery to affect neurointellectual development in the early life of the child, Demand for thyroid hormones is increased during pregnancy which may cause a previously unnoticed thyroid disorder to worsen,
Hypercoagulability in pregnancy is the propensity of pregnant women to develop thrombosis (blood clots), Pregnancy itself is a factor of hypercoagulability (pregnancy-induced hypercoagulability), as a physiologically adaptive mechanism to prevent post partum bleeding,[134] However, in combination with an underlying hypercoagulable states, the risk of thrombosis or embolism may become substantial,[134]
Epidemiology[edit]
See also: Pregnancy rate and Advanced maternal age
About 213 million pregnancies occurred in 2012 of which 190 million were in the developing world and 23 million were in the developed world, This is about 133 pregnancies per 1,000 women between the ages of 15 and 44,[10] About 10% to 15% of recognized pregnancies end in miscarriage,[6] Globally 40% of pregnancies are unplanned, Half of unplanned pregnancies are aborted,[10]
Of pregnancies in 2012 120 million occurred in Asia, 54 million in Africa, 19 million in Europe, 18 million in Latin America and the Caribbean, 7 million in North America, and 1 million in Oceania,[10] Pregnancy rates are 140 per 1000 women of childbearing age in the developing world and 94 per 1000 in the developed world,[10]
The rate of pregnancy, as well as the ages at which it occurs, differ by country and region, It is influenced by a number of factors, such as cultural, social and religious norms; access to contraception; and rates of education, The total fertility rate (TFR) in 2013 was estimated to be highest in Niger (7,03 children/woman) and lowest in Singapore (0,79 children/woman),[135]
In Europe, the average childbearing age has been rising continuously for some time, In Western, Northern, and Southern Europe, first-time mothers are on average 26 to 29 years old, up from 23 to 25 years at the st*rt of the 1970s, In a number of European countries (Spain), the mean age of women at first childbirth has crossed the 30-year threshold,
This process is not restricted to Europe, Asia, Japan and the United States are all seeing average age at first birth on the rise, and increasingly the process is spreading to countries in the developing world like China, Turkey and Iran, In the US, the age of first childbirth was 25,4 in 2010,[136]
In the United States and United Kingdom, 40% of pregnancies are unplanned, and between a quarter and half of those unplanned pregnancies were unwanted pregnancies,[137][138]
Globally, an estimated 270,000 women die from pregnancy-related complications each year,[139]
Society and culture[edit]
Giotto di Bondone
Visitation, circa 1305
In most cultures, pregnant women have a special status in society and receive particularly gentle care,[140] At the same time, they are subject to expectations that may exert great psychological pressure, such as having to produce a son and heir, In many traditional societies, pregnancy must be preceded by marriage, on pain of ostracism of mother and (illegitimate) child,
Overall, pregnancy is accompanied by numerous customs that are often subject to ethnological research, often rooted in traditional medicine or religion, The baby shower is an example of a modern custom,
Pregnancy is an important topic in sociology of the family, The prospective child may preliminarily be placed into numerous social roles, The parents' relationship and the relation between parents and their surroundings are also affected,
Arts[edit]
Due to the important role of the Mother of God in Christianity, the Western visual arts have a long tradition of depictions of pregnancy,[141]
Pregnancy, and especially pregnancy of unmarried women, is also an important motif in literature, Notable examples include Hardy's Tess of the d'Urbervilles and Goethe's Faust,
Pregnancy in art
Anatomical model of a pregnant woman; Stephan Zick (1639-1715); 1700; Germanisches Nationalmuseum
Macedonia-02845 (10906093425),jpg
Bronze figure of a pregnant naked woman by Danny Osborne, Merrion Square
Marcus Gheeraerts the Younger Portrait of Susanna Temple, second wife of Sir Martin Lister, 1620
Octave Tassaert, The Waif aka L'abandonnée 1852, Musée Fabre, Montpellier
Infertility[edit]
Main article: Infertility
Modern reproductive medicine offers many forms of assisted reproductive technology for couples who stay childless against their will, such as fertility medication, artificial insemination, in vitro fertilization and surrogacy,
Abortion[edit]
Main article: Abortion
An abortion is the termination of an embryo or fetus, either naturally or via medical methods,[142] When done electively, it is more often done within the first trimester than the second, and rarely in the third,[24] Not using contraception, contraceptive failure, poor family planning or rape can lead to undesired pregnancies, Legality of socially indicated abortions varies widely both internationally and through time, In most countries of Western Europe, abortions during the first trimester were a criminal offense a few decades ago[when?] but have since been legalized, sometimes subject to mandatory consultations, In Germany, for example, as of 2009 less than 3% of abortions had a medical indication,
Legal protection[edit]
Many countries have various legal regulations in place to protect pregnant women and their children, Maternity Protection Convention ensures that pregnant women are exempt from activities such as night shifts or carrying heavy stocks, Maternity leave typically provides paid leave from work during roughly the last trimester of pregnancy and for some time after birth, Notable extreme cases include Norway (8 months with full pay) and the United States (no paid leave at all except in some states), Moreover, many countries have laws against pregnancy discrimination,
In 2014, the American state of Kentucky passed a law which allows prosecutors to charge a woman with criminal assault if she uses illegal drugs during her pregnancy and her fetus or newborn is considered harmed as a result,[143]
In the United States, laws make some actions that result in miscarriage or stillbirth crimes, One such law is the federal Unborn Victims of Violence Act,
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Further reading[edit]
"Nutrition For The First Trimester Of Pregnancy", IDEA Health & Fitness Association, Retrieved 9 December 2013,
Bothwell, TH (July 2000), "Iron requirements in pregnancy and strategies to meet them", The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 72 (1 Suppl): 257S–264S, PMID 10871591,
Stevens, Jacqueline (June 2005), "Pregnancy envy and the politics of compensatory masculinities", Politics & Gender 1 (2): 265–296, doi:10,1017/S1743923X05050087,
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Human pregnancy,
Pregnancy at DMOZ
Merck Manual Home Health Handbook – further details on the diseases, disorders, etc,, which may complicate pregnancy,
Pregnancy care planner – NHS guide to having baby including preconception, pregnancy, labor, and birth,
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Pathology of pregnancy, childbirth and the puerperium (O, 630–679)
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Categories: Human pregnancy Birth control Reproduction Obstetrics Midwifery Family Fertility
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