The term China Marines, originally referred to the United States Marines of the 4th Marine Regiment, who were stationed in Shanghai, China from 1927 to 1941 to protect American citizens and their property in the Shanghai International Settlement, during the Chinese Revolution and the Second Sino-Japanese War. Those Marines stationed at the embassy in Beijing and the consulate in Tianjin referred to themselves as North China Marines.[1]

Due to the cheap labor available, China Marines lived a relatively comfortable lifestyle, with each squad able to hire Chinese men to do their cleaning and run their errands. This, plus the inexpensive goods available on the local market, made an assignment to the China Marines highly coveted.

Most of the China Marines were withdrawn in November 1941, but the North China Marines in Beijing and Tianjin were scheduled to be withdrawn on December 10. (All weapons and ammunition except rifles and pistols had been crated and shipped by rail to the embarkation port.) However, Imperial Japan attacked the United States on December 7, and the Marine Embassy guards, plus a fourteen-man Naval medical detachment, a total of 203 men, were captured and held as slave labor until the war's end in August 1945. A 204th man, a retired officer who had been living in Beijing and recalled to duty, was immediately released. He continued living in Beijing until he was included in the roundup of civilians and sent to the Weixian Internment Camp in March 1943. He was returned to the U.S. on the exchange ship Teia Maru in September 1943. The last commander of the China Marines was Colonel William W. Ashurst.[2]

With the rapid expansion of the Marine Corps during World War II and the capture of the rest of the 4th Marine Regiment at Corregidor, the surviving China Marines were few in number and highly regarded.

After Japan's surrender, the 1st and 6th Marine Divisions, also known as China Marines, were sent to occupy northern China from 1945 to 1948.

On January 31, 1996, Marines from the 2nd Battalion 5th Marines, as part of the 31st Marine Expeditionary Unit (31st MEU), Special Operations Capable (SOC), made their first visit to Shanghai, China, since World War II. The 31st MEU-SOC visited China again on November 22, 2006, during a port visit to Zhanjiang.[3][full citation needed]

American Legion China Post One

American marines holding up a Japanese patrol trying to enter the Shanghai International Settlement, 1930s

American Legion China Post One, formed in 1919, one year after World War I and chartered by the American Legion on April 20, 1920, was originally named the General Frederick Townsend Ward Post No. 1, China.[4] It is the only post nominally headquartered in a communist country, and has been operating in exile since 1948 — presently in Henderson, Nevada.[5]

Author W. E. B. Griffin often writes of China Marines in his book series The Corps. Book 1 of the series in particular highlights the pre-World War II lives of China Marines. In his Presidential Agent series, he several times makes reference to American Legion China Post No. 1 in Exile as a post comprised in the main of retired military special operators who can be hired for assorted purposes.

The United States Marine Corps (USMC), also referred to as the United States Marines or U.S. Marines, is a branch of the United States Armed Forces responsible for conducting expeditionary and amphibious operations[11] with the United States Navy as well as the Army and Air Force. The U.S. Marine Corps is one of the four armed service branches in the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States.

The Marine Corps has been a component of the U.S. Department of the Navy since 30 June 1834,[12] working closely with naval forces. The USMC operates installations on land and aboard sea-going amphibious warfare ships around the world. Additionally, several of the Marines' tactical aviation squadrons, primarily Marine Fighter Attack squadrons, are also embedded in Navy carrier air wings and operate from the aircraft carriers.[13]

The history of the Marine Corps began when two battalions of Continental Marines were formed on 10 November 1775 in Philadelphia as a service branch of infantry troops capable of fighting both at sea and on shore.[14] In the Pacific theater of World War II the Corps took the lead in a massive campaign of amphibious warfare, advancing from island to island.[15][16][17] As of 2017, the USMC has around 186,000 active duty members and some 38,500 personnel in reserve.[2] It is the smallest U.S. military service within the DoD.[18][19][20]

Mission[edit]

As outlined in 10 U.S.C. § 5063 and as originally introduced under the National Security Act of 1947, three primary areas of responsibility for the Marine Corps are:

Seizure or defense of advanced naval bases and other land operations to support naval campaigns;

Development of tactics, technique, and equipment used by amphibious landing forces in coordination with the Army and Air Force; and

Such other duties as the President or Department of Defense may direct.

A Marine Corporal and Lance Corporal of 3rd Battalion, 6th Marines engaging the enemy during Operation Moshtarak in Afghanistan's Helmand Province.

This last clause derives from similar language in the Congressional acts "For the Better Organization of the Marine Corps" of 1834, and "Establishing and Organizing a Marine Corps" of 1798. In 1951, the House of Representatives' Armed Services Committee called the clause "one of the most important statutory – and traditional – functions of the Marine Corps". It noted that the Corps has more often than not performed actions of a non-naval nature, including its famous actions in Tripoli, the War of 1812, Chapultepec, and numerous counter-insurgency and occupational duties (such as those in Central America), World War I, and the Korean War. While these actions are not accurately described as support of naval campaigns nor as amphibious warfare, their common thread is that they are of an expeditionary nature, using the mobility of the Navy to provide timely intervention in foreign affairs on behalf of American interests.[21]

A U.S. Marine security guard reviews a security system at a U.S. embassy in December 2004.

The Marine Band, dubbed the "President's Own" by Thomas Jefferson, provides music for state functions at the White House.[22] Marines from Ceremonial Companies A & B, quartered in Marine Barracks, Washington, D.C., guard presidential retreats, including Camp David, and the Marines of the Executive Flight Detachment of HMX-1 provide helicopter transport to the President and Vice President, with the radio call signs "Marine One" and "Marine Two", respectively.[23] The Executive Flight Detachment also provides helicopter transport to Cabinet members and other VIPs. By authority of the 1946 Foreign Service Act, the Marine Security Guards of the Marine Embassy Security Command provide security for American embassies, legations, and consulates at more than 140 posts worldwide.[24] The relationship between the Department of State and the U.S. Marine Corps is nearly as old as the corps itself. For over 200 years, Marines have served at the request of various Secretaries of State. After World War II, an alert, disciplined force was needed to protect American embassies, consulates, and legations throughout the world. In 1947, a proposal was made that the Department of Defense furnish Marine Corps personnel for Foreign Service guard duty under the provisions of the Foreign Service Act of 1946. A formal Memorandum of Agreement was signed between the Department of State and the Secretary of the Navy on 15 December 1948, and 83 Marines were deployed to overseas missions. During the first year of the MSG program, 36 detachments were deployed worldwide.[25]

Historical mission[edit]

The Marine Corps was founded to serve as an infantry unit aboard naval vessels and was responsible for the security of the ship and its crew by conducting offensive and defensive combat during boarding actions and defending the ship's officers from mutiny; to the latter end, their quarters on ship were often strategically positioned between the officers' quarters and the rest of the vessel. Continental Marines manned raiding parties, both at sea and ashore. America's first amphibious assault landing occurred early in the Revolutionary War on 3 March 1776 as the Marines gained control of Fort Montague and Fort Nassau, a British ammunition depot and naval port in New Providence, the Bahamas. The role of the Marine Corps has expanded significantly since then; as the importance of its original naval mission declined with changing naval warfare doctrine and the professionalization of the naval service, the Corps adapted by focusing on formerly secondary missions ashore. The Advanced Base Doctrine of the early 20th century codified their combat duties ashore, outlining the use of Marines in the seizure of bases and other duties on land to support naval campaigns.

Throughout the late 19th and 20th centuries, Marine detachments served aboard Navy cruisers, battleships and aircraft carriers. Marine detachments served in their traditional duties as a ship's landing force, manning the ship's weapons and providing shipboard security. Marine detachments were augmented by members of the ship's company for landing parties, such as in the First Sumatran Expedition of 1832, and continuing in the Caribbean and Mexican campaigns of the early 20th centuries. Marines would develop tactics and techniques of amphibious assault on defended coastlines in time for use in World War II.[26] During World War II, Marines continued to serve on capital ships. They often were assigned to man anti-aircraft batteries. When gun cruisers were retired by the 1960s, the remaining Marine detachments were only seen on battleships and carriers. Its original mission of providing shipboard security finally ended in the 1990s.

Capabilities[edit]

U.S. Marines from the 31st Marine Expeditionary Unit training in amphibious warfare during Operation Talisman Sabre at Shoalwater Bay in Australia.

The Marine Corps fulfills a critical military role as an amphibious warfare force. It is capable of asymmetric warfare with conventional, irregular, and hybrid forces.

While the Marine Corps does not employ any unique capabilities, as a force it can rapidly deploy a combined-arms task force to almost anywhere in the world within days. The basic structure for all deployed units is a Marine Air-Ground Task Force (MAGTF) that integrates a ground combat element, an aviation combat element and a Logistics Combat Element under a common command element. While the creation of joint commands under the Goldwater–Nichols Act has improved inter-service coordination between each branch, the Corps's ability to permanently maintain integrated multi-element task forces under a single command provides a smoother implementation of combined-arms warfare principles.[27]

The close integration of disparate Marine units stems from an organizational culture centered on the infantry. Every other Marine capability exists to support the infantry. Unlike some Western militaries, the Corps remained conservative against theories proclaiming the ability of new weapons to win wars independently. For example, Marine aviation has always been focused on close air support and has remained largely uninfluenced by air power theories proclaiming that strategic bombing can single-handedly win wars.[26]

File:US Marine Artillery during Iraq Invasion March 26 2003.ogvPlay media

Bravo Battery, 1st Battalion, 11th Marines, a.k.a. the Beastmasters fight off Iraqi unit on 26 March 2003.

This focus on the infantry is matched with the doctrine of "Every Marine [is] a rifleman", a focus of Commandant Alfred M. Gray, Jr., emphasizing the infantry combat abilities of every Marine. All Marines, regardless of military specialization, receive training as a rifleman; and all officers receive additional training as infantry platoon commanders.[28] For example, at Wake Island, when all of the Marine aircraft were destroyed, pilots continued the fight as ground officers, leading supply clerks and cooks in a final defensive effort.[29] Flexibility of execution is implemented via an emphasis on "commander's intent" as a guiding principle for carrying out orders; specifying the end state but leaving open the method of execution.[30]

The amphibious assault techniques developed for World War II evolved, with the addition of air assault and maneuver warfare doctrine, into the current "Operational Maneuver from the Sea" doctrine of power projection from the seas.[11] The Marines are credited with the development of helicopter insertion doctrine and were the earliest in the American military to widely adopt maneuver-warfare principles, which emphasize low-level initiative and flexible execution. In light of recent warfare that has strayed from the Corps's traditional missions,[31] it has renewed an emphasis on amphibious capabilities.[32]

Machine gunner from 1st Platoon, Company B, 1st Battalion, 23rd Marine Regiment in cold weather gear armed with a Squad Automatic Weapon taking part in a security patrol around Ramadi, Iraq, 27 December 2006.

The Marine Corps relies on the Navy for sealift to provide its rapid deployment capabilities. In addition to basing a third of the Fleet Marine Force in Japan, Marine Expeditionary Units (MEU) are typically stationed at sea so they can function as first responders to international incidents.[33] To aid rapid deployment, the Maritime Pre-Positioning System was developed: fleets of container ships are positioned throughout the world with enough equipment and supplies for a Marine Expeditionary Force to deploy for 30 days.

The USMC is planning to reduce its logistical requirements and by 2025 eliminate all liquid fuel use for Marine Expeditionary Forces, except for highly efficient vehicles.[34]

Doctrine[edit]

Two small manuals published during the 1930s would establish USMC doctrine in two areas. The Small Wars Manual laid the framework for Marine counter-insurgency operations from Vietnam to Iraq and Afghanistan while the Tentative Landing Operations Manual established the doctrine for the amphibious operations of World War II. "Operational Maneuver from the Sea" is the current doctrine of power projection.[11]

History[edit]

Main article: History of the United States Marine Corps

Origins[edit]

Painting of Continental Marines landing on a tropical beach from rowboats, with two ships in the background

Continental Marines land at New Providence during the Battle of Nassau, the first amphibious landing of the Marine Corps, during the revolution.

The United States Marine Corps traces its roots to the Continental Marines of the American Revolutionary War, formed by Captain Samuel Nicholas by a resolution of the Second Continental Congress on 10 November 1775, to raise two battalions of Marines. That date is regarded and celebrated as the date of the Marine Corps's birthday. At the end of the American Revolution, both the Continental Navy and Continental Marines were disbanded in April 1783. The institution itself would not be resurrected until 11 July 1798. At that time, in preparation for the Quasi-War with France, Congress created the United States Marine Corps.[35] Marines had been enlisted by the War Department as early as August 1797[36] for service in the new-build frigates authorized by the Congressional "Act to provide a Naval Armament" of 18 March 1794,[37] which specified the numbers of Marines to recruit for each frigate.

Marines leading Arab mercenaries to victory under U.S. Navy Lieutenant William Eaton and U.S. Marine Corps First Lieutenant Presley O'Bannon during the Battle of Derna.

British and U.S. troops garrisoned aboard Hornet and Penguin exchanging small arms musket fire with Tristan da Cuna in the background during the final engagement between British and U.S. forces in the War of 1812.

The Marines' most famous action of this period occurred during the First Barbary War (1801–1805) against the Barbary pirates,[38] when William Eaton and First Lieutenant Presley O'Bannon led eight Marines and 500 mercenaries in an effort to capture Tripoli. Though they only reached Derna, the action at Tripoli has been immortalized in the Marines' hymn and the Mameluke sword carried by Marine officers.[39]

During the War of 1812, Marine detachments on Navy ships took part in some of the great frigate duels that characterized the war, which were the first and last engagements of the conflict. Their most significant contribution, however, was holding the center of General Jackson's defensive line at the 1815 Battle of New Orleans, the final major battle and one of the most one-sided engagements of the war. With widespread news of the battle and the capture of HMS Cyane, HMS Levant and HMS Penguin, the final engagements between British and U.S. forces, the Marines had gained a reputation as expert marksmen, especially in defensive and ship-to-ship actions.[39] They played a large role in the 1813 defense of Sacket's Harbor, New York and Norfolk and Portsmouth, Virginia,[40] also taking part in the 1814 defense of Plattsburgh in the Champlain Valley during one of the final British offensives along the Canadian-American border.

After the war, the Marine Corps fell into a malaise that ended with the appointment of Archibald Henderson as its fifth Commandant in 1820. Under his tenure, the Corps took on expeditionary duties in the Caribbean, the Gulf of Mexico, Key West, West Africa, the Falkland Islands, and Sumatra. Commandant Henderson is credited with thwarting President Jackson's attempts to combine and integrate the Marine Corps with the Army.[39] Instead, Congress passed the Act for the Better Organization of the Marine Corps in 1834, stipulating that the Corps was part of the Department of the Navy as a sister service to the Navy.[41] This would be the first of many times that the independent existence of the Corps was challenged.

U.S. Marines storming Chapultepec castle under a large American flag, paving the way for the fall of Mexico City.

Commandant Henderson volunteered the Marines for service in the Seminole Wars of 1835, personally leading nearly half of the entire Corps (two battalions) to war. A decade later, in the Mexican–American War (1846–1848), the Marines made their famed assault on Chapultepec Palace in Mexico City, which would be later celebrated as the "Halls of Montezuma" in the Marines' hymn. In the 1850s, the Marines would see further service in Panama and Asia, attached to Matthew Perry's East India Squadron on its historic trip to the Far East.[42]

A toy soldier is a miniature figurine that represents a soldier. The term applies to depictions of uniformed military personnel from all eras, and includes knights, cowboys, American Indians, pirates, samurai, and other subjects that involve combat-related themes. Toy soldiers vary from simple playthings to highly realistic and detailed models. The latter are of more recent development and are sometimes called model figures to distinguish them from traditional toy soldiers. Larger scale toys such as dolls and action figures may come in military uniforms, but they are not generally considered toy soldiers.

Toy soldiers are made from all types of material, but the most common mass-produced varieties are metal and plastic. There are many different kinds of toy soldiers, including tin soldiers or flats, hollow cast metal figures, composition figures, and plastic army men. Metal toy soldiers were traditionally sold in sets; plastic figures were sold in toy shops individually in Britain and Europe and in large boxed sets in the U.S. Modern, collectable figures are often sold individually.

Scale[edit]

Further information: Miniature_figure_(gaming) § Scales, and List of scale model sizes

Ratio Inches per foot Size Examples

1:35 0.342" [8.68 mm] 1.811" [46 mm] Popular military modelling scale for vehicles and light aircraft (Tamiya). Also used for the accompanying human display models like crew and passengers.

1:32 0.375" [9.525 mm] 1.98" [50.3 mm] Model railroad "I scale". Also used for display models. Britain's LTD toy farm sets (animals, structures, and most vehicles) and "Stablemate size" model horses were in this scale.

1:30 0.4" [10.16 mm] 2.125" [54 mm]

2.165" [55 mm] Traditional "Normal scale" lead or die-cast metal toy soldiers (Britain's LTD).

1:28 0.423" [10.87 mm] 2.36" [60mm] Spanish 60mm size (actually closer to 1/26 or 1/27 scale) (Alymer Toy Soldiers).

1:24 0.50" [12.7 mm] 3" [76.2mm] American "Dimestore" 3-inch size (Barclay or Manoil) or German 75mm size (actually closer to 1/21 scale). 1/2-scale dollhouses are built in this scale.

1:16 0.75" [19.05 mm] 4" [101.6 mm] Used for Ertl's toy farm sets (animals, structures, and most vehicles) and most plastic toy animal figures.

Scale for toy soldiers is expressed as the soldier's approximate height from head to foot in millimeters. Because many figures do not stand up straight, height is usually an approximation. Standard toy soldier scale, originally adopted by W. Britain, is 54 mm (2.25 inches) or 1:32 scale. Among different manufacturers, standard scale may range from 50 mm or 1:35 scale, to 60 mm or 1:28 scale. For gamers and miniatures enthusiasts, 25 mm and even smaller scales are available. On the larger end of the scale are American Dimestore figures, and many of the toy soldiers produced in Germany, which are approximately 75 mm (3 inches) or 1:24 scale.

History[edit]

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Military figures have been found in ancient Egyptian tombs, and have appeared in many cultures and eras. Tin soldiers were produced in Germany as early as the 1730s, by molding the metal between two pieces of slate. Toy soldiers became widespread during the 18th century, inspired by the military exploits of Frederick the Great. Miniature soldiers were also used in the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries by military strategists to plan battle tactics by using the figures to show the locations of real soldiers. In 1893, the British toy company William Britain revolutionized the production of toy soldiers by devising the method of hollow casting, making soldiers that were cheaper and lighter than their German counterparts.[1]

Vintage plastic Trojan War figure by Herald.

In addition to Britains, there have been many other manufacturers of toy soldiers over the years. For example, John Hill & Company produced hollow cast lead figures in the same style and scale. Companies such as Elastolin and Lineol were well known for their composite figures made of glue and sawdust that included both military and civilian subjects. After 1950, rising production costs and the development of plastic meant that many shop keepers liked the lighter, cheaper, and far less prone to break in transit polythene figure. This led to greater numbers of plastic toy soldiers.[2] The first American plastic soldiers were made by Beton as early as 1937. The first plastic toy soldiers produced in Great Britain were made in 1946 by Airfix before they became known for their famous model kits range.

World War I-era toy soldiers.

One large historical producer in plastic was Louis Marx and Company, which produced both realistic soldiers of great detail and also historical collections of plastic men and women, including the "Presidents of the United States" collection, "Warriors of the World", "Generals of World War II", "Jesus and the Apostles", and figures from the Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II. Marx also produced boxed playsets that featured many famous battles with armies of two sides, character figures, and terrain features. Britains produced plastic figures under the brand names of Herald and Deetail. Also in England, the scale model company, Airfix produced a variety of high quality plastic sets, which were frequently painted by hobbyists. Many Airfix figures were imitated by other companies and reproduced as inexpensive, bagged plastic army men. Timpo Toys, Britains main competitor in terms of sales and quality in the 1960s and 70s developed the 'Over - Moulding' system. Different coloured plastics were injected into the mould at various stages, creating a fully coloured figure without the need of paint.

During the 1990s, the production of metal toy-grade painted figures and connoisseur-grade painted toy soldiers increased to serve the demands of the collectors' market. The style of many of these figures shifted from the traditional gloss-coat enamel paint to the matte-finished acrylic paint, which allows for greater detail and historical accuracy. The change was largely inspired by the introduction of very high quality painted figures from St. Petersburg, Russia.[citation needed]

Collecting[edit]

There is a substantial hobby devoted to collecting both old and new toy soldiers, with an abundance of small manufacturers, dealers, and toy soldier shows. There are even specialty magazines devoted to the hobby, such as "Toy Soldier Collector", "Plastic Warrior" and "Toy Soldier and Model Figure". Collectors often specialize in a particular type of soldier or historical period, though some people enjoy collecting many different kinds of figures. The most popular historical periods for collecting are Napoleonic, Victorian, American Civil War, World War I, and World War II. Many collectors modify and paint plastic figures, and some even cast and paint their own metal figures.

Actor Douglas Fairbanks Jr had a collection of 3000 toy soldiers when he sold it in 1977. Fantasy novelist George R. R. Martin has a substantial collection of toy knights and castles.[3] The most extensive collection of toy soldiers was probably that of Malcolm Forbes, who began collecting toy soldiers in the late 1960s and amassed a collection of over 90,000 figures by the time of his death in 1990. Anne Seddon Kinsolving Brown of Providence, Rhode Island, USA, began collecting miniature toy soldiers on her honeymoon to Europe in 1930, eventually amassing a collection of over 6,000 figures; these are on display at the Anne S. K. Brown Military Collection at Brown University Library in Providence.

Painted and unpainted Civil War-era plastic figures by Accurate.

Some of the more noteworthy, annual toy soldier and historical figure shows include the Plastic Warrior Show, which is the oldest established show in the U.K. Beginning in 1985 and still being held annually in Richmond, South London. Another well known show is the London Toy Soldier Show held in central London (now owned and operated by the magazine Toy Soldier Collector), the Miniature Figure Collectors of America (MFCA) show in Valley Forge, the Chicago Toy Soldier Show (OTSN) in Illinois, the East Coast Toy Soldier Show in New Jersey, the West Coaster Toy Soldier Show in California, the Sammlerbörse (Collector's Market) in Friedberg, Germany and the biennial Zinnfigurenbörse (Tin Figure Market) in Kulmbach, Germany.

In recent years, collectors of vintage toy soldiers made of polythene PE and polypropylene PP thermoplastics as well as PC/ABS plastic blends have reported brittling and disintegration of collectible miniatures or components thereof.[4]

Varieties[edit]

Different types and styles of toy soldiers have been produced over the years, depending on the cost and availability of materials, as well as manufacturing technologies. Here is a list of some of the most commonly collected varieties of toy soldiers.[5]

Aluminum – slush cast aluminium, made chiefly in France during the early and middle 20th Century

Army men – unpainted, soft plastic toy soldiers sold inexpensively in bags or with terrain pieces and vehicles in boxed playsets

Composition – made from a mixture of sawdust and glue, manufactured in Austria and Germany

Connoisseur – high quality, collectible figures featuring highly detailed paint jobs

Dimestore – hollow or slush cast iron, sold through five and dime stores from the 1920s to 1960 in the United States

Flat – thin, two dimensional tin soldiers cast in slate molds

Hollow cast – cast in metal, usually a lead alloy, which cools and sets as it touches the mold; the excess molten metal is poured out leaving a hollow figure

Paper – printed on sheets of paper or cardboard, frequently mounted on blocks of wood

Plastic – hard and soft plastic, generally painted figures

Solid – cast in solid metal, usually lead, common in Germany during the 19th and early 20th Century

Wood - From the 19th century Germany produced large amounts of wooden fortresses and toy soldiers[6]sometimes working on a scissors mechanism .

Prominent vintage toy soldier makers include Airfix, Barclay, Britains, Herald, Elastolin, Johillco, Lineol, Marx, Manoil, Reamsa and Timpo.

Gaming[edit]

H. G. Wells playing a wargame with toy soldiers, 1913

The playing of wargames with toy figures was pioneered by H. G. Wells in his 1913 book, Little Wars.[7] Wells, a pacifist, was the first to publish detailed rules for playing war games with toy soldiers. He suggested that this could provide a cathartic experience, possibly preventing future real wars. Although this was not to be, Little Wars was a predecessor to the modern hobby of miniatures wargaming. According to Wells, the idea of the game developed from a visit by his friend Jerome K. Jerome. After dinner, Jerome began shooting down toy soldiers with a toy cannon and Wells joined in to compete.[7]

A similar book titled Shambattle: How to Play with Toy Soldiers was published by Harry Dowdall and Joseph Gleason in 1929.

Although people continue to play wargames with miniature figures, most contemporary wargamers use a smaller scale than that favored by collectors, typically under 25 mm.

BLADENSBURG, Maryland --

The National Capitol Region, the area encompassing the limestone monuments and structures of the central hub of democratic leadership known as Washington.

Only two centuries ago, the small, Southern Maryland town of Bladensburg was in the War of 1812. Marines, soldiers, sailors and militiamen tried to hold off more than 4,000 hardened British troops.

“Only 500 hundred men served in the [Marine] Corps,” said Gunnery Sgt. Thomas E. Williams, a retired Marine and the Director of the United States Marine Corps Historical Company. “The commandant was a lieutenant colonel, and the Marines who fought there were one quarter of the entire fighting force.”

 They fought off the British for two hours giving the citizens and political leaders in Washington the opportunity to flee and save official documents like the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution of the United States. After the American forces at Bladensburg were defeated, the capital burned as British forces tried to destroy a young United States.

It is commonly accepted by history that the actions of the Marines led to the British forces sparing the Marine Corps Commandants’ Home and Marine Barracks Washington at 8th & I from the fires, which engulfed other federal building.

“Although the Battle of Bladensburg ended in defeat, the accomplishments of the United States Marines, along with the naval battalion, was iconic,” Williams said. “The standing courage and esprit de corps of the Marines, who were involved here, was one of those deciding moments in Marine Corps history.”

Esprit de corps is defined as a feeling of pride, fellowship, and common loyalty shared by the members of a particular group. This concept to Marines is what holds many a battle-hardened unit together.

“Part of what I think is important to being a Marine is esprit de corps, and part of that piece is knowing our history,” said Brig. Gen. William F. Mullen, Jr., the Director of the Marine Corps Combat Development Command’s Development Directorate.

A memorial titled, “Undaunted in Battle” was dedicated to these brave Americans for their actions during the Battle of Bladensburg outside of the Bladensburg Waterfront Park, Maryland August 23, 2014.

 The monument, designed and sculpted by Joanna Blake, features a bronze sculpture of the end of the battle.  It depicts a wounded Commodore Joshua Barney, commander of the Chesapeake Flotilla, Charles Ball, a freed slave and flotilla man, and an unnamed Marine, in honor of the Marines who fought to the bitter end trying to repel British forces.

“I was the Marine they actually chose to be the model for the Marine depicted on the statue,” Thomas said. “She made me quite a bit prettier than I actually am.”

The rainy Saturday morning of the monument dedication was vastly different from the 100-degree temperature when American forces fought in wool uniforms to try to hold back the British.

“This is one place where we were Semper Fidelis—We were always faithful,” Mullen said. “We could have taken off, but we didn’t.”

“We stood there and held our ground for a little while and gave people down in Washington time to do what they needed to do.”

The President’s Own, United States Marine Corps Band provided the music for the event, honoring those who played before them during the War of 1812.

“Everyone had to fight during this war,” Thomas said. “History shows that even the band had to drop their instruments and pick up their rifles.”

The ceremony attracted a crowd from all countries involved in the War of 1812. British, Canadian and United States Armed Services representatives participated in a wreathe laying ceremony at the monument. 

“I was invited to come up on behalf of the Marine Corps and participate in the wreathe laying,” Mullen said. “I am a big history buff and have read quite a bit about the War of 1812.

“I have driven past a few times and have always thought I should stop. The opportunity came up and I said, ‘Absolutely.’”

The actions of the Corps during the war of 1812 played a large part in the drafting of the Marine Act of 1834. Congress resolved confusion surrounding the 1798 act, which although creating a post Revolutionary War Marine Corps left the Marines small and with an unclear chain of higher command. The act of 1834 established the Marine Corps as a service answering to naval regulations on land and at sea.

“The War of 1812 set the standard for who we are today,” Thomas said. “This War started the concept of us by land and by sea.”

“The company out of Marine Barracks Washington, during this war, became the first true force in readiness for rapid deployment on land as well as for sea going operations.

Marines and other service members stationed in the National Capital Region have many opportunities to visit many battlefields on United States soil where their predecessors served and many sacrificed everything for America.

“For all Marines, history is important,” Thomas said. “Understanding where we came from and the Marines, who wore that uniform for the last 238 years.

“We are who we are today because of what they have done. We build off that and every generation since has stood on the shoulders of these Marines.”

Lore of the Corps

Starting in boot camp, all Marines study the actions of those who have served before them. The history of the Marine Corps is a rich tapestry weaving together the contributions of all Marines. Over the past two centuries, certain aspects of the Corps’ history have taken on an almost legendary status. Below are examples of some of the stories, terms, and traditions that have come to be known as the “Lore of the Corps.”

The 

The Blood Stripe

Marine Corps tradition maintains that the red stripe worn on the trousers of officers and noncommissioned officers, and commonly known as the “blood stripe,” commemorates those Marines killed storming the castle of Chapultepec in 1847. Although this belief is firmly embedded in the traditions of the Corps, it has no basis in fact. The use of stripes clearly predates the Mexican War.

In 1834, uniform regulations were changed to comply with President Andrew Jackson’s wishes that Marine uniforms return to the green and white worn during the Revolutionary War. The wearing of stripes on the trousers began in 1837, following the Army practice of wearing stripes the same color as uniform jacket facings. Colonel Commandant Archibald Henderson ordered those stripes to be buff white. Two years later, when President Jackson left office, Colonel Henderson returned the uniform to dark blue coats faced red. In keeping with earlier regulations, stripes became dark blue edged in red. In 1849, the stripes were changed to a solid red. Ten years later uniform regulations prescribed a scarlet cord inserted into the outer seams for noncommissioned officers and musicians and a scarlet welt for officers. Finally, in 1904, the simple scarlet stripe seen today was adopted.

"Leatherneck"

In 1776, the Naval Committee of the Second Continental Congress prescribed new uniform regulations. Marine uniforms were to consist of green coats with buff white facings, buff breeches and black gaiters. Also mandated was a leather stock to be worn by officers and enlisted men alike. This leather collar served to protect the neck against cutlass slashes and to hold the head erect in proper military bearing. Sailors serving aboard ship with Marines came to call them “leathernecks.”

Use of the leather stock was retained until after the Civil War when it was replaced by a strip of black glazed leather attached to the inside front of the dress uniform collar. The last vestiges of the leather stock can be seen in today’s modern dress uniform, which features a stiff cloth tab behind the front of the collar.

The term “leatherneck” transcended the actual use of the leather stock and became a common nickname for United States Marines. Other nicknames include “soldiers of the sea,” “devil dogs,” and the slightly pejorative “gyrene,” (a term which was applied to the British Royal Marines in 1894 and to the U.S. Marines by 1911), and “jarhead.”

Semper Fidelis

"Semper Fidelis"

The Marine Corps adopted the motto “Semper Fidelis” in 1883. Prior to that date three mottoes, all traditional rather than official, were used. The first of these, antedating the War of 1812, was “Fortitudine.” The Latin phrase for “with courage,” it was emblazoned on the brass shako plates worn by Marines during the Federal period. The second motto was “By Sea and by Land,” taken from the British Royal Marines “Per Mare, Per Terram.” Until 1848, the third motto was “To the shores of Tripoli.” Inscribed on the Marine Corps colors, this commemorated Presley O’Bannon’s capture of the city of Derna in 1805. In 1848, this was revised to “From the halls of the Montezuma to the shores of Tripoli.”

“Semper Fidelis” signifies the dedication that individual Marines have to “Corps and country,” and to their fellow Marines. It is a way of life. Said one former Marine, “It is not negotiable. It is not relative, but absolute…Marines pride themselves on their mission and steadfast dedication to accomplish it.”

"Devil Dogs"

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According to Marine Corps tradition, German soldiers facing the Marines at Belleau Wood called them teufelhunden. These were the devil dogs of Bavarian folklore - vicious, ferocious, and tenacious. Shortly thereafter, a Marine recruiting poster depicted a dachshund, wearing an Iron Cross and a spiked helmet, fleeing an English bulldog wearing the eagle, globe and anchor.

A tradition was born. Although an “unofficial mascot,” the first bulldog to “serve” in the United States Marine Corps was King Bulwark. Renamed Jiggs, he was enlisted on 14 October 1922 for the “term of life.” Enlistment papers were signed by Brigadier General Smedley D. Butler. Although he began his career as a private, Jiggs was quickly promoted to the rank of sergeant major. His death at the age of four was mourned throughout the Corps. His body lay in a satin-lined casket in a hangar on Marine Corps Base Quantico until he was buried with military honors.

Other bulldogs followed in the tradition of Jiggs. From the 1930s through the early 1950s, the name of the bulldogs was changed to Smedley as a tribute to Major General Butler. In the late 1950s, the Marine Barracks in Washington became the new home for the Marine Corps’ bulldog. Chesty, named in honor of the legendary Lieutenant General Lewis B. “Chesty” Puller, Jr, made his first public appearance on 5 July 1957.

Today the tradition continues. The bulldog, tough, muscular and fearless, has come to epitomize the fighting spirit of the United States Marine Corps.

8th and I

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A notice posted in the Washington newspaper National Intelligence on 3 April 1801 offered “a premium of 100 dollars” for the “best plan of barracks for the Marines sufficient to hold 500 men, with their officers and a house for the Commandant.” The site for the barracks, near the Washington Navy Yard and within marching distance of the Capitol, was chosen by President Thomas Jefferson, who rode through Washington with Lieutenant Commandant William W. Burrows.

The competition was won by George Hadfield, who laid out the barracks and the house in a quadrangle. The barracks were established in 1801, the house, home of the Commandant of the Marine Corps, was completed in 1806. It is the oldest public building in continuous use in the nation’s capital.

Marine Corps traditions holds that when Washington was burned by the British during the War of 1812, both the Commandant’s House and the barracks were spared out of respect for the bravery shown by Marines during the Battle for Bladensburg.

Today, 8th and I is home to one of the most dramatic military celebrations in the world -- The Evening Parade. Held every Friday evening from May through August, the Evening Parade features “The President’s Own” United States Marine Band, “The Commandant’s Own” The United States Marine Drum and Bugle Corps, and the Marine Corps Silent Drill Platoon. It has become a lasting symbol of the professionalism, discipline, and esprit de Corps of the United States Marines, a celebration of the pride taken in a history that spans more than 230 years.

The Eagle, Globe and Anchor

Eagle, Globe and Anchoe

The origins of the eagle, globe, and anchor insignia worn by Marines can be traced to those ornaments worn by early Continental Marines as well as to the British Royal Marines.

In 1776, Marines wore a device depicting a fouled anchor. Changes were made to that device in 1798, 1821, and 1824. An eagle was added in 1834. The current insignia dates to 1868 when Brigadier General Commandant Jacob Zeilin convened a board “to decide and report upon the various devices of cap ornaments of the Marine Corps.” A new insignia was recommended and approved by the Commandant. On 19 November 1868, the new insignia was accepted by the Secretary of the Navy.

The new emblem featured a globe showing the western hemisphere intersected by a fouled anchor and surmounted by an eagle. Atop the device, a ribbon was inscribed with the Latin motto “Semper Fidelis.” The globe signified the service of the United States Marines throughout the world. The anchor was indicative of the amphibious nature of the Marine Corps. The eagle, symbolizing a proud nation, was not the American bald eagle, but rather a crested eagle, a species found throughout the world.

On 22 June 1954, President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed an Executive Order which approved the design of an official seal for the United States Marine Corps. Designed at the request of General Lemuel C. Shepherd, Jr., Commandant of the Marine Corps, the seal replaced the crested eagle with the American bald eagle, its wings proudly displayed. With the approval of this seal by the President of the United States in 1955, the emblem centered on the seal was adopted as the official Marine Corps emblem.

The eagle, globe, and anchor insignia is a testament to the training of the individual Marine, to the history and traditions of the Marine Corps, and to the values upheld by the Corps. It represents “those intangible possessions that cannot be issued: pride, honor, integrity, and being able to carry on the traditions for generations of warriors past.” Said retired Sergeant Major David W. Sommers, “the emblem of the Corps is the common thread that binds all Marines together, officer and enlisted, past and present…The eagle, globe and anchor tells the world who we are, what we stand for, and what we are capable of, in a single glance.”

The Marine Hymn

Following the Barbary Wars of 1805, the Colors of the Corps were inscribed with the words “to the shores of Tripoli.” After the capture and occupation of Mexico City in 1847, the Colors were changed to read “from the shores of Tripoli to the Halls of Montezuma.” These events in Marine Corps history are the origin of the opening words of the Marines’ Hymn.

 Tradition holds that the words to the Marines’ Hymn were written by a Marine serving in Mexico. In truth, the author of the words remains unknown. Colonel Albert S. McLemore and Walter F. Smith, Assistant Band Director during the John Philip Sousa era, sought to trace the melody to its origins. It was reported to Colonel McLemore that by 1878 the tune was very popular in Paris, originally appearing as an aria in the Jacques Offenbach opera Genevieve de Brabant. John Philips Sousa later confirmed this belief in a letter to Major Harold Wirgman, USMC, stating “The melody of the ‘Halls of Montezuma’ is taken from Offenbach’s comic opera...”

Its origins notwithstanding, the hymn saw widespread use by the mid-1800s. Copyright ownership of the hymn was given to the Marine Corps per certificate of registration dated 19 August 1891. In 1929, it became the official hymn of the United States Marine Corps with the verses shown on the right.

On 21 November 1942, the Commandant of the Marine Corps authorized an official change in the first verse, fourth line, to reflect the changing mission of the Marine Corps. The new line read "in the air, on land and sea." That change was originally proposed by Gunnery Sergeant H.L. Tallman, an aviator and veteran of World War I.

 Shortly after World War II, Marines began to stand at attention during the playing of The Marines’ Hymn, Today that tradition continues today to honor all those who have earned the title "United States Marine."

00:0000:00

The Marines' Hymn

From the Halls of Montezuma

 to the Shores of Tripoli,

 We fight our country’s battles

 On the land as on the sea.

 First to fight for right and freedom,

 And to keep our honor clean,

 We are proud to claim the title

 of United States Marine.

 "Our flag’s unfurl’d to every breeze

 From dawn to setting sun;

 We have fought in every clime and place

 Where we could take a gun.

 In the snow of far-off northern lands

 And in sunny tropic scenes,

 You will find us always on the job

 The United States Marines.

 "Here’s health to you and to our Corps

 Which we are proud to serve;

 In many a strife we’ve fought for life

 And never lost our nerve.

 If the Army and the Navy

 Ever look on Heaven’s scenes,

 They will find the streets are guarded

 By United States Marines."

MOUNTED DETACHMENT, MARINE GUARD

AMERICAN LEGATION, PEKING, CHINA

The Mounted Detachment, also known as “Horse Marines” was the first and only officially

designated cavalry detachment in the Marine Corps. The Mounted Detachment was considered

to be the elite unit of the China Marines. Although formed as a courier service during the

Chinese Revolution of 1911, it was not officially designated a unit of the Legation Guard until

February 1912. Originally, the total strength was 16 men, but by the middle of 1930’s the

Mounted Detachment had increased to thirty-two. The Detachment also had a guidon bearer.

Marines of the Mounted Detachment in 1912 wearing summer uniforms. Their mounts are equipped with Army-issue tack.

The principal duty of the Mounted Detachment was to keep in contact with the American

citizens residing in or near Peking. A census of all American citizens was compiled annually and

kept up to date by weekly checks. In addition to drills, parades, inspections, cross country hikes,

scouting and patrolling, the Detachment performed various duties such as Mounted Orderlies,

Mounted Detachment, Legation Guard, Peking, in winter uniforms, 1913 1st Lt Edwin McClellan and the Marines of the Mounted Detachment,

Winter 1912/13

Stable Patrols, and Coal Guards. They continued their original courier service of delivering

dispatches to other legations and also rode with the officers’ wives and children whenever

requested. In 1925, some of the Mounted Detachment Marines were briefly sent to protect an

American mission on the outskirts of Peking. In 1933, City Patrol was added to their duties. In

1937, they were tasked to assist in recalling American citizens to the embassy following the

outbreak of Sino-Japanese hostilities. Included among their commanding officers were James

Devereux, the commander of the Marines on Wake Island, and Chesty Puller.

The Mounted Detachment also participated in drills, maneuvers, parades, mock cavalry attacks,

races and steeplechases.

 The Mounted Marines in Dress Blue Parade. 1927 Parade in summer uniforms. 1936

Lt. James Devereux, Commanding Officer, Mounted Detachment and Captain Chesty Puller. 1933

Lady Marguard. 1931

The Mounted Detachment returning from maneuvers. 1934-35 A Marine jumps his horse over an obstacle during a steeplechase event.

The horses ridden by Marines of the Mounted Detachment were primarily Mongolian ponies,

weighing between 650-725 pounds and averaging about 13 hands in height. The Marines were

selected by their light weight (140-170 pounds), knowledge of horsemanship and clean service

record. The Mounted Detachment trained as a cavalry unit. All members ran pistol and saber

courses for record, including the USN Corpsman who accompanied them on their cross-country

rides.

Typical Mounted Detachment Marine and his mount. 1936

The Mounted Detachment was armed with eight Browning automatic rifles, three Thompson

sub-machine guns, one heavy Browning machine gun and twenty M1903 service rifles. The

members of the machine gun crew did not carry rifles.

 Horse, saddle, and saber used by John Angstadt Mounted Detachment with Patton Sabers.

Additionally, every member was armed with a .45 Colt automatic pistol and a U.S. Army

Cavalry Model 1913 saber, commonly referred to as the “Patton” saber. One of the advantages of

this saber was that it could be worn attached to the saddle of the horse instead of the waist of the

rider. The Model 1913 Cavalry Saber was the last saber issued to the U.S. cavalry and the

Mounted Detachment was the last American military unit to actually use this saber.

McClellan saddles, the same type as used in the Civil War, with hooded stirrups were standard

equipment. A blanket roll consisting of a complete change of clothes, including footwear, was

secured to the canticle of the saddle. Saddle bags containing toilet articles and mess gear and a

rifle boot were carried on the near side with grooming gear, feed and horse shoes on the off side.

Philips pack saddles (pony type) were used

to transport the machine guns and their

 The Mounted Detachment wore the regular

forest green winter and khaki summer

service uniforms with regulation caps. The

cover of the cap was white, green, blue or

khaki, depending on which uniform was

being worn. An addition to the winter

uniform was a fur cap. In 1930, riding

breeches replaced trousers. Mounted

Detachment Marines wore riding boots and

hard-shell leggings when they wore their

dress blue uniforms.

Pvt Gerald Mechant, Jr., in his summer service uniform. 1935

Cpl Clyde D. Thierrien in his winter

dress uniform.

TSgt Novac, NCO in charge of the

Mounted Detachment in his dress blue

uniform. 1938.

Note the spurs worn over his shoes.

PFC Curtis Knight, the iconic Mounted

Detachment Marine, in his winter dress

blue uniform. 1935

The Mounted Detachment on parade in Peiping, 1938. Note the high gloss of their helmets.

In the mid-1930s, after the Japanese began taking control of areas of China, Marines began

wearing helmets as part of their uniform. An unusual feature of these initial helmets was the

glossy finish. This was achieved by stripping the matte textured finish of their helmets and

refinishing them with a coat of olive paint. The Marines then polished their helmets to achieve an

even higher gloss.

Mounted Detachment guidon bearer in his winter uniform. 1935 Boots worn by members of the Mounted

Detachment.

Studio portrait of a China Marine wearing a glossy

helmet.

One of the most distinctive China Marines insignia items worn during this period was the cap

diamond. These diamonds were color coded to correspond to each Marine company assigned to

the Peking Legation and later Tientsin. Diamonds were only worn on the winter fur cap. These

diamonds with EGA were adopted in 1929. Prior to that year, Marines would punch an EGA

through their winter fur caps. The Marines probably adopted the company diamonds after noting

that both the British Legation Guards and the U.S. 15th Infantry in Tientsin wore their unit crests

on their winter head gear. A white diamond was used to indicate Headquarters Company. Dark

Blue was used by A Company. Company B used red and Company C used powder blue. The

Mounted Detachment used yellow. (After the Mounted Detachment disbanded, D Company

adopted their yellow diamond.

Winter hat with the Mounted Detachment’s

yellow diamond.

Mounted Detachment officer’s hat

diamond.

Mounted Detachment enlisted man’s

hat diamond.

Winter hat with Mounted Detachment’s yellow

diamond.

The Mounted Detachment also had had a unique

patch, although it is not known where it was worn.

It measured 7 3/8 inches by 6 1/4 inches. The patch

was a red piped shield with embroidered red

crossed sabers over a red embroidered horse head.

Between the top of the crossed blades are the gold

embroidered letters “MTD.” Between the outside

of the blade on the left, is a gold embroidered

“PEIPING”, while the blade on the right has

“CHINA.” Under the horse’s head is gold

embroidered ‘U.S. MARINES.”

This patch was brought home by

John Angstadt when he returned

home from service in China in

1937.

In 1938, following the Japanese offensive of 1937, Colonel John Marston, commanding officer

of the Marine Embassy Detachment in Peiping, decided to send the Peiping Marines to take over

the U.S. Army’s mission in Tientsin. This included most of the Mounted Detachment, minus

their mounts. On 20 February 1938, Colonel Marston issued General Order No. 9-1938, calling

for the disbandment of the Mounted Detachment. On 22 February the Mounted Detachment’s

final commanding officer, Lt. Dewolf Schatzel, and his 31 men held a final review on the

grounds of the American Glacis (parade ground). Shortly after the review, a number of the men

and their mascot, Trooper, were sent to Tientsin to form the nucleus of Company D. Several

horses joined them in Tientsin; some were sold and others remained at the stable for Marines to

use during liberty through 1941.

Lt Dewolf Schatzel leads the Mounted in a final salute. 22 Feb 1938.

If you are interested in learning more about the experiences of a member of the Mounted

Detachment and want to view several hundred previously unseen photographs of the Marines

and mounts of the Mounted Detachment you will want to check out the following book by

Richard Bonham, CHINA HORSE MARINE: JOHN R. ANGSTADT U.S.M.C. AMERICAN

LEGATION, PEIPING, CHINA, 1934-1937.