Titus - Roman Emperor: 79-81 A.D.  
Judaea Capta Type
Bronze As 26mm (9.67 grams) Rome mint: 80/81 A.D.
Reference: RIC 133; C 367
IMP T CAES VESP AVG PM TR P P COS VIII, Laureate head right.
VICTORIA AVGVST, Victory standing right atop prow of galley, holding wreath and  palm.

* Numismatic Note: This coin may relate to Titus victory over Judaea, or Judaea  Capta, as it is similar to many issues attributed to the series.

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Judaea Capta coins (also spelled Judea Capta) were a series of  commemorative coins originally issued by the Roman  Emperor Vespasian to celebrate the capture of Judaea and the destruction of the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem by his son Titus in 70 AD during the First Jewish Revolt. There are several variants of the coinage. The reverse  of the coins shows a Jewish female (representing Judaea) seated right in an  attitude of mourning at the base of a palm tree, with either a captive Jewish  male standing right, with his hands bound behind his back, or the standing  figure of the victorious emperor, or the goddess Victory, with a trophy of  weapons, shields, and helmets to the left.

The female figure may reflect the prophecy of Isaiah 3:8,  25-26: "For Jerusalem is ruined, and Judah is fallen ... Thy men shall fall by  the sword and thy mighty in the war. And her gates shall lament and mourn, and  she being desolate shall sit upon the ground".

The Judaea Capta coins were struck for 25 years under Vespasian and his two  sons who succeeded him as Emperor - Titus and Domitian.  These commemorative coins were issued in bronze, silver and gold by mints in  Rome, throughout the Roman  Empire, and in Judaea itself.  They were issued in every denomination, and at least 48 different types are  known.

Only bronze 'Judaea Capta' coins were struck in Caesarea,  in the defeated Roman province of Judea. These coins are much cruder than the Roman issues, and  the inscriptions are in Greek rather than Latin. The designs feature the Goddess Nike writing on a shield, Minerva with  a spear, shield, trophy and palm tree, etc. Most such coins were issued during  the reign of the Emperor Domitian (81-96 AD).

Unusually, a 'Judaea Capta' coin was also minted by the Jewish ruler Agrippa II,  the great-grandson of Herod the Great. Brought up in Rome at the court of Claudius,  Agrippa was thoroughly Romanised and was a close friend of Titus, whom he  supported throughout the First Jewish Revolt. His bronze coin was minted at Tiberias  and shows a portrait of Titus on the obverse with the Greek inscription 'ΚΑΙΣΑΡ ΣΕΒΑΣ ΑΥΤΟΚΡ ΤΙΤΟΣ', while the reverse depicted the goddess Nike advancing right holding a wreath and palm branch over her shoulder,  with a star in upper right field and the inscription 'ETO - KS BA AGRI-PPA'.

Titus - Roman Emperor: 79-81 A.D.  

69-71 A.D. - Caesar (Under Vespasian, with Domitian)
71-79 A.D. - Imperator (Under Vespasian; Domitian, as Caesar)
79-81 A.D. - Sole Reign (with Domitian, as Caesar)

Son of Vespasian and Domitilla the Elder | Brother of Domitian and Domitilla the Younger | Father of Julia Titi | Great-uncle of Vespasian  Junior

Titus  Flavius Vespasianus, commonly known as Titus (December 30, 39 –  September 13, 81), was a Roman Emperor who briefly reigned from 79 until  his death in 81. Titus was the second emperor of the Flavian dynasty, which ruled the Roman Empire between 69 and 96, encompassing  the reigns of Titus's father Vespasian (69–79), Titus himself (79–81) and  his younger brother Domitian (81–96).

Prior to becoming emperor, Titus gained renown as a military  commander, serving under his father in Judaea during the First Jewish-Roman War, which was fought  between 67 and 70. The campaign came to a brief halt with the death of emperor Nero on June 9, 68, launching Vespasian's bid for the imperial power  during the Year of the Four Emperors. When Vespasian was  declared emperor on July 1, 69, Titus was left in charge of ending the Jewish  rebellion, which he did in 70, successfully besieging and destroying the city and the Temple of Jerusalem. For this achievement Titus was  awarded a triumph; the Arch of Titus commemorates his victory to this  day.

Under the rule of his father, Titus gained infamy in Rome  serving as prefect of the Roman imperial bodyguard, known as the Praetorian Guard, and for carrying on a  controversial relationship with the Jewish queen Berenice. Despite concerns over his character,  however, Titus ruled to great acclaim following the death of Vespasian on June  23, 79, and was considered a good emperor by Suetonius and other contemporary historians. In  this role he is best known for his public building program in Rome—completing  the Flavian Amphitheatre, otherwise known as the  Colosseum— and for his generosity in relieving the suffering caused by two  disasters, the Mount Vesuvius eruption of 79 and the fire of  Rome of 80. After barely two years in office, Titus died of a fever on September 13, 81. He was deified by the Roman Senate and succeeded by his younger  brother Domitian.

Early life

Titus was born in Rome, probably on 30 December 39, as the eldest son of Titus Flavius Vespasianus—commonly known as  Vespasian—and Domitilla the Elder. He had one younger sister, Domitilla the Younger (b. 45), and one younger  brother, also named Titus Flavius Domitianus (b. 51), but commonly  referred to as Domitian.

Decades of civil war during the 1st century BC had  contributed greatly to the demise of the old aristocracy of Rome, which was  gradually replaced in prominence by a new provincial nobility during the early  part of the 1st century. One such family was the gens Flavia, which rose from relative obscurity  to prominence in just four generations, acquiring wealth and status under the  emperors of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Titus's  great-grandfather, Titus Flavius Petro, had served as a centurion under Pompey during Caesar's civil war. His military career ended  in disgrace when he fled the battlefield at the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC. Nevertheless,  Petro managed to improve his status by marrying the extremely wealthy Tertulla,  whose fortune guaranteed the upwards mobility of Petro's son Titus Flavius Sabinus I, Titus's grandfather.  Sabinus himself amassed further wealth and possible equestrian status through his services as tax collector in Asia and banker in Helvetia. By marrying Vespasia Polla he allied himself to the more  prestigious patrician gens Vespasia, ensuring the  elevation of his sons Titus Flavius Sabinus II and Vespasian to the senatorial rank.

The political career of Vespasian included the  offices of quaestor, aedile and praetor, and culminated with a consulship in 51, the year Domitian was born.  As a military commander, he gained early renown by participating in the Roman invasion of Britain in 43. What little is  known of Titus's early life has been handed down to us by Suetonius, who records that he was brought up  at the imperial court in the company of Britannicus, the son of emperor Claudius, who would be murdered by Nero in 55. The story was even told that Titus was reclining next to  Britannicus, the night he was murdered, and sipped of the poison that was handed to him. Further details  on his education are scarce, but it seems he showed early promise in the military arts and was a skilled poet and orator  both in Greek and Latin.

 Military  career

From c. 57 to 59 he was a military tribune in Germania. He also served in Britannia, perhaps arriving c. 60 with  reinforcements needed after the revolt of Boudica. In c. 63 he returned to Rome  and married Arrecina Tertulla, daughter of a former Prefect of the Praetorian Guard. She died c.  65. Titus then took a new wife of a much more distinguished family, Marcia Furnilla. However, Marcia's family was  closely linked to the opposition to Nero. Her uncle Barea Soranus and his daughter Servilia were among those who perished after  the failed Pisonian conspiracy of 65. Some modern  historians theorize that Titus divorced his wife because of her family's  connection to the conspiracy. He never re-married. Titus appears to have had  multiple daughters, at least one of them by Marcia Furnilla. The only one known  to have survived to adulthood was Julia Flavia, perhaps Titus's child by Arrecina,  whose mother was also named Julia. During this period Titus also practiced law  and attained the rank of quaestor.

 Judaean  campaigns

In 66 the Jews of the Judaea Province revolted against the Roman Empire. Cestius Gallus, the legate of Syria, was defeated at the battle of Beth-Horon and forced to retreat from Jerusalem. The pro-Roman king Agrippa II and his sister Berenice fled the city to Galilee where they later gave themselves up to  the Romans. Nero appointed Vespasian to put down the rebellion, who was  dispatched to the region at once with the fifth and tenth legions.^[16]  He was later joined by Titus at Ptolemais, bringing with him the fifteenth legion. With a strength of 60,000  professional soldiers, the Romans prepared to sweep across Galilee and march on  Jerusalem.

The history of the war was covered in dramatic detail by the  Roman-Jewish historian Josephus in his work The Wars of the Jews. Josephus served as a  commander in the city of Jotapata when the Roman army invaded Galilee in  67. After an exhausting siege which lasted 47 days, the city fell, with an  estimated 40,000 killed and the remaining Jewish resistance committing suicide. Josephus himself surrendered to  Vespasian, became a prisoner and provided the Romans with intelligence on the  ongoing revolt. By 68, the entire coast and the north of Judaea were subjugated  by the Roman army, with decisive victories won at Taricheae and Gamala, where Titus distinguished himself as a  skilled general.

 Year  of the Four Emperors

The last and most significant fortress of Jewish resistance was Jerusalem. However the  campaign came to a sudden halt when news arrived of Nero's death. Almost  simultaneously, the Roman Senate had declared Galba, then governor of Hispania, as Emperor of Rome. Vespasian decided  to await further orders, and sent Titus to greet the new princeps. Before reaching Italy, Titus learnt  that Galba had been murdered and replaced by Otho, governor of Lusitania, and that Vitellius and his armies in Germania were preparing to march on the  capital, intent on overthrowing Otho. Not wanting to risk being taken hostage by  one side or the other, he abandoned the journey to Rome and rejoined his father  in Judaea. Meanwhile, Otho was defeated in the First Battle of Bedriacum and committed  suicide. When the news spread across the armies in Judaea and Ægyptus, they took matters into their own hands  and declared Vespasian emperor on July 1, 69. Vespasian accepted, and through  negotiations by Titus joined forces with Gaius Licinius Mucianus, governor of Syria. A  strong force drawn from the Judaean and Syrian legions marched on Rome under the  command of Mucianus, while Vespasian himself travelled to Alexandria, leaving Titus in charge to end the  Jewish rebellion. By the end of 69 the forces of Vitellius had been beaten, and  Vespasian was officially declared emperor by the Senate on December 21, thus  ending the Year of the Four Emperors.

 Siege  of Jerusalem

Meanwhile the Jews had become embroiled in a civil conflict of their own, splitting the  resistance in the city among two factions; the Sicarii led by Simon Bar Giora, and the Zealots led by John of Gischala.^[30]  Titus seized the opportunity to begin the assault on Jerusalem. The Roman army was joined  by the twelfth legion, which was previously defeated  under Cestius Gallus, and from Alexandria Vespasian  sent Tiberius Julius Alexander, governor of Ægyptus,  to act as Titus's second in command. Titus surrounded the city, with three  legions (Vth, XIIth and XVth) on the western side and one (Xth) on the Mount of Olives to the east. He put pressure on  the food and water supplies of the inhabitants by allowing pilgrims to enter the city to celebrate Passover, and then refusing them egress. Jewish  raids continuously harassed the Roman army, one of which nearly resulted in  Titus being captured.

After attempts by Josephus to negotiate a surrender had  failed, the Romans resumed hostilities and quickly breached the first and second  walls of the city. To intimidate the resistance, Titus ordered deserters from the Jewish side to be crucified around the city wall. By this time  the Jews had been thoroughly exhausted by famine, and when the weak third wall was  breached bitter street fighting ensued. The Romans finally captured the Antonia Fortress and began a frontal assault on  the gates of the Temple. According to Josephus, Titus had  ordered that the Temple itself should not be destroyed, but while the fighting  around the gates continued a soldier hurled a torch inside one of the windows,  which quickly set the entire building ablaze. The later Christian chronicler Sulpicius Severus, possibly drawing on a lost  portion of Tacitus' Histories, claims that Titus favoured  destruction of the Temple. Whatever the case, the Temple was completely  demolished, after which Titus's soldiers proclaimed him imperator in honor of the victory. Jerusalem was sacked and much of the population  killed or dispersed. Josephus claims that 1,100,000 people were killed during  the siege, of which a majority were Jewish. 97,000 were captured and enslaved,  including Simon Bar Giora and John of Gischala. Many fled to areas around the Mediterranean. Titus reportedly refused to  accept a wreath of victory, as he claimed there is "no  merit in vanquishing people forsaken by their own God".

 Heir  to Vespasian

Unable to sail to Italy during the winter, Titus celebrated  elaborate games at Caesarea Maritima and Berytus, then travelled to Zeugma on the Euphrates, where he was presented with a crown  by Vologases I of Parthia. While visiting Antioch he confirmed the traditional rights of  the Jews in that city. On his way to Alexandria, he stopped in Memphis to consecrate the sacred bull Apis. According to Suetonius, this caused consternation; the  ceremony required Titus to wear a diadem, which the Romans associated with kingship, and the partisanship of Titus's  legions had already led to fears that he might rebel against his father. Titus  returned quickly to Rome – hoping, says Suetonius, to allay any suspicions about  his conduct.

Upon his arrival in the city in 71, Titus was awarded a triumph. Accompanied by Vespasian and Domitian  he rode into the city, enthusiastically saluted by the Roman populace and  preceded by a lavish parade containing treasures and captives from the war.  Josephus describes a procession with large amounts of gold and silver carried  along the route, followed by elaborate re-enactments of the war, Jewish  prisoners, and finally the treasures taken from the Temple of Jerusalem,  including the Menorah and the Pentateuch. Simon Bar Giora was executed in the Forum, after which the procession closed with  religious sacrifices at the Temple of Jupiter. The triumphal Arch of Titus, which stands at one entrance to  the Forum, memorializes the victory of Titus.

With Vespasian declared emperor, Titus and his brother  Domitian likewise received the title of Caesar from the Senate. In  addition to sharing tribunician power with his father, Titus held  seven consulships during Vespasian's reign and acted  as his secretary, appearing in the Senate on his behalf. More crucially, he was  appointed commander of the Praetorian Guard, ensuring  their loyalty to the emperor and further solidifying Vespasian's position as a  legitimate ruler. In this capacity he achieved considerable notoriety in Rome  for his violent actions, frequently ordering the execution of suspected traitors on the spot. When in 79, a plot by Aulus Caecina Alienus and Eprius Marcellus to  overthrow Vespasian was uncovered, Titus invited Alienus to dinner and ordered  him to be stabbed before he had even left the room.

During the Jewish wars, Titus had begun a love affair with Berenice, sister of Agrippa II. The Herodians had collaborated with the Romans  during the rebellion, and Berenice herself had supported Vespasian upon his  campaign to become emperor. In 75, she returned to Titus and openly lived with  him in the palace as his promised wife. The Romans were wary of the Eastern  Queen and disapproved of their relationship. When the pair was publicly  denounced by Cynics in the theatre, Titus caved in to the  pressure and sent her away, but his reputation further suffered.

 Emperor

 Succession

Vespasian died of an infection on June 23 79 AD, and was  immediately succeeded by his son Titus. Because of his many alleged vices, many Romans feared at this point that he would be another  Nero. Against these expectations, however, Titus proved to be an effective  emperor and was well-loved by the population, who praised him highly when they  found that he possessed the greatest virtues instead of vices. One of his first acts  as an emperor was to publicly order a halt to trials based on treason  charges, which had long plagued the principate. The law of treason, or maiestas law,  was originally intended to prosecute those who had corruptly 'impaired the  people and majesty of Rome' by any revolutionary action. Under Augustus, however, this custom had been revived  and applied to cover slander or libellous writings as well,  eventually leading to a long cycle of trials and executions under such emperors as Tiberius, Caligula and Nero, spawning entire networks of informers that terrorized Rome's  political system for decades. Titus put an end to this practice, against himself  or anyone else, declaring:

"It is impossible for me to be insulted or abused in any  way. For I do naught that deserves censure, and I care not for what is  reported falsely. As for the emperors who are dead and gone, they will  avenge themselves in case anyone does them a wrong, if in very truth they  are demigods and possess any power."

Consequently, no senators were put to death during his reign; he  thus kept to his promise that he would assume the office of Pontifex Maximus "for the purpose of keeping  his hands unstained". The informants were publicly  punished and banished from the city, and Titus further  prevented abuses by introducing legislation that made it unlawful for persons to  be tried under different laws for the same offense.  Finally, when Berenice returned to Rome, he sent her away.

As emperor he became known for his generosity, and Suetonius states that upon realising he had  brought no benefit to anyone during a whole day he remarked, "Friends, I have  lost a day."

 Challenges

Although his administration was marked by a relative absence  of major military or political conflicts, Titus faced a number of major  disasters during his brief reign. On August 24, 79, barely two months after his  accession, Mount Vesuvius erupted, resulting in the almost  complete destruction of life and property in the cities and resort communities  around the Bay of Naples. The cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum were buried under metres of stone  and lava, killing thousands of citizens. Titus  appointed two ex-consuls to organise and coordinate the relief effort, while personally donating large  amounts of money from the imperial treasury to aid the victims of the volcano.  Additionally, he visited Pompeii once after the eruption and again the following  year.

During the second visit, in spring of AD 80, a fire broke out  in Rome, burning large parts of the city for three days and three nights.  Although the extent of the damage was not as disastrous as during the Great Fire of 64—crucially sparing the many  districts of insulae—Cassius  Dio records a long list of important public buildings that were  destroyed, including Agrippa's Pantheon, the Temple of Jupiter, the Diribitorium, parts of Pompey's Theatre and the Saepta Julia among others. Once again, Titus  personally compensated for the damaged regions. According to Suetonius, a plague similarly struck during the fire. The  nature of the disease, however, or the death toll are unknown.

Meanwhile war had resumed in Britannia, where Gnaeus Julius Agricola pushed further into Caledonia and managed to establish several  forts there. As a result of his actions, Titus received the title of Imperator for the fifteenth time.

His reign also saw the rebellion led by Terentius Maximus, one of several false  Neros who continued to appear throughout the 70s. Although Nero was  primarily known as a universally hated tyrant—there is evidence that for much of his  reign, he remained highly popular in the eastern provinces. Reports that Nero  had in fact survived the assassination attempts were fueled by the vague  circumstances surrounding his death and several prophecies foretelling his return. According to  Cassius Dio, Terentius Maximus resembled Nero in voice and appearance and, like  him, sang to the lyre. Terentius established a following in Asia minor but was soon forced to flee beyond  the Euphrates, taking refuge with the Parthians. In addition, sources state that  Titus discovered that his brother Domitian was plotting against him but refused  to have him killed or banished.

 Public  works

Construction of the Flavian Amphitheatre, presently better  known as the Colosseum, was begun in 70 under Vespasian and finally completed in 80 under  Titus. In addition to providing spectacular entertainments to the Roman  populace, the building was also conceived as a gigantic triumphal monument to  commemorate the military achievements of the Flavians during the Jewish wars. The inaugural games lasted for a hundred days and  were said to be extremely elaborate, including gladiatorial combat, fights between wild  animals (elephants  and cranes), mock naval battles for which the theatre was  flooded, horse races and chariot races. During the games, wooden balls  were dropped into the audience, inscribed with various prizes (clothing, gold, or even slaves), which could then be traded for the  designated item.

Adjacent to the amphitheatre, within the precinct of Nero's Golden House, Titus had also ordered the  construction of a new public bath-house, which was to bear his name. Construction of this building  was hastily finished to coincide with the completion of the Flavian  Amphitheatre.

Practice of the imperial cult was revived by Titus, though  apparently it met with some difficulty as Vespasian was not deified until six  months after his death. To further honor and glorify the Flavian dynasty, foundations were laid for what  would later become the Temple of Vespasian and Titus, which was  finished by Domitian.

 Death

At the closing of the games, Titus officially dedicated the  amphitheatre and the baths, which was to be his final recorded act as an  emperor. He set out for the Sabine territories but fell ill at the first  posting station where he died of a fever, reportedly in the same farm-house as his  father. Allegedly, the last words he uttered before passing away were: "I have  made but one mistake". Titus had ruled the Roman Empire for just over two years, from the  death of his father in 79 to his own on September 13 81. He was succeeded by  Domitian, whose first act as emperor was to deify his brother.

Historians have speculated on the exact nature  of his death, and to which mistake Titus alluded in his final words. Philostratus writes that he was poisoned by  Domitian with a sea hare, and that his death had been foretold  to him by Apollonius of Tyana. Suetonius and Cassius Dio  maintain he died of natural causes, but both accuse Domitian of having left the  ailing Titus for dead. Consequently, Dio believes Titus's mistake refers to his  failure to have his brother executed when he was found to be openly plotting  against him.

According to the Babylonian Talmud (Gittin  56b), an insect flew into Titus's nose and picked at his  brain for seven years. He noticed that the sound of a blacksmith hammering  caused the ensuing pain to abate, so he paid for blacksmiths to hammer nearby  him; however, the effect wore off and the insect resumed its gnawing. When he  died, they opened his skull and found the insect had grown to the size of a  bird. The Talmud gives this as the cause of his death and interprets it as  divine retribution for his wicked actions.

 Legacy

 Historiography

Titus's record among ancient historians stands as one of the  most exemplary of any emperor. All the surviving accounts from this period, many  of them written by his own contemporaries, present a highly favourable view  towards Titus. His character has especially prospered in comparison with that of  his brother Domitian.

The Wars of the Jews offers a first-hand, eye-witness account on the Jewish rebellion and  the character of Titus. The neutrality of Josephus' writings has come into question  however as he was heavily indebted to the Flavians. In 71, he arrived in Rome in the  entourage of Titus, became a Roman citizen and took on the Roman nomen Flavius and praenomen Titus from his patrons. He received  an annual pension and lived in the palace. It was while in Rome, and under  Flavian patronage, that Josephus wrote all of his known  works. The War of the Jews is heavily slanted against the leaders of the  revolt, portraying the rebellion as weak and unorganized, and even blaming the  Jews for causing the war. The credibility of Josephus as a historian has  subsequently come under fire.

Another contemporary of Titus was Publius Cornelius Tacitus, who started his  public career in 80 or 81 and credits the Flavian dynasty with his elevation. The Histories—his account of this  period—was published during the reign of Trajan. Unfortunately only the first five books  from this work have survived until the present day, with the text on Titus's and  Domitian's reign entirely lost.

Suetonius Tranquilius gives a short but highly  favourable account on Titus's reign in The Lives of Twelve Caesars, emphasizing  his military achievements and his generosity as Emperor, in short describing him  as follows:

Titus, of the same surname as his father, was the delight  and darling of the human race; such surpassing ability had he, by nature,  art, or good fortune, to win the affections of all men, and that, too, which  is no easy task, while he was emperor.

Finally, Cassius Dio wrote his Roman History over a hundred years after  the death of Titus. He shares a similar outlook as Suetonius, possibly even  using the latter as a source, but is more reserved, noting:

His satisfactory record may also have been due to the  fact that he survived his accession but a very short time, for he was thus  given no opportunity for wrongdoing. For he lived after this only two years,  two months and twenty days — in addition to the thirty-nine years, five  months and twenty-five days he had already lived at that time. In this  respect, indeed, he is regarded as having equalled the long reign of Augustus, since it is maintained that  Augustus would never have been loved had he lived a shorter time, nor Titus  had he lived longer. For Augustus, though at the outset he showed himself  rather harsh because of the wars and the factional strife, was later able,  in the course of time, to achieve a brilliant reputation for his kindly  deeds; Titus, on the other hand, ruled with mildness and died at the height  of his glory, whereas, if he had lived a long time, it might have been shown  that he owes his present fame more to good fortune than to merit.

Pliny the Elder, who later died during the  eruption of Mount Vesuvius, dedicated his Naturalis Historia to Titus.

In contrast to the ideal portrayal of Titus in Roman  histories, in Jewish memory "Titus the Wicked" is remembered as an evil  oppressor and destroyer of the Temple. For example, one legend in the Babylonian  Talmud describes Titus as having had sex with a whore on a Torah scroll inside  the Temple during its destruction.

 Titus  in later arts

The war in Judaea and the life of Titus, particularly his  relationship with Berenice, have inspired writers and artists through the  centuries. The bas-relief in the Arch of Titus has been  influential in the depiction of the destruction of Jerusalem, with the Menorah frequently being used to symbolise the  looting of the Second Temple.

 Literature

• Bérénice, a play by Jean Racine (1670) which focuses on the  love affair between Titus and Berenice.

• Tite et Bérénice, a play by Pierre Corneille which was in competition  with Racine the same year, and concerns the same subject matter.

• La clemenza di Tito, an opera by Mozart, about a fictional romance between  Emperor Titus and Vitellia, daughter of Vitellius.

• The Josephus Trilogy, novels by Lion Feuchtwanger, about the life of Flavius Josephus and his relation with the  Flavian dynasty.

  • Der jüdische Krieg (Josephus), 1932

  • Die Söhne (The Jews of Rome), 1935

  • Der Tag wird kommen (The day will come, Josephus and the Emperor), 1942

• The Marcus Didius Falco novels, which take  place during the reign of Vespasian.

• The Roman Mysteries, a series of  children's books which take place during the reign of Titus.

• The High School Latin textbook series Ecce Romani takes place during the reign of  Titus.

 Paintings

• The Destruction of Jerusalem by Titus  by Wilhelm von Kaulbach (1846). Oil on canvas,  585 x 705 cm. Neue Pinakothek, Munichh. An allegorical depiction of the destruction of Jerusalem, dramatically  centered around the figure of Titus.

• The Destruction of the Temple at Jerusalem  Nicolas Poussin (1637). Oil on canvas, 147 x 198,5 cm. Kunsthistorisches  Museum, Vienna. Depicts the destruction and looting of the Second Temple by  the Roman army led by Titus.

• The Destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem  by Francesco Hayez (1867). Oil on canvas, 183  x 252 cm. Galleria d'Arte Moderna, Venice. Depicts the destruction and looting  of the Second Temple by the Roman army.

• The Siege and Destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans  Under the Command of Titus, A.D. 70 by David Roberts (1850). Oil on canvas, 136 x  197 cm. Private collection. Depicts the burning and looting of Jerusalem by  the Roman army under Titus.

• The Triumph of Titus and Vespasian by Giulio Romano (1540). Oil on wood, 170 x  120 cm. Louvre, Paris. Depicts Titus and Vespasian as they  ride into Rome on a triumphal chariot, preceded by a parade carrying spoils  from the war in Judaea. The painting anachronistically features the Arch of  Titus, which was not completed until the reign of Domitian.

• The Triumph of Titus by Lawrence Alma-Tadema (1885). Oil on canvas.  Private collection. This painting depicts the triumphal procession of Titus  and his family. Alma-Tadema was known for his meticulous historical research  on the ancient world. Vespasian, dressed as Pontifex Maximus, walks at the head of his  family, followed by Domitian and his first wife Domitia Longina, who he had only recently  married. Behind Domitian follows Titus, dressed in religious regalia. An  exchange of glances between Titus and Domitia suggests an affair which  historians have speculated upon.