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Tyrannosaurus Sue: The Extraordinary Saga of the Largest, Most Fought Over T. Rex Ever Found” by Steve Fiffer, Foreword by Robert T. Bakker.

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DESCRIPTION: Hardcover w/dustjacket. Publisher: Freeman (2000). Pages: 248. Dimensions: 9¼ x 7 x ¾ inch; 1¼ pounds. Summary: Over 65 million years ago in what is now Cheyenne River Sioux territory in South Dakota, a Tyrannosaurus rex matriarch locked in a ferocious battle fell mortally wounded into a riverbed. In 1990, her skeleton was found, virtually complete, in what many call the most spectacular dinosaur fossil discovery to date. And then another battle began; a "Survival of the Fittest" free-for-all involving commercial dinosaur hunters, gun-toting law officers, an ambitious federal prosecutor, a Native American tribe, jealous academics, an enterprising auction house, major museums, and corporate giants; all making their claim for the dinosaur named Sue (after the field paleontologist who first spotted her bones). At stake: not just Sue's wealth of scientific riches, but her grant-drawing power and vast commercial potential as well.

Before it was over, there would be claims and counterclaims; charges of checkbook-polluted science, criminal larceny, and vengeful prosecutions; and devastating prison terms.

Sue is not just another dinosaur, and “Tyrannosaurus Sue” is not just another dinosaur book. It is a fascinating introduction to the centuries-old history of commercial fossil hunting, a legal thriller, and a provocative look at academic versus commercial science and the chase for the money that fuels both. And, in the case of Peter Larson, through whose eyes most of the story is revealed, a kind of love story. Steve Fiffer, an attorney as well as an author who has followed the story for the past seven years, has captured the whole range of characters and issues embroiled in the fight for Sue. Ranging from the prehistoric Badlands to the hallowed halls of justice, academia, and merchandising tie-ins, Fiffer communicates both the excitement over Sue's discovery and the motivations, maneuverings, and absurdities of the various forces attempting to control her destiny.

CONDITION: NEW. New hardcover w/dustjacket. Freeman (2000) 248 pages. Unblemished except very mild edge and corner shelfwear to dustjacket and covers. Pages are pristine; clean, crisp, unmarked, unmutilated, tightly bound, unambiguously unread. The edge and corner shelfwear is principally evidenced as very mild crinkling to the dustjacket spine head, heel, and the open dustjacket corners (or "tips" as they're sometimes referred to). The "tips" of course are formed where the dustjacket folds beneath the covers to form the dustjacket flaps, i.e., the "open corners" of the dustjacket (top and bottom, front and back). And by very mild, we mean precisely that, literally. It requires that you hold the book up to a light source, tilting it this way and that so as to catch the reflected light, and examine it fairly intently to discern the very mild shelfwear. Beneath the dustjacket the covers are clean and unsoiled, echoing only the very mild edge and corner shelfwear as the overlying dustjacket. Condition is entirely consistent with new stock from a traditional brick and mortar bookstore environment (such as Barnes & Noble, Borders, or B. Dalton, for instance), wherein new books might show mild signs of shelfwear or minor blemishes, consequence of routine handling and simply the ordeal of constantly being shelved, re-shelved, and shuffled about. Satisfaction unconditionally guaranteed. In stock, ready to ship. No disappointments, no excuses. HEAVILY PADDED, DAMAGE-FREE PACKAGING! Meticulous and accurate descriptions! Selling rare and out-of-print ancient history books on-line since 1997. We accept returns for any reason within 30 days! #1756f.

PLEASE SEE DESCRIPTIONS AND IMAGES BELOW FOR DETAILED REVIEWS AND FOR PAGES OF PICTURES FROM INSIDE OF BOOK.

PLEASE SEE PUBLISHER, PROFESSIONAL, AND READER REVIEWS BELOW.

PUBLISHER REVIEWS:

REVIEW: In 1990 the skeleton of a battle-scarred Tyrannosaurus rex matriarch was found in South Dakota. This book describes the custody battle that ensued, providing a provocative look at academic versus commercial science.

REVIEW: In 1990, Peter Larson, with his team of commercial fossil hunters from the Black Hills Institute, discovered the most complete Tyrannosaurus Rex specimen in history. He dubbed it "Sue" after the field paleontologist who first saw it sticking out of a sandstone cliff on the ranch of Maurice Williams, a Cheyenne River Sioux Tribe member in South Dakota's badlands. Because the skeleton was 90% complete, its study promised to yield up priceless information on the life and habits of the T Rex. In 1992, however, federal agents raided the Institute and seized Sue, triggering the greatest custody battle in paleontological history. In the end, Sue would be auctioned off to Chicago's Field Museum. Tyrannosaurus Sue is the definitive insider's look at how this dramatic discovery, and the ensuing legal struggle, played out.

REVIEW: Steve Fiffer is a lawyer, journalist, and author. With his wife, Sharon, he has co-edited three anthologies of original essays by contemporary writers; “Home”, “Family”, and “Body”. Fiffer is the author of “Three Quarters, Two Dimes and A Nickel: A Memoir of Becoming Whole”. He is co-author, with celebrated civil rights attorney Morris Dees, of “A Season for Justice” and “Hate Trial”, which was a 1993 “New York Times” Notable Book of the Year. His personal essays and features have appeared in the “New York Times Magazine”, “Chicago Tribune Sunday Magazine”, and the “Midwesterner”.

TABLE OF CONTENTS:

Foreword.

Acknowledgments.

Prologue.

It Must be A T. Rex.

Never, Ever for Sale.

You Better Get Out Here, Pete.

Taking a Howitzer to a Fly.

Who Owns Sue?

Is a Dinosaur "Land"?

Jurassic Farce.

You can Indict a Ham Sandwich.

Negotiations are Under Way.

They're Not Crimes.

I Kept Waiting for Something to Happen.

Everything Changed that Day.

You May Approach Her majesty.

Epilogue.

Index.

PROFESSIONAL REVIEWS:

REVIEW: How much is that T. Rex in the window? Journalist Steve Fiffer looks at the most contentious paleontological find ever in “Tyrannosaurus Sue”. This scientific, sociological, and legal study is entertaining and insightful, highlighting the personalities of the researchers, attorneys, and tribal and federal authorities who struggled for years over the ownership rights to the best-preserved Rex specimen yet found. From its discovery in South Dakota in 1990 by Susan Hendrickson and Peter Larson through the tortuous court cases to decide its fate to the final auction at Sotheby's, Fiffer finds just the right words to describe the action, a difficult task given the conflicting reports of contesting witnesses.

Professional jealousy and academic elitism (or concern for valuable scientific material and Indian property rights) led to accusations of illegal collecting and the seizure of the skeleton by federal agents shortly after its move to Larson's Black Hills Institute. Suits, countersuits, and indictments escalated the struggle into an all-out war with vast sums of money and professional reputations at stake. “Tyrannosaurus Sue” is a riveting tale, well-written and just unsettling enough to provoke thought and discussion. [Amazon].

REVIEW: A blow-by-blow account for control of the world's most famous dinosaur, a real tour de force! For more than 65 million years, Sue rested in her Cretaceous coffin. She awoke to a world of legal battles and rivalry as fierce in their way as anything she faced when alive. Steve Fiffer tells her compelling story as well as it could be told. This book is a must for anyone with even the slightest interest in the interplay between science and the law.

REVIEW: Witty, clear-eyed and down-to-earth, I recommend highly that you read “Tyrannosaurus Sue” as the opening act to the museum extravaganza. Steve Fiffer has written a lively, must-read book that untangles the complexities of the "story of Sue" for all of those interested in something that can never happen again. Or could it?

REVIEW: Everyone seems to love dinosaurs, and almost everyone loves to watch big public fights, especially when they involve piles of money, the FBI and jail. Journalist Fiffer has therefore found the ideal topic for a short, racy nonfiction narrative, one that combines the history of a science (dinosaur paleontology) with the dramatic twists of a legal thriller. In 1990, the diligent, scrappy South Dakota fossil-hunters Sue Hendrickson and Peter Larson dug up an exceptional T. rex, only the 12th tyrannosaur ever found, and the biggest and best-preserved to date. Williams then said he still owned the find, while a nearby Sioux tribe claimed it did, since Sue had perhaps been unearthed from tribal land.

Larson awoke to find federal agents carting away all his papers, along with his giant prize fossil, arguably jeopardizing a priceless discovery, and certainly angering nearby South Dakotans. The ensuing legal, political and scientific imbroglio set Native Americans against the federal government, the government against itself, the feds against established scientists and the world's great research universities against independent operators like Larson. Fiffer's thorough account should prove irresistible to readers with even a marginal interest in the legendary lizards, or in the less-sexy topics raised by this particular find, from Upper Midwest tribal disputes to pretrial publicity and the conduct of prosecutions. [Publisher’s Weekly]

REVIEW: On May 17, 2000, Chicago's Field Museum unveiled the largest, most complete Tyrannosaurus Rex fossil skeleton yet found. Named after Susan Hendrickson, the paleontologist who discovered her, Sue was excavated from North Dakota's Badlands by commercial fossil-hunter Peter Larson. He carefully prepared many of her bones and planned to build a new museum in the Black Hills to showcase her, until she was seized by the government. Sue languished in storage for five years while a battle raged over her ownership and the government prosecuted Larson for fossil hunting on federal land. Journalist Fiffer recounts these events in compelling detail. [Library Journal].

REVIEW: Fiffer keeps the reader engrossed by sprinkling personal information, historical perspective, and scientific tidbits into his narrative...Virtually anyone with an interest in dinosaurs, paleontology, conspiracy theories, courtroom dramas, or the struggle of a little guy against incredible odds should enjoy Tyrannosaurus Sue. [BookPage].

REVIEW: For more than 65 million years, Sue rested in her Cretaceous coffin. She awoke to a world of legal battles and rivalry as fierce in their way as anything she faced when alive. Steve Fiffer tells her compelling story as well as it could be told. This book is a must for anyone with even the slightest interest in the interplay between science and the law. [Los Angeles County Museum of Natural History].

REVIEW: A century after the Great Bone Wars of Cope and Marsh hit the headlines, Sue emerged from the earth--only to become embroiled in another fin de siecle fossil fiasco. Steve Fiffer relates Sue's fascinating story with flair, and with sensitivity to those who took part in the saga. [Blake Edgar, editor of Dinosaur Digs and co-author of From Lucy to Language].

REVIEW: Steve Fiffer has written a lively, must-read book that untangles the complexities of the 'story of Sue' for all of those interested in something that can never happen again. Or could it? [Royal Tyrrell Museum of Palaentology in Alberta].

REVIEW: A skillfully layered narrative that weaves together Sue's discovery and her place and importance in paleontological history while [it] tells Larson's story. [Chicago Tribune].

REVIEW: Witty, clear-eyed and down-to-earth...I recommend highly that you read "Tyrannosaurus Sue" as the opening act to the museum extravaganza. [Chicago Sun-Times].

REVIEW: A blow-by-blow account for control of the world's most famous dinosaur--a real tour de force! [Denver Museum of Natural History].

REVIEW: A century after the Great Bone Wars of Cope and Marsh hit the headlines, Sue emerged from the earth; only to become embroiled in another fin de siecle fossil fiasco. Steve Fiffer relates Sue's fascinating story with flair, and with sensitivity to those who took part in the saga.

READER REVIEWS:

REVIEW: We have gotten so used to the idea of Indiana Jones and the adventures in discovery of the past, that it's almost less shocking to see the maneuverings that went into the saga of Sue, to date the most complete T-Rex found. Some would say that it was only a matter of time before the heavy hand of commerce would intersect with the science of paleontology. After all, everything is now for sale on the Internet, and Jurassic Park and sequels have shown that dinosaurs are hot.

Fiffer follows the 10 year saga of Sue, from discovery to final installation in the Field Museum in Chicago, liberally adding historic parallels in the history of fossil discovery and disbursement. Almost everyone in this story comes out painted with varying levels of guilt, greed and wrongdoing. Everyone, except really for Peter Larson, one of the founders of Sue, as well as co-founder (and namesake) Sue Hendrickson. Each of these characters gets off lightly - possibly because their motives were fairly pure, or show the author's slant. Of course, in order to have a "little guy versus government" story, you need a pure “little guy”.

At heart, the story is of the intersection of the law, and the philosophical issues of "what is a fossil" and "who can own a fossil." It is easier to read this, with the author's leaning against fossils in private collectors' hands, knowing the final disposition of the bones. The saga of Sue, the book shows, has opened the Pandora's Box of greater "ownership" and sale of fossils into private hands instead of the scientific community. But it is also the story of an unprecedented cooperation between a non-profit museum and corporate America to preserve our scientific heritage. The book itself is extremely enjoyable, with enough lesson material on dinosaurs and fossils to allow you to understand issues, without overloading the reader. A light visit into the world of the dinosaurs, and of museums, as well as a cautionary tale of government interventions.

REVIEW: Steve Fiffer's "Tyrannosaurus Sue" is an interesting tale of the discovery of the most complete T-Rex skeleton ever found, and the bizarre battle that ensued over the ownership of the find. The book provides some insight into the world of paleontology (especially the pitfalls of searching on property where boundary lines aren't clear), and details a rather maddening tale of government intervention. I would have enjoyed more discussion of paleontology, but I understand that that wasn't the purpose of this particular work. Fiffer's writing style is straightforward to the point of being a bit dry at points, but it's well suited to describing the legal and political manipulations of the story. An interesting book that will spur interest in reading more about its subject matter.

REVIEW: One of the greatest dinosaur finds in history, perhaps “the” greatest, was caught up in politics, money and jealousy. It is just pathetic what the government did to this scientist and makes one wonder question the rationality of "officials" who would commit such deeds. All the ins and outs of scientific rivalry, government bumbling and misplaced priorities are thoroughly described. The story is fascinating and will hold your attention for days. Our view of T-rex and dinosaurs in general changed following this discovery. Good book, guaranteed to make you furious.

REVIEW: I have really enjoyed reading this book. I'm a Dinosaur nut and this book is about my favorite Dino the T-Rex so it was an obvious attraction to me to read. What I read only proved to me that our Government is pathetic to say the least. To do what they did to Peter Larson was a crime. Not only do they steal the find of the century but they lay bogus charges on him that ultimately sent him to jail and nearly ruined his life! How can the U.S. Government do what they did? They have been doing it to people for years and Mr. Larson was only one more person who has suffered at the hands of our government.

It's terrible when Dinosaur hunters can’t even dig up bones for fear that they might be prosecuted for stealing so called Government property. When I first read this book I was thinking I was going to be reading about the find of the century but what I found out was that the U.S. Government is nothing but a bunch of thieves who took the low road to try and ruin a good man who was doing his job. The story of Sue and the events that surrounded her is very, very good and a must read for Dino lovers of all ages and it will show just how ruthless our Government can be.

REVIEW: Discovered by Sue Hendrickson and Peter Larson (president of the Black Hills Institute of Geological Research) in the wastelands of South Dakota, the largest T-Rex had survived millions of years, Sue's last meal was some kind of platypus. She was also the subject of multiple lawsuits and a Sotherby's auction. She sold for millions and Larson could only participate from his house where he was under house arrest.

Larson wound up in prison, Sioux Indians claimed ownership, the government claimed ownership. It was a mess. Henrickson is a field paleontologist (she's also the world's leading procurer of amber) who was searching near Faith, South Dakota. She's somewhat of an Indianette Jones and has a real knack for finding things. Of the six butterflies in amber in the world, she found 3 of them.

Hill City, South Dakota was building its hopes for economic revival on the presence of a museum in their little town, famous mostly for a large drug store.

Because the owner, Maurice Williams, had put his land into a federal trust, the feds got involved. Soon after Williams claimed ownership, the FBI showed up with a warrant to seize all the bones. I can just imagine the care with which a couple of black shirts treated the bones. That really pissed off Hill City, an area in which most of the federal government is treated with more than a little suspicion.

Soon there was a battle royale among the academicians, the feds, and commercial fossil hunters. The academics argued that the commercial hunters were interested only in money, not science, should never be allowed on federal land, and didn't know what they were doing.

The commercial types pointed out that most of the great finds were found by those wanting to profit from their finds and that if it were left to the professoriate, most of the great finds of the past two hundred years would never have been retrieved. Not to mention that many well-known paleontologists lauded the fossil hunters for the care and expertise they showed in handling rare fossils.

Cynics took the position that each side just wanted to retain all the rights for themselves. Throw in a District Attorney who was thinking of running for office and needed the publicity and you have all the ingredients for a nasty fight.

Larson was eventually convicted of customs violations. On the intake form the charge is formally listed as, "failing to fill out forms", and served two years in federal prison in what has to be one of the great travesties and wastage of money. The trial itself was the longest in South Dakota history.

One interesting, if perhaps depressing element, of the trial was that according to a Supreme Court decision, judges could use evidence presented at trial in sentencing even if the defendant had been acquitted on charges related to that evidence. That's spooky.

But because the judge was able to use all the evidence presented, he decided that Larson was part of a largely criminal conspiracy to steal fossils and therefore could be subject to much harsher sentencing.

Feiffer relates a substantial number of stories and events related to the history of palaeontology. Including some famous hoaxes. I particularly enjoyed reading about the Cardiff Giant. Feiffer identifies the culprit as an agnostic farmer (the Wikipaedia says it was George Hull, a NY atheist tobacconist) who was infuriated by local Methodist revivals claiming giants once walked the earth as noted in Genesis.

He build a giant man, let it age for a year, then had it buried on his cousin's farm and later arranged to have it "discovered" while digging a well. He set up an exhibit and started charging admission. Christian preachers declared its validity and a validation of the Bible.

They turned him down so he created a replica and declared it the "real" Cardiff Giant. Soon Barnum and the Cardiff syndicate accused each other of having fakes. Hull revealed his hoax and a judge ruled that each could not be sued for calling a fake a fake.

The two fakes are now in small town museums, each accusing the other of having the wrong (fake?) fake. Priceless. Some reviewers thought the legal details to be boring. I thought the book was a nice mixture of science, law and mystery.

REVIEW: This was an incredible true story about a t-rex named "Sue" who is excavated in South Dakota. But as soon as her bones are collected the question remains: Who does Sue belong to? Does she belong to the individual whose land she was found on, the Sioux tribe, the federal government, the scientists who removed her and were preparing her for exhibit? Should she remain in a public museum or a private one? How much is Sue worth?

This was a really interesting book because it discusses issues regarding tribal sovereignty (and I did NOT pick this book up thinking tribal sovereignty was going to be a huge theme). I could see myself using this as a practical example of how these issues are applied in "real world" examples. Fascinating stuff.

Really loved it, but I've always loved books that deal with sticky legal issues. You add a t-rex to the mix and I was floored!

REVIEW: What an interesting book!!! Sue is the largest complete skeleton of a Tyrannosaurus Rex. Named Sue after the paleontologist who found her in the South Dakota bad lands. She is quoted as saying that the dinosaur called to her. She walked seven miles and found the bones embedded in the soil.

This is a story of not only finding the mega fossil, but the major happenings that occurred as a result of fighting mainly with the federal government over ownership. A friend and fellow lover of discovery, was jailed for two years because he fought over the right of ownership.

In the end, Sue was placed on auction by Sotheby's in New York City. With the financial support of McDonalds and Disney, when the gavel was finally hit, the total for this incredible discovery was 8.3 million dollars.

Sue is displayed at the Field Museum in Chicago. The journey of 65 million years from when Sue rested in the cretaceous earth, discovered, battled over viciously, she now is housed in a museum where millions can discover her history, this was a fascinating story.

REVIEW: This book tells the story about the T. rex named Sue, whose skeleton and display mount was, after a long, costly legal battle, sold at a Sotheby auction for 8.7 million, the highest price ever paid for a dinosaur specimen. Pete Larson, the co-owner of Black Hills Institute, Hill City, South Dakota, had paid Maurice Williams, a mixed-blood Sioux Indian, twenty-five thousand dollars for the right to excavate and recover the dinosaur. But federal legalities required that the owner of any tribal land must secure permission before conveying real property to any person not recognized as a member of the Sioux Nation.

Williams failed to do that. Using the language of the Federal Antiquities Act, the dinosaur fossil was construed to be real property, attached to or appurtenant to the land. The Federal authorities became privy to the transaction and moved forward with a court order declaring the transaction illegal. Charges were pressed forward. A federal investigation followed, which resulted in Larson’s place of business being raided by the feds. Sue and other specimens were confiscated and impounded. The costliest legal battle in South Dakota history ensued.

The world’s most famous T. rex, now on exhibit at the Field Museum in Chicago, was discovered by Sue Hendrickson, who, while out walking, stumbled upon some loose remains on the open plains; thus, the dinosaur was aptly named Sue after its original founder. Sue Hendrickson was the girlfriend of the renowned Peter Larson, the geologist-paleontologist known as the Indiana Jones of South Dakota.

Larson and his crew dug the T. rex skeleton from Sioux reservation land in Black Hills, South Dakota. Tyrannosaurus Sue was the largest, most complete T. rex skeleton ever discovered. It was a rare find indeed, but it seems the price got escalated in a bidding frenzy that went over the top. This book chronicles the long, drawn-out legal battle for custody of the prized specimen.

The book was written by a lawyer; so, it is told from an attorney’s frame of mind. The book gets a little dry at times, with flare or drama sometimes fleeting. The story of the dinosaur is really the story of the legal battle for ownership rights. There is not much paleontology or dinosaurology in the book. The book doesn’t cover the excavation in any detail, and there is not much science or detailed coverage of the processes of fossilization or preservation.

The key focus is the legal battle and how the specimen eventually made its way to the auction block. It was several years ago when I read this book. I consulted the book as part of my research and preparation for writing a book about a similar dinosaur story – the story of Acrocanthosaurus Fran. The story of Sue and Fran overlap. Both were marvelous discoveries, perhaps the two greatest dinosaur discoveries of history.

The sales price for Fran was 3.5 million, sold not on an auction floor as a finished and prepared specimen, but as a pile of untreated and unprepared bones on a workbench at the Black Hills Institute. This was, at least at that time, believed to be the second highest price ever paid for a dinosaur specimen, which ended up as the star attraction of the North Carolina Museum of Natural History.

Some of the same characters involved in the story of Tyrannosaurus Sue were also involved in the story of Fran, chronicled in the book "The Bone War of McCurtain County". The Larson brothers played a big part in both stories. In fact, both specimens, Sue and Fran, were housed at the Black Hills Institute at the same time when the facility was raided by the Feds.

Sue was confiscated. Fran was almost confiscated but was finally left undisturbed after BHI staff and attendants were able to convince the authorities that Fran was owned by a third party and under contract merely for preparation work. The stories of both dinosaurs are mired in controversy and conflict. Both were involved in legal battles over ownership custody. Both these marvelous dinosaurs were the apex predators of their time.

T. rex ruled the earth during the late Cretaceous Period about 65 million years ago; the Acrocanthosaurus occupied the top of the rung during the early Cretaceous some 110 million years ago. If you liked "Tyrannosaurus Sue", you should also like "The Bone War of McCurtain County".

REVIEW: Tyrannosaurus Sue is a great book about the discovery of the largest T-rex fossil ever excavated. Sue Hendrickson and Peter Larson, commercial fossil hunters, found the giant in South Dakota. When her Cretaceous remains were unearthed, all parties involved were under the impression that the find had been made on private property and the property owner was duly paid for the fossil.

The situation quickly turned greatly political. The Sioux, the Federal Government and professional paleontological societies got involved. The bones were seized from the Larson institute and impounded by the Feds. It took years of confusing court proceedings to settle the issue.

This is a great story of how science is often politicized, especially when money is involved (the remains are worth a fortune). Sue wasn't simply discovered and studied by scientists and enjoyed by curious members of the public. She was fought over, transported, stored, etc. The tale of her journey is very intriguing.

As a scientist in another field, I found it very interesting to gain insight into the operations of another field. Yikes, sometimes controversy is just inevitable. Check it out, it's a great read (I intentionally left Sue's fate out of the review in case you're not aware of her whereabouts).

REVIEW: This book is another example of why I prefer non-fiction over fictional books. Would you believe a fictional story of a paleontologist fighting over a dinosaur skeleton with a local rancher, which brings in the Sioux Indian tribe, which brings in the federal government, who has the FBI and National Guard Raid and confiscate several tons of rock. And oh yes, don't forget about Disney World and McDonalds bidding up the value of said skeleton to over 8 million dollars.

While this book is not the absolute in impartiality, it is well written, and describes the participants, science, and government involvement reasonably well. There is the naive scientist who wants to start his own museum, a savvy rancher who saw the bigger picture, and a government that seems way out of its jurisdiction. It's part comical, part sad, and part unbelievable.

It's also a fun and fast read for all types of people. I gave a copy to my non-scientific sister, who keeps asking me to send her more stories like this one. If only I could.

REVIEW: Steve Fiffer does a spendid job detailing the sad state of affairs that exists in the world of paleontology. Until recently, paleontology had been a science that depended upon (and valued) the participation of amateurs and even the "profiteers". To this day, the vast majority of important fossil discoveries have been unearthed by non-academics and subsequently donated or (heaven forbid) sold to scientific institutions.

The halls of natural history museums were once filled with cases of fossil trilobites, crinoids and paleozoic fishes for all to see. Sadly, nearly all of them have been packed away to make room for more flashy, interactive displays that pull in large crowds and generate the higher returns on investment which curators seek. Huge storerooms filled with significant fossils remain hidden, gathering dust, while research collections are off-limits to all but a handful of academics.

Tyrannosaurus "Sue" was one fossil everyone wanted, since any huge dinosaur is certain to become a popular attraction and this giant, meat-eating fossil was a "star" attraction - one capable of packing 'em in at any institution and predestined for mass mechandising at the gift shop. Steve Fiffer gives readers a disturbing picture of the greed, political and legal nonsense behind the ownership battles that followed the discovery of "Sue".

Someone once described most legislation as "the influence of public policy for private gain" - the case of Tyrannosaurus Sue provides able evidence. Careers are made, money and property changes hands, justice is hardly served, powerful institutions and large corporations triumph and the taxpayer foots the bill. Which brings us to the present state of affairs, and the ongoing battles over Paleontological Resource Preservation - legislation that starts with the false premise that "all vertebrate fossils are rare" and that private ownership of fossils deprives the public access to their "national treasures".

As detailed in the book, government, if given a chance, will waste millions of tax dollars in an attempt to protect our "vital fossil heritage" from ourselves. Some members of academia, like certain leaders in the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology, are eager to encourage government restrictions in the misguided belief that fossils locked away in their institutions somehow serves "public knowledge". Most do not have the time, interest or resources to maintain these collections for the benefit of the public.

There are classes to teach and personal research projects to pursue. I believe that overly restrictive collecting regulations will be a Pyrrhic victory for the paleontology community in that public knowledge will not be served. Interest in the subject will gradually diminish and, ultimately, funding will be reduced. All the while, fantastic fossils continue to weather into dust and orphaned collections are boxed up, tucked away and forgotten. I encourage anyone interested in "fossil collecting" or "rock hounding" to read this saga. Finally, go out and find your own "legal" fossil while you still can.

REVIEW: Although "Tyrannosaurus Sue" takes a while to get rolling, eventually author Steve Fiffer does get into the trial over the bones, and, as a lawyer, he does an excellent job of clarifying that mess. In a foreward, dinosaur researcher Robert Bakker says, "There's a lot of Roshomon in Sue's story." By that I take it he means that there is a shortage of certainty about who the villains are, although Bakker and Fiffer are sympathetic to Peter Larson and his friends, who dug up Sue.

The fossil equivalents of Yankee tinkerers, the Larsons were self-taught and entrepreneurial. As such, predictably, they raised the hackles of academic researchers. One complaint by the academics against the Larsons can be disposed of: that commercial bone collecting interferes with proper study of fossils. Surely the information to be gleaned from the bones is more valuable than the money people (or the Field Museum) will pay for the bones -- millions -- so interference with proper study is a serious matter.

However, although Fiffer does not go into it, the record of academic bone hunters in the western states has frequently been scandalous, with illegal collecting, faked documentation, slovenly curation and failure to publish. As a good businessman, Larson was, at least, not inclined to the last two of those.

While some of the academic critics may have been sincere and even have had legitimate concerns, the leading lights come off very poorly in "Tyrannosaurus Sue." Part of the reason Fiffer's book starts slowly is his evident intent to build up suspense -- generally, as here, an irritating approach -- but he also has the more reasonable goal and task of setting the finding of Sue in context.

This means going back to the Bone Wars of the 19th century. Much of this is already plowed ground, but Fiffer's explanation of a legitimate (as it seems to have been) commercial pale ontological enterprise was new and interesting to me. Once all that is finally taken care of, "Tyrannosaurus Sue" races to an exciting conclusion, with a lively courtroom drama, a tense auction, some corporate struggles and a not entirely satisfactory (to me) outcome.

It's a complex story, made even more so by a factor I have not mentioned so far: the fact that Sue was found on Indian land that was under lease to an Indian rancher. That added extra layers of legal uncertainty to an already uncertain story. Fiffer also explores, without suggesting much in the way of remedy, the national government's confused, confusing and probably self-defeating legislation concerning fossils on public lands.

REVIEW: When one envisions fossil hunting, especially of dinosaurs, it is often seen as a simple search, proceeded by a discovery, and finally a claim to fame for unearthing a valuable piece of our world's history. One would usually not even consider the conflicts and political questions raised in the discovery of new fossils. However, Steve Fiffer's "Tyrannosaurus Sue: The Extraordinary Saga of the Largest, Most Fought over T. Rex Ever Found" exposes the modern day reality of the trials and tribulations facing those looking to excavate fossils.

The book centers on the story of Peter Larson and his merry band of paleontologists as they take on the evil forces of the U.S. government and a greedy landowner in a dispute over the ownership of the theropod fossil Tyrannosaurus sue. The account of the battle for Sue, from the initial and improbable discovery of the fossil to the final outcome, shows the common reader there is more to the collecting and studying of fossils than meets the eye.

With the different aspects involved, from science to politics to even conspiracy, Fiffer's book is a must read for everyone from professionals in the scientific field to those interested in politics or to just an inquiring mind in search of a wild and amazing story. Fiffer is successful in portraying the opinions of all involved. The testimony and insight of the various players in this legal tug-of-war provide the reader a complete picture of what is going on.

The point of view seems to favor Peter Larson, but all are given a chance to voice their view and Fiffer avoids portraying any of the parties involved as the "villain". This style allows the reader to form his own opinion regarding the matter being fought over. He also raises many questions regarding modern day fossil collection and study.

The fate of Sue shows that a NEW ERA has arrived in paleontology, one that is based on money and politics rather than science. Some of the questions he raises include the rights given to commercial fossil collectors versus academic paleontologists, the effects on scientist of the selling fossils for profit, and the clarity of federal law regarding and regulating the collection of fossils. These issues are ones that, for the sake of future scientific advancement, need solutions.

The tale is able to capture the reader's mind from the outset. Fiffer's clear style of writing allows the reader to understand exactly what is occurring. While closely following the events that ensue from Sue's discovery to her arrival at her final home at the Field Museum of Natural History, the reader is also educated in some of the basics of paleontology, from the stories of great scientists of the past to the most elementary of the work involved in studying fossils, the reader is able to witness a great drama unfold while simultaneously being educated in the realm of science. The story of Sue is both thought provoking and entertaining.

Fiffer follows the 10 year saga of Sue, from discovery to final installation in the Field Museum in Chicago, liberally adding historic parallels in the history of fossil discovery and disbursement. Almost everyone in this story comes out painted with varying levels of guilt, greed and wrongdoing. Everyone, except really for Peter Larson, one of the founders of Sue, as well as co-founder (and namesake) Sue Hendrickson. Each of these characters get off lightly - possibly because their motives were fairly pure, or show the author's slant. Of course, in order to have a "little guy vs. government" story, you need a pure 'little guy'.

The book itself is extremely enjoyable, with enough lessons on dinosaurs and fossils to allow you to understand issues, without overloading the reader. A light visit into the world of the dinosaurs, and of museums, as well as a cautionary tale of government interventions.

REVIEW: I bought this one on a lark when I saw it on clearance in the Smithsonian gift shop. I’d told the story of Sue so often that I was curious how much deeper it actually went. Let me tell you...I was not prepared! So much deeper, more complex, and tragic than I’d originally thought, the story of Sue turned out to be a complicated tale of hubris, independence, confusion, lawsuits aplenty, and finally of a unique and unprecedented collaboration that stands as a paradoxic counterpoint to the process by which Sue was first unearthed.

It also leaves as many questions as it does answers...for one I’m curious how much the process of selling museum pieces at auction has led to the inflation of their price when the museums themselves consider such pieces to be priceless and for another just what ultimately drove so many of the actors involved in this bizarre process. A riveting read featuring some of the most colorful characters I’ve ever encountered on the printed page. Highly recommended to other dinosaur fans and those who just love a great David and GOLIATH story in general.

REVIEW: This true story plays out as if John Grisham wrote a documentary. It has all of the elements of a good legal drama: The big bad antagonist, the picked on little guys trying to prove their innocence, the unnecessarily harsh judge, the sympathetic jury, and of course the shear stupidity of people in power. The only difference is that this book is not a work of fiction, which just goes to reinforce the old adage "Fact is stranger than fiction". I was appalled at how the government handled the case and shocked that things like this can happen in our society. The story was written from a sympathetic perspective of the Larson brothers and the Black Hills Institute, but it still presented the facts in a fairly unbiased way. I appreciate how in-depth the story was, although it seemed to drag on at times. It kind of had the same feel as “Conspiracy of Fools: A True Story”, in that it was a true court case that unfolded like a murder mystery or a spy novel.

REVIEW: A fairly short (288 pages) narrative that almost reads like a spy novel. A quick summary: Peter Larson, a dinosaur hunter in charge of the Black Hills Institute has a paleontological study in South Dakota. It is near Cheyenne River Sioux territory. Sue Hendrickson, a field paleontologist, finds bones sticking out of a wall (cliff). She and Peter recognize them as T-Rex bones, from some 65,000,000 years ago.

This skeleton turns out to be almost 95% full (unheard of) as well as the largest T-Rex to date. Within a very short time Sue (named after the field paleontologist) was claimed by Black Hills Institute, Maurice Williams (the Native American), Sioux tribe, as well as the U.S. Government who had the FBI Raid Black Hills Institute to take the skeleton. There are claims, counterclaims, criminal claims, prosecutions and prison terms.

The bulk of the book is told from Peter Larson's point of view and is definitely more sympathetic towards him than any of the other claimants. If you have even the slightest interest in dinosaurs, conspiracy books, or legal thrillers, this should be added to your bedside table.

REVIEW: I have really enjoyed reading this book. I'm a Dinosaur nut and this book is about my favorite Dino the T-Rex so it was an obvious attraction to me to read. What I read only proved to me that our Government is pathetic to say the least. To do what they did to Peter Larson was a crime. Not only do they steal the find of the century but they lay bogus charges on him that ultimatly sent him to jail and nearly ruined his life! How can the US Government do what they did?

They have been doing it to people for years and Mr. Larson was only one more person who has suffered at the hands of our government. It's terrible when Dinosaur hunters cant even dig up bones for fear that they might be prosecuted for stealing so called Government property. When I first read this book I was thinking I was going to be reading about the find of the century but what I found out was that the US Government is nothing but a bunch of thieves who took the low road to try and ruin a good man who was doing his job.

The story of Sue and the events that surrounded her is very, very good and a must read for Dino lovers of all ages and it will show just how ruthless our Government can be.

REVIEW: There's a huge load of information about T.rex and a big chunk of the book is about the shameful trial that shook the world of paleontology. The reason I have read this book only now, is soon said: 'Dinosaur 13' seems to be a little slanted and according to most people it certainly is. I needed more information about the trial since from the movie not enough is said about it.

I made the right choice, even though the author of this book is the main 'character' in the movie and, as such, the risk of reading the same apparently slanted version of the story was behind the corner. But I must be honest and say that, to the extent of the objective information reported in the book regarding the trial, no such thing is found and I take this as a sign that the tale of Larson is mainly authentic.

I share with Larson the love for paleontology and the feeling of confusion about law and legislation. I fully understand his helplessness and desperation in front of somenthing that seemed to come out of thin air. Everytime Larson jumps from the court into the fields, from the helplessness to the joy of discovery, I made the same jump. In this I think Larson has an important point: that is, science is an unique enterprise and paleontologists are carrying it on in the humblest way possible.

All the story of the trial takes the shape of a poweful slap in the face of science. And its true. Of course, even though the book is a really good one, concerning the trial I will need to read more, and from a different source, to put my final word on it. From what I have read, this was nothing but a big example of injustice and obsessive witch hunt based on...nothing. It is alarming that such a thing, in the way the thing itself went on up to the conclusion, could happen in a developed country.

On the scientific side, I recognize that some of the inferences Larson made from the observation of the fossils sound a little too quick. They are interesting nonetheless and have the great quality of triggering a debate, a vital role of science and human thought. Finally, the book is well written and it takes the weird shape of a science-biografy mixed book. Lots of pictures, drawings and a final set of appendixes help the reader to go through the story and the science of T.rex in an easy and highly informative way.

REVIEW:

REVIEW: Amazing memoir by a great field paleontologist and T. rex hunter, who ended up in jail for politically-motivated, trumped-up federal charges of paperwork violations. Mind, that's his side of the story, but it's heartbreaking, and an eye-opener of why you really, really don't want to get in the crosshairs of an ambitious Federal prosecutor.

Per Wikipedia, Larson was sentenced to two years in prison, for offenses that supposedly carry a maximum sentence of 6 months. And see the quote from the 1992 NY Times account of the big Fed Raid in the second comment. 35 F.B.I. agents! 20 National Guardsmen!

I'm hardly neutral -- I have a T. rex T-shirt bought from Larson after he gave a lecture in Tucson, while he was still fighting the charges. He's a good storyteller. If you love dinosaurs and/or hate Federal busybodies, this is the book for you.

REVIEW: I thought this book was amazing because not only does it tell the story of Sue,(the largest and most complete skeleton of a tyrannosaurus rex) it also focuses on the smaller detail about his job. Peter Larson tells Sue's incredibly amazing story from the beginning to the end, from the smallest detail to the largest. The fact that Sue had to be taken from them was really devastating because it was Black Hills Institute that discovered her and not the Chicago museum of natural history. My favorite part is when they discovered her because no one has every discovered a tyrannosaur as big as this one. Another reason why I liked this book was because he also gives information such as pictures and fun facts because it help you better visualize what's going on. I would mainly recommend this book to people who like to learn new things about the earth and especially if they love DINOSAURS! I thought this book was outstanding and hopefully many of you will enjoy it as much as I did.

REVIEW: Steve Fiffer's "Tyrannosaurus Sue" is an interesting tale of the discovery of the most complete T-Rex skeleton found up to that point, and the bizarre battle that ensued over the ownership of the find. The book provides some insight into the world of paleontology (especially the pitfalls of searching on property where boundary lines aren't clear), and details a rather maddening tale of government intervention.

I would have enjoyed more discussion of paleontology, but I understand that that wasn't the purpose of this particular work. Fiffer's writing style is straightforward to the point of being a bit dry at points, but it's well suited to describing the legal and political manipulations of the story. An interesting book that will spur interest in reading more about its subject matter.

REVIEW:

REVIEW: In an amazing rendition, Fiffer covers the intense saga of the Tyrannosaurus known as 'Sue' blow by blow from her discovery to her eventual unveiling at the Field Museum 10 years later. While the book is more sympathetic towards Peter Larson, you get a feel for the intense emotion those who fought for her felt, as well as learn a great deal about the history of Paleontology, and how past events relate to this saga in particular. This book is definitely worth a read if you're a fan of Paleontology, dinosaurs, or even court battle novels. Highly recommend this for any collection

REVIEW: This is fascinating true story of the discovery of, controversy surrounding and legal battle over the most complete Tyrannosaurus rex fossil ever found. The book alternates between the high stakes auction of the fossil and the story of the discovery, ultimate seizure and final fate of the fossil. It a unique look into the world of professional fossil hunters and the antagonism toward them from academia. The parties involved in the story include the fossil hunters, academic departments, US Bureau of Mining, Native tribes, and more. It also includes a history of paleontology in the US and some of its more colorful characters. Part history, part science, part legal thriller, part sociology. This books satisfies as well as any fiction.

REVIEW: Sue, the T. rex, was the reason I ceased renewing my membership at the Field Museum. Found and excavated and jacketed (hundreds of hours worth of backbreaking work) on a hand shake agreement (standard practice until then) by a small troop of dino hunters from a South Dakota museum, the workers found themselves under arrest and the dinosaur becoming the possession of the "land owner." The book will make your blood boil.

REVIEW: I knew about Sue from the same sources as everyone else; articles and 30 second evening news reports. What I didn’t know was the background and fight for her bones. If you’re a Dino aficionado, don’t be put off that the book is more about the legal battles than the T-Rex itself. It gives Dino lovers like me insight to how, why, and what legal fights can occur before the public can enjoy museum displays.

REVIEW: I have been listening to the 6 unabridged cassettes of this book in the car and am completely captivated. The story line has an auction running through it and the results are not known until near the end. The tale relating the find of the fabulous fossil T-rex was fascinating. The descriptions of the preservation of fossils are so interesting. And the realities of politics, law and Indian lands come alive. So this is a book for someone interested in archeology, history, law, natural science, adventure and mystery. It makes the miles fly by.

REVIEW: I listened to this on cassette tapes when it was new, so it's been a good long time ago, but it's stuck with me all those years. I remember enjoying it very much, and my enjoyment was enhanced by having seen the skeleton in person in Chicago. It was a window into something I knew nothing about - amateur dinosaur hunting.

REVIEW: I really liked the skeleton charts in the book that map out the bones found in the Black Hills Institute's t rex fossil finds. I already read another book about the court case involving Sue, but you get more of the defendant's personal experience with this book. This book covers the life in a day as a paleontologist, a legal battle, and scientific theories about t rex that have come out by studying the bones.

REVIEW: A book about a dinosaur fossil?" I didn't think it was going I was going to blaze through it either, but yet here I am: expertly weaving the history of fossil collection (both scientific and commercial) with the history of our relationship with the facts of dinosaur physiology - all layered on top of a four-party scramble to claim the largest and most complete T. rex ever discovered - Fiffer doesn't just make this interesting: he makes it rewarding. I've ready plenty of single-topic histories, and few capture the topic the way Fiffer does.

REVIEW: Super, thought-provoking, well-written book about the most complete T-Rex specimen unearthed to date. It details the work of historic paleontologists engagingly, and tells the story of the litigation surrounding Sue in such a way that you’re on the edge of your seat to see how it turned out, even though you already kinda know. Makes you wonder what other finds may be out there that aren’t being discovered because of greed, and the arrogance of both the government academia. Great book!

REVIEW: Growing up in Chicago, I was always fond of the Field Museum and the giant Trex named Sue. Though I always knew about her, I never knew the story. So happy to read this and learn about the amazing and dramatic history behind the biggest Trex ever found. This book provides a well researched look into the discovery and then following 4 year court battle for the dinosaur bones. Super fascinating and very informative. I appreciated the author’s attempt to get all sides a moment to share their voice even when some would refuse to comment. I think it’s a great nonfiction for any fans of paleontology or even just Jurassic Park.

REVIEW: If I only ever read one book on Dinosaurs and paleontology I would only ever pick this book. Instantly gripping and tells the story of how one of the greatest Dinosaur fossils to be discovered was found and unearthed but also the titanic legal battle that followed. What’s great though is you never get weighed down by constantly reading about the court battle and it switches in other directions including the finding of numerous other T Rex Fossils like Stan and Bucky. It also describes numerous other fossils found with sue including parts of other dinosaurs and goes into detail of how Sue met her untimely death. This is a truly remarkable account and one I will cherish. Like music some books can feel like they change your life. This did mine.

REVIEW: This book encompasses the field work done to discover and dig up Sue the t rex, some history on current and past dinosaur finders, and an almost unbelievable legal drama. Lastly, there's some commentary on corporations and their role in museums due to their deep pockets. I loved it and really like Pete Larson and Sue Hendrickson. I will most likely read Larson 's book “Rex Appeal” next.

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REVIEW: Sue is one of my top favorite dinosaurs and being able to read about the struggles of ownership between Peter Larson, a native tribe, and the government after finding her from someone who went thrue it all is amazing I gained more insight into this dinosaur than thrue documentaries such as "Dinosaur 13" and others.

REVIEW: A fascinating book which tells of the string of improbable T Rex finds by the Black Hills Institute in the 1990’s. I enjoyed reading about the author’s theories about T Rex behavior, skeletal sexual dimorphism and the his debunking of T Rex myths, like, for instance, that T Rex did not stand upright dragging his tale.

REVIEW:

REVIEW: Fascinating story of what can happen in the dinosaur collecting world Many skulls are stolen property including Nicholas Cages specimen. Unbeknownst to him ! Reclaimed !

REVIEW: This book is fascinating and heartbreaking. Anyone with interest in Paleontology or Law or Politics or simply looking for a good read should give this book a try.

REVIEW: A great book that not only helps you understand paleontology and the fossil money game, but also the twists and turns of legal prosecution. The story unfolds like a novel, a tragic tale of greed.

REVIEW: This page-turner takes one unbelievable turn after another, beginning with the discovery of the largest t-rex ever found and becoming a legal thriller with pre-history at stake.

REVIEW: Very interested book. I would recommend it to friends to read.

ADDITIONAL BACKGROUND:

PALEO SCIENCES:Paleontology and Related Sub-Specialties: Paleontology is the scientific study of life that existed prior to, and sometimes including, the start of the Holocene Epoch. That's roughly 11,700 years before the present. The discipline includes the study of fossils so as to classify organisms, as well as the study of interactions between those organisms and their environments. The latter is a subdiscipline oftentimes referred to as “paleoecology”.

Paleontological observations have been documented as far back as the 5th century BC. The science became established in the 18th century as a result of Georges Cuvier's work on comparative anatomy. It then developed verely rapidly in the 19th century. The term itself originates from Greek “palaios”, meaning old or ancient, and “ontos", meaning being or creature, and “logos”, meaning speech, thought, or study".

Paleontology lies on the border between biology and geology. It differs from archaeology in that it excludes the study of anatomically modern humans. It now uses techniques drawn from a wide range of sciences, including biochemistry, mathematics, and engineering. Use of all these techniques has enabled paleontologists to discover much of the evolutionary history of life, almost all the way back to when Earth became capable of supporting life, roughly over 4 billion years ago.

The simplest definition of paleontology is "the study of ancient life". The field seeks information about several aspects of past organisms including their identity and origin, their environment and evolution, and what they can tell us about the Earth's organic and inorganic past. William Whewell (1794–1866) classified paleontology as one of the historical sciences, along with archaeology, geology, astronomy, cosmology, philology and history itself

Paleontology aims to describe phenomena of the past and to reconstruct their causes. There are three main elements to this objective. First is to describe past phenomena. Second is to develop a general theory pertaining to the causes of various types of change. Last to apply those theories to specific facts. When trying to explain the past paleontologists and other historical scientists often construct a set of one or more hypotheses about the causes. They then look for a "smoking gun".

A “smoking gun” is evidence that strongly accords with one hypothesis over any others. Sometimes researchers discover a "smoking gun" by a fortunate accident during other research. For example in 1980 researchers discovered iridium in the Cretaceous–Tertiary boundary geological layer. Iridium is principally an extraterrestrial metal. This discovery made an asteroid impact the most favored explanation for the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, though there is still debate pertaining to the possible contribution of volcanism to the extinction.

As opposed to proving hypotheses about the workings and causes of natural phenomena, a complementary approach is oftentimes employed by conducting experiments to disprove hypotheses. Although this approach cannot prove a hypothesis, the accumulation of failures to disprove is often compelling evidence in favor of a hypothesis.

As knowledge has increased paleontology has developed specialized sub-divisions. Some of these sub-disciplines focus on different types of fossil organisms while others study ecology and environmental history, such as ancient climates. The latter specialty is known as “paleoclimatology”. Body fossils and trace fossils are the principal types of evidence of ancient life. Geochemical evidence has helped to decipher the evolution of life before there were organisms large enough to leave body fossils.

Estimating the age of these remains is essential but can be difficult. Sometimes adjacent rock layers allow radiometric dating, which provides absolute dates that are accurate to within 0.5%. More often however paleontologists have to rely on relative dating by solving the "jigsaw puzzles" of biostratigraphy. Biostratigraphy refers to the arrangement of rock layers from youngest to oldest.

Classifying ancient organisms is also oftentimes difficult. Many ancient organisms do not fit well into the Linnaean taxonomy system scientists use to classify living organisms. Paleontologists more often use “cladistics” to draw up evolutionary "family trees". The final quarter of the 20th century saw the development of molecular phylogenetics. This discipline investigates how closely organisms are related by measuring the similarity of the DNA in their genomes.

Molecular phylogenetics has also been used to estimate the dates when species diverged. However there occasionally exists some controversy regarding the reliability of the molecular clock on which such estimates depend. Though paleontology lies between biology and geology since it focuses on the record of past life, nonetheless its main source of evidence is fossils in rocks. For historical reasons then paleontology is part of the geology department at many universities.

In the 19th and early 20th centuries geology departments found fossil evidence important for dating rocks. Campus biology departments on the other hand showed comparsatively little evidence on fossil-bear rocks. Paleontology also has some overlap with archaeology. Archaeology primarily works with objects made by humans and with human remains. Paleontologists on the other hand are interested in the characteristics and evolution of humans as a species.

When addressing evidence about humans archaeologists and paleontologists may work together. For example paleontologists might identify animal or plant fossils around an archaeological site. This aids in the determination of what hominid populations inhabited the area and what they ate. This research might even analyze the climate at the time of habitation. In addition, paleontology often borrows techniques from other sciences, including biology, osteology, ecology, chemistry, physics and mathematics.

For example geochemical signatures from rocks may help to discover when life first arose on Earth. Analyses of carbon isotope ratios may help to identify climate changes and even to explain major transitions such as the Permian–Triassic extinction event. A relatively recent discipline, molecular phylogenetics, compares the DNA and RNA of modern organisms to re-construct the "family trees" of their evolutionary ancestors. It has also been used to estimate the dates of important evolutionary developments.

Techniques from engineering have been used to analyze how the bodies of ancient organisms might have worked. Examples would include a determination of the running speed and bite strength of Tyrannosaurus Rex. Another example would include the flight mechanics of Microraptor. Analyses using engineering techniques showed that Tyrannosaurus had a devastating bite. The same techniques raised doubts about its running ability.

It is also relatively commonplace to study the internal details of fossils using X-ray microtomography. Paleontology, biology, archaeology, and paleoneurobiology combine to study endocranial casts (endocasts) of species related to humans to clarify the evolution of the human brain. Paleontology even contributes to astrobiology. Astrobiology involves the investigation of possible life on other planets. Paleontology aids in this investigation developing models of how life may have arisen, and by providing techniques for detecting evidence of life.

Again as knowledge has increased, paleontology has developed specialized subdivisions. Elaborating on our earlier mention of this topic, vertebrate paleontology for example concentrates on fossils from the earliest fish to the immediate ancestors of modern mammals. On the other hand invertebrate paleontology deals with fossils such as molluscs, arthropods, annelid worms and echinoderms.

Further elaborative examples would include Paleobotany. Paleobotany studies fossil plants, algae, and fungi. Micropaleontology deals with microscopic fossil organisms of all kinds. Palynology is the study of pollen and spores produced by land plants and protists. This specialty straddles paleontology and botany. It deals with both living and fossil organisms.

Instead of focusing on individual organisms, paleoecology examines the interactions between different ancient organisms. This would include for example their food chains and two-way interactions with their environments. For example the development of oxygenic photosynthesis by bacteria caused the oxygenation of the atmosphere. This in turn hugely increased the productivity and diversity of ecosystems. Ultimately this led to the evolution of complex eukaryotic cells, from which all multicellular organisms are built.

Paleoclimatology although sometimes treated as part of paleoecology focuses more on the history of Earth's climate. Included in this focus are the mechanisms that have changed Earth's climate. This would include evolutionary developments. For example the rapid expansion of land plants in the Devonian period removed more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. This had the effect of reducing the greenhouse effect. In turn this helped to cause an ice age in the Carboniferous period.

Biostratigraphy involved the use of fossils to aid in the determination of the chronological order in which rocks were formed. Biostratigraphy is useful to both paleontologists and geologists. Biogeography studies the spatial distribution of organisms. It is also linked to geology as it aids in explaining how Earth's geography has changed over time.

Fossils of organisms' bodies are usually the most informative type of evidence. The most common fossil types are wood, bones, and shells. Fossilization is a rare event to begin with. Then most fossils are destroyed by erosion or metamorphism before they can be observed. Hence the fossil record is very incomplete. This is increasingly so as science moves further and further back in time. Nonetheless the study of fossils is often adequate to illustrate the broader patterns of life's history.

There are also biases inherent in the fossil record. Different environments are more favorable to the preservation of different types of organism or parts of organisms. Furthermore only the parts of organisms that were already mineralized are usually preserved. An example would be the shells of molluscs. Since most animal species are soft-bodied they decay before they can become fossilized. As a result although there are over thirty phyla of living animals, two-thirds have never been found as fossils.

Occasionally unusual environments may preserve soft tissues. This allows paleontologists to examine the internal anatomy of animals that in other sediments which if preserved at all, are only represented by shells, spines, claws, etc. However even such fortuitous circumstances present an incomplete picture of life at the time. The majority of organisms living at the time are probably not represented. This is because the preservation of soft tissues are events restricted to a narrow range of environments.

The events would typically include situations where soft-bodied organisms were preserved very quickly by events such as mudslides. Such rare (abnormal) events which would lead to such a quick burial and preservation make it difficult to study the normal environments of the animals. The sparseness of the fossil record means that organisms are assumed to have existed long before and long after they are found in the fossil record. This is known as the “Signor–Lipps effect”.

Moving on from body fossils, trace fossils consist mainly of tracks and burrows made by extinct organisms. However trace fossils also include coprolites (fossilized feces) and marks left by feeding. Trace fossils are particularly significant because they represent a data source that is not limited to animals with easily fossilized hard parts. They are also significant in that they reflect some aspects of the organisms' behaviors.

Equally significant many trace fossils date substantially earlier than the body fossils of animals that were capable of making the trace fossils. Of course the precise assignment of trace fossils to the organisms that produced them is generally impossible. Nonetheless trace fossils may for example provide the earliest physical evidence of the appearance of moderately complex animals. These would include ancient organisms comparable in structure for example to earthworms.

Geochemical observations may help to deduce the global level of biological activity at a certain period, or the affinity of certain fossils. For example, geochemical features of rocks may reveal when life first arose on Earth. Geochemical features may also provide evidence of the presence of eukaryotic cells, the type from which all multicellular organisms are built. Analyses of carbon isotope ratios may help to explain major transitions such as the Permian–Triassic extinction event.

Naming groups of organisms in a way that is clear and widely agreed is important. Otherwise (believe it or not) some disputes in paleontology have been based merely on misunderstandings over names. Linnaean taxonomy is commonly used for classifying living organisms. However it runs into difficulties when dealing with newly discovered organisms that are significantly different from known ones. For example, it is hard to decide at what level to place a new higher-level grouping, e.g. genus or family or order. This is important since the Linnaean rules for naming groups are tied to their levels. If a group is moved to a different level then it must be renamed.

Paleontologists generally use approaches based on cladistics. Cladistics is a technique for working out the evolutionary "family tree" of a set of organisms. It works by logic. For instance if groups B and C have more similarities to each other than either has to group A, then B and C are more closely related to each other than either is to A. Characteristics that are compared may be anatomical, such as the presence of a notochord. Characteristics may also be molecular, as determined by comparing sequences of DNA or proteins.

The result of a successful analysis is a hierarchy of clades, e.g. groups that share a common ancestor. Ideally the "family tree" has only two branches leading from each node, or "junction". However sometimes there is too little information to achieve this. In those instances paleontologists have to make do with junctions that have several branches. The cladistic technique is sometimes fallible. For example some features such as wings or camera eyes evolved more than once, convergently. This must be taken into account in analyses.

Evolutionary developmental biology, commonly abbreviated to "Evo Devo", also helps paleontologists to produce "family trees" and to better understand fossils. For example the embryological development of some modern brachiopods suggests that brachiopods may be descendants of the halkieriids. Halkieriids became extinct in the Cambrian period.

Paleontology seeks to map out how living things have changed through time. A substantial hurdle to this aim is the difficulty of working out how old fossils are. Beds that preserve fossils typically lack the radioactive elements needed for radiometric dating. This technique is our only means of giving rocks greater than about 50 million years old an absolute age. The technique is particularly valuable as it can be accurate to within 0.5% or better.

Although radiometric dating requires very careful laboratory work, its basic principle is simple. The rates at which various radioactive elements decay are known. So the ratio of the radioactive element to the element into which it decays shows how long ago the radioactive element was incorporated into the rock. Radioactive elements are commonly found only in rocks with a volcanic origin. Thus the only fossil-bearing rocks that can be dated radiometrically are a few volcanic ash layers.

Consequently in the absence of such volcanic ash layers paleontologists are then left to rely on stratigraphy to date fossils. Stratigraphy is the science of deciphering the "layer-cake" that is the sedimentary record. Stratigraphy has often been compared to a jigsaw puzzle. Rocks normally form relatively horizontal layers, with each layer younger than the one underneath it. If a fossil is found between two layers whose ages are known, then obviously the fossil's age must lie between the two known ages.

However rock sequences are not continuous. They may be broken up or made discontinuous by faults or periods of erosion. Consequently it is very difficult to match up rock beds that are not directly next to one another. However fossils of species that survived for a relatively short time can be used to link up isolated rocks or rock layers. This technique is called biostratigraphy.

For instance the conodont Eoplacognathus pseudoplanus has a short range of existence in the Middle Ordovician period. If rocks of unknown age are found to have traces of E. pseudoplanus, they must have a mid-Ordovician age. Such “index fossils” must be distinctive, be globally distributed, and have a short time range to be useful. However misleading results are produced if the index fossils turn out to have longer fossil ranges than first thought.

Stratigraphy and biostratigraphy can in general provide only relative dating (A was before B), which is often sufficient for studying evolution. However this is difficult for some time periods, because of the problems involved in matching up rocks of the same age across different continents. Family-tree relationships may also help to narrow down the date when lineages first appeared.

For instance if fossils of B or C date to X million years ago and the calculated "family tree" says A was an ancestor of B and C, then A must have evolved more than X million years ago. It is also possible to estimate how long ago two living clades diverged – i.e. approximately how long ago their last common ancestor must have lived – by assuming that DNA mutations accumulate at a constant rate.

These "molecular clocks" however are fallible. At best they provide only a very approximate timing. For example they are not sufficiently precise and reliable for estimating when the groups that feature in the Cambrian explosion first evolved. The estimates derived from applying the different techniques may vary by a factor of two.

Earth formed about 4,570 million (4.57 billion) years ago. A collision that formed the Moon occurred about 40 million years later, about 4.53 billion years ago. Earth may thereafter have cooled quickly enough to have oceans and an atmosphere by about 4.44 billion years ago. There is evidence on the Moon of a Late Heavy Bombardment by asteroids from about/between 4 and 3.8 billion years ago. It's likely that this bombardment struck the earth at the same time. If so, the bombardment may have stripped away those first atmosphere and oceans.

Paleontology traces the evolutionary history of life back to over 3 billion years ago, possibly as far as 3.8 billion years ago. The oldest clear evidence of life on Earth dates to 3 billion years ago. However there have been reports (often disputed) of fossil bacteria from 3.4 billion years ago. There is also believed by many to be geochemical evidence for the presence of life 3.8 billion years ago, shortly after the cessation of the asteroid bombardment.

Some scientists have proposed that life on Earth was "seeded" from elsewhere. However but most research concentrates on various explanations of how life could have arisen independently on Earth. For about 2 billion years microbial mats were the dominant life on Earth. There microbial mats were multi-layered colonies of different bacteria. The evolution of oxygenic photosynthesis enabled them to play the major role in the oxygenation of the atmosphere starting about 2.4 billion years ago.

This change in the atmosphere increased their effectiveness as nurseries of evolution. Eukaryotes were cells with complex internal structures. While they may have been present earlier, their evolution speeded up when they acquired the ability to transform oxygen from a poison to a powerful source of metabolic energy. This innovation may have come from primitive eukaryotes capturing oxygen-powered bacteria as endosymbionts and transforming them into organelles called mitochondria.

The earliest evidence of complex eukaryotes with organelles (such as mitochondria) dates from 1.85 billion years ago. Multicellular life is composed only of eukaryotic cells. The earliest evidence for multicellular life is found in the Francevillian Group Fossils from 2.1 billion years ago. However specialization of cells for different functions only first appears between 1.43 million years ago (a possible fungus) and 1.2 billion years ago (a probable red alga).

Sexual reproduction is likely a prerequisite for specialization of cells. Otherwise asexual multicellular organism might be at risk of being taken over by rogue cells that retain the ability to reproduce. The earliest known animals are cnidarians from about 580 million years ago. However these are so modern-looking that they must be descendants of earlier animals yet unknown to science.

Early fossils of animals are rare. This is because they had not developed mineralized, easily fossilized hard parts until about 548 million years ago. The earliest modern-looking bilaterian animals appear in the Early Cambrian. These appeared alongside several "weird wonders" that bear little obvious resemblance to any modern animals.

There is a long-running debate about whether this Cambrian explosion was truly a very rapid period of evolutionary experimentation. Alternative views are that modern-looking animals began evolving earlier, but fossils of their precursors have not yet been found. Another alternate view postulated is that the "weird wonders" are evolutionary "aunts" and "cousins" of modern groups.

Vertebrates remained a minor group until the first jawed fish appeared in the Late Ordovician. Haikouichthys, from about 518 million years ago in China, may be the earliest known fish. The lineage that produced land vertebrates evolved over 100 million years later. The spread of animals and plants from water to land required organisms to solve several problems. These challenges including protection against drying out and supporting themselves against gravity.

The earliest evidence of land plants and land invertebrates date back to about 476 million years ago and 490 million years ago respectively. As indicated by their trace and body fossils those early invertebrates were arthropods known as euthycarcinoids. However they evolved very rapidly between 370 million years ago and 360 million years ago.

Recent discoveries have overturned earlier ideas about the history and driving forces behind their evolution. Land plants were so successful that their detritus caused an ecological crisis in the Late Devonian. This crisis was only resolved by the evolution of fungi that could digest dead wood.

During the Permian period synapsids, including the ancestors of mammals, may have dominated land environments. However this domination ended with the Permian–Triassic extinction event 251 million years ago. The Permian-Triassic extinction event came very close to wiping out all complex life. The extinctions were apparently fairly sudden, at least among vertebrates.

During the slow recovery from this catastrophe a previously obscure group, archosaurs, became the most abundant and diverse terrestrial vertebrates. One archosaur group were the dinosaurs. They became the dominant land vertebrates for the rest of the Mesozoic. Birds evolved from one group of dinosaurs. During this time mammals' ancestors survived only as small, mainly nocturnal insectivores. This niche may have accelerated the development of mammalian traits such as endothermy and hair.

The Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event 66 million years ago killed off all the dinosaurs except the birds. Birds are the only surviving dinosaurs. After the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction mammals increased rapidly in size and diversity. Aside from their land-based populations, some took to the air and the sea.

Fossil evidence indicates that in the meanwhile flowering plants had appeared and rapidly diversified in the Early Cretaceous. This occurred during between 130 million years ago and 90 million years ago. The rapid rise of flowering plants to dominance of terrestrial ecosystems is thought to have been propelled by co-evolution with pollinating insects. Social insects had appeared around the same time. Although they account for only small parts of the insect "family tree", social insects now form over 50% of the total mass of all insects.

Humans evolved from a lineage of upright-walking apes. The earliest fossils date from over 6 million years ago. Early members of this lineage had chimp-sized brains, about 25% as big as modern humans'. However there are signs of a steady increase in brain size after about 3 million years ago. There is a long-running debate about whether modern humans are descendants of a single small population in Africa. It is proposed by many researchers that this single population then migrated all over the world less than 200,000 years ago and replaced previous hominine species. The alternate theory is that modern humans arose worldwide roughly at the same time as a result of interbreeding, and originated from a number of populations.

Life on earth has suffered occasional mass extinctions at least since 542 million years ago. Despite their disastrous effects, mass extinctions have sometimes accelerated the evolution of life on earth. When dominance of an ecological niche passes from one group of organisms to another, this is rarely because the new dominant group out-competes the old. Rather it is usually because an extinction event allows a new group to outlive the old and move into its niche.

The fossil record appears to show that the rate of extinction is slowing down. Both the gaps between mass extinctions are becoming longer, and the average and background rates of extinction decreasing. However it is not absolutely certain whether the actual rate of extinction has altered. Both of these observations pertaining to a slowing extinction rate could be explained in several ways.

For instances the oceans may have become more hospitable to life over the last 500 million years. Thus they would be less vulnerable to mass extinctions. Dissolved oxygen has become more widespread and penetrated to greater depths. The development of life on land reduced the run-off of nutrients. This would reduce the risk of eutrophication and anoxic events. Marine ecosystems have also become more diversified so that food chains are less likely to be disrupted.

Reasonably complete fossils are very rare. Most extinct organisms are represented only by partial fossils. Complete fossils are of course rarest in the oldest rocks. So paleontologists have mistakenly assigned parts of the same organism to different genera. This after the genera were created and defined solely to accommodate these finds. The risk of this mistake is higher for older fossils because these are often unlike parts of any living organism. Many "superfluous" genera are represented by fragments that are not found again. These "superfluous" genera are interpreted as having become extinct very quickly.

Biodiversity in the fossil record is "the number of distinct genera alive at any given time; that is, those whose first occurrence predates and whose last occurrence postdates that time". Biodiversity shows shows a different trend than a slowing extinction rate. Biodiversity exhibited a fairly swift rise from 542 to 400 million years ago. Then a slight decline from 400 to 200 million years ago. The devastating Permian–Triassic extinction event was an important factor in that decline. Then after the Permian-Triassic extinction event a swift rise in biodiversity from 200 million years ago to the present.

Although paleontology became established around 1800, earlier thinkers had noticed aspects of the fossil record. The ancient Greek philosopher Xenophanes (570–480 BC) concluded from fossil sea shells that some areas of land were once under water. During the Middle Ages the Persian naturalist Ibn Sina, known as Avicenna in Europe, discussed fossils. Ibn Sina proposed a theory of petrifying fluids on which Albert of Saxony elaborated in the 14th century.

The Chinese naturalist Shen Kuo (1031–1095 AD) proposed a theory of climate change based on the presence of petrified bamboo. The petrified bamboo was found in regions that in his time were too dry for bamboo. In early modern Europe the systematic study of fossils emerged as an integral part of the changes in natural philosophy that occurred during the Age of Reason. In the Italian Renaissance Leonardo da Vinci made various significant contributions to the field as well depicted numerous fossils.

Leonardo's contributions are central to the history of paleontology. Leonardo established a line of continuity between the two main branches of paleontology – ichnology and body fossil paleontology. Ichnofossils were structures left by living organisms. Ichnofossils are significant paleoenvironmental tools as certain ichnofossils show the marine origin of rock strata. Ichnofossils are distinct from body fossils, but can be integrated with body fossils to provide paleontological information. This demonstrates the independence and complementary evidence of ichnofossils and body fossils.

At the end of the 18th century Georges Cuvier's work established comparative anatomy as a scientific discipline. By proving that some fossil animals resembled no living ones he demonstrated that animals could become extinct. This revelation led to the emergence of paleontology. The expanding knowledge of the fossil record also played an increasing role in the development of geology, particularly stratigraphy.

First mention of the word paleontology (“palæontologie”) was in January 1822 by Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville in his Journal de physique. He coined the word "palaeontology" to refer to the study of ancient living organisms through fossils. The first half of the 19th century saw geological and paleontological activity become increasingly well organized. This period witnessed the growth of geologic societies and museums. As well there was an increasing number of professional geologists and fossil specialists.

Interest increased for reasons that were not purely scientific. For instance geology and paleontology helped industrialists to find and exploit natural resources such as coal. This contributed to a rapid increase in knowledge about the history of life on Earth. This also led to progress in defining the geologic time scale, which was largely based on fossil evidence. As knowledge of life's history continued to improve, it became increasingly obvious that there had been some kind of successive order to the development of life. This encouraged early evolutionary theories on the transmutation of species.

After Charles Darwin published Origin of Species in 1859 much of the focus of paleontology shifted to understanding evolutionary paths. These pathways included human evolution and evolutionary theory. The last half of the 19th century saw a tremendous expansion in paleontological activity. This was especially evident in North America. The trend continued in the 20th century with additional regions of the Earth being opened to systematic fossil collection.

Fossils found in China near the end of the 20th century have been particularly important. They have provided new information about the earliest evolution of animals, early fish, dinosaurs and the evolution of birds. The last few decades of the 20th century has also witnessed a strongly renewed interest in mass extinctions and their role in the evolution of life on Earth. There has also been a renewed interest in the Cambrian Explosion that apparently saw the development of the body plans of most animal phyla. The discovery of fossils of the Ediacaran biota and developments in paleobiology extended knowledge about the history of life back far before the Cambrian.

Increasing awareness of Gregor Mendel's pioneering work in genetics led first to the development of population genetics and then in the mid-20th century to the modern evolutionary synthesis. This explains evolution as the outcome of events such as mutations and horizontal gene transfer. These events provide genetic variation, with genetic drift and natural selection driving changes in this variation over time. Within the next few years the role and operation of DNA in genetic inheritance were discovered. This led to what is now known as the "Central Dogma" of molecular biology.

In the 1960's molecular phylogenetics began to make an impact. Molecular phylogenetics involves the investigation of evolutionary "family trees" by techniques derived from biochemistry. The impact of molecular phylogenetics has been particularly significant in suggesting that the human lineage had diverged from apes much more recently than was generally assumed. Although this early study compared proteins from apes and humans, most molecular phylogenetics research is now based on comparisons of RNA and DNA.

Paleobiology: Paleobiology is a growing and comparatively new discipline which combines the methods and findings of the life science biology with the methods and findings of earth science paleontology. It is occasionally referred to as geobiology. Paleobiological research uses biological field research of current biota and of fossils millions of years old to answer questions about the molecular evolution and the evolutionary history of life. In this scientific quest, macrofossils, microfossils and trace fossils are typically analyzed. In addition however 21st century biochemical analysis of DNA and RNA samples offers much promise, as does the biometric construction of phylogenetic trees.

Related sub-specialties include:

Paleobotany, which applies the principles and methods of paleobiology to flora, especially green land plants. However paleobotany also includes the fungi and seaweeds (algae). Paleobotany also involves mycology, phycology and dendrochronology.

Paleozoology uses the methods and principles of paleobiology to understand fauna, both vertebrates and invertebrates. Paleozoology also involves vertebrate and invertebrate paleontology, as well as paleoanthropology.

Micropaleontology applies paleobiologic principles and methods to archaea, bacteria, protists and microscopic pollen/spores. It also involves the study of microfossils and palynology.

Paleovirology examines the evolutionary history of viruses on paleobiological timescales.

Paleobiochemistry uses the methods and principles of organic chemistry to detect and analyze molecular-level evidence of ancient life, both microscopic and macroscopic.

Paleoecology examines past ecosystems, climates, and geographies so as to better comprehend prehistoric life.

Taphonomy analyzes the post-mortem history of individual organisms. This history would, for example, include decay and decomposition. Researchers thus gain insights into the behavior, death and environment of the fossilized organisms.

Paleoichnology analyzes the tracks, borings, trails, burrows, impressions, and other trace fossils left by ancient organisms. This allows researchers to gain insights into the behavior and ecology of the ancient organisms.

Stratigraphic paleobiology studies long-term secular changes as well as the (short-term) bed-by-bed sequence of changes in the characteristics and behaviors or ancient organisms. This sub-discipline is closed related to studies of stratification, sedimentary rocks, and the geologic time scale.

Evolutionary developmental paleobiology examines the evolutionary aspects of the modes and trajectories of growth and development in the evolution of life. This includes organisms both extinct and extant. The sub-discipline is closed related to studies of adaptive radiation, cladistics, evolutionary biology, developmental biology and phylogenetic trees.

The founder or "father" of modern paleobiology was Baron Franz Nopcsa who lived from 1877 to 1933). Nopcsa was a Hungarian scientist trained at the University of Vienna. He initially termed the discipline "paleophysiology." Credit for coining the word paleobiology itself goes to Professor Charles Schuchert. He proposed the term in 1904. His stated intent was to initiate "a broad new science" joining "traditional paleontology with the evidence and insights of geology and isotopic chemistry."

Charles Doolittle Walcott has been cited as the "founder of Precambrian paleobiology." Walcott was a Smithsonian adventurer. Walcott is best known to history as the discoverer of the mid-Cambrian Burgess shale animal fossils. In 1883 this American curator found the "first Precambrian fossil cells known to science". This was in the form of a stromatolite reef then known as Cryptozoon algae. In 1899 Walcott discovered the first acritarch fossil cells. These were a Precambrian algal phytoplankton he named “Chuaria”. And finally in 1914 Walcott reported "minute cells and chains of cell-like bodies" belonging to Precambrian purple bacteria.

Later 20th century paleobiologists have also figured prominently in finding Archaean and Proterozoic eon microfossils. In 1954 STANLEY A. Tyler and Elso S. Barghoorn described 2.1 billion-year-old cyanobacteria and fungi-like microflora at their Gunflint Chert fossil site. Eleven years later in 1965 Barghoorn and J. William Schopf reported finely-preserved Precambrian microflora at their Bitter Springs site of the Amadeus Basin, Central Australia. Then in 1993 Schopf discovered O2-producing blue-green bacteria at his 3.5 billion-year-old Apex Chert site in Pilbara Craton, Marble Bar, in the northwestern part of Western Australia. So paleobiologists were at last homing in on the origins of the Precambrian "Oxygen catastrophe."

Paleoclimatology: Paleoclimatology is the study of climates for which direct measurements were not taken. As instrumental records only span a tiny part of Earth's history, the reconstruction of ancient climate is important. This enables researchers to better understand natural variation and the evolution of the current climate. Paleoclimatology uses a variety of proxy methods from Earth and life sciences to obtain data previously preserved within rocks, sediments, boreholes, ice sheets, tree rings, corals, shells, and microfossils. Combined with techniques to date the proxies, these paleoclimatological records are used to determine the past states of Earth's atmosphere.

The scientific field of paleoclimatology came to maturity in the 20th century. Notable periods studied by paleoclimatologists are many. These include the frequent glaciations Earth has undergone. Also the rapid cooling events such as the Younger Dryas. And as well the fast rate of warming during the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum. Studies of past changes in the environment and biodiversity often reflect on the current situation. This to specifically include the impact of climate on mass extinctions and biotic recovery, as well as how this might affect the current period of global warming.

Notions of a changing climate probably evolved in ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley and China. There prolonged periods of droughts and floods were experienced. In the 17th century Robert Hooke postulated that fossils of giant turtles found in Dorset could only be explained by a once warmer climate. He attributed the warmer climate as the result of a shift in Earth's axis. Keep in mind that at that point in tome fossils were often explained as a consequence of a Biblical flood. It was not until the 19th century that systematic observations of sunspots started by amateur astronomer initiated a discussion pertaining to the Sun's influence on Earth's climate.

Still early in the 19th century the scientific study of paleoclimatology began to further take shape. This occurred when discoveries about glaciations and natural changes in Earth's past climate helped explain and understand the greenhouse effect. But it was only in the 20th century that paleoclimatology became a unified scientific field. Before then different aspects of Earth's climate history were studied by a variety of disciplines.

By the end of the 20th century the empirical research into Earth's ancient climates started to be combined with computer models of increasing complexity. A new objective also developed in this period. That was finding ancient analog climates that could provide information about current climate change. Today paleoclimatologists employ a wide variety of techniques to deduce ancient climates.

The techniques employed are dependent on what variables have to be reconstructed. These might include for instance temperature, precipitation, or some other aspect of past climates. These techniques are also variable based on how long ago the climate of interest occurred. For instance the deep marine record is the source of most isotopic data. However this record exists only on oceanic plates. These records disappear when the oceanic plates are eventually subducted. The oldest remaining material is 200 million years old. Additionally older sediments are also more prone to corruption by diagenesis. Resolution and confidence in the data decrease over time. Mountain glaciers and the polar ice caps/ice sheets provide much data in paleoclimatology. Ice-coring projects in the ice caps of Greenland and Antarctica have yielded data going back several hundred thousand years. In the case of the EPICA project the sample cores actually dated over 800,000 years ago.

Air trapped within fallen snow becomes encased in tiny bubbles. Then the snow is compressed into ice in the glacier under the weight of later years' snow. The trapped air has proven a tremendously valuable source for direct measurement of the composition of air from the time the ice was formed. Layering can be observed because of seasonal pauses in ice accumulation. The naturally occurring layering can be used to establish chronology, associating specific depths of the core with ranges of time. Changes in the layering thickness can also be used to determine changes in precipitation or temperature.

The varying amount of oxygen-18 isotope found in ice layers represent changes in average ocean surface temperature. Water molecules containing the heavier O-18 evaporate at a higher temperature than water molecules containing the normal Oxygen-16 isotope. The ratio of O-18 to O-16 will be higher as temperature increases. The ratio of O-18 to O-16 is also influenced by other factors such as the water's salinity and the volume of water locked up in ice sheets. Various historical cycles in those isotope ratios have been recorded.

Pollen has been observed in ice cores and has been used to understand which plants were present as the layer formed. Pollen is produced in abundance and its distribution is typically well understood. A pollen count for a specific layer can be determined by observing the total amount of pollen categorized by type in a controlled sample of that layer. Changes in plant frequency over time can be plotted through statistical analysis of pollen counts in the core.

Knowing which plants were present leads to an understanding of precipitation and temperature, and types of fauna present. Palynology includes the study of pollen for these purposes. In addition volcanic ash is contained in some layers. The ash can be used to establish the time of the formation of the layer of ice. Each volcanic event distributes ash with a unique set of properties. These properties include the shape and color of particles, as well as the chemical signature of the ice. Establishing the ash's source will establish a range of time to associate with layer of ice.

A multinational consortium drilled an ice core in Dome C on the East Antarctic ice sheet. The consortium is known as the European Project for Ice Coring in Antarctica (EPICA). EPICA was able to retrieve ice core samples from layers created roughly 800,000 years ago. The international ice core community has defined a priority project to obtain the oldest possible ice core record from Antarctica. Under the auspices of International Partnerships in Ice Core Sciences (IPICS) an effort will be made to retrieve an ice core record reaching back to 1.5 million years ago.

Climatic information can be obtained through an understanding of changes in tree growth. Generally trees respond to changes in climatic variables by speeding up or slowing down growth. This growth pattern is in turn generally reflected by a greater or lesser thickness in growth rings. A tree-ring record is established by compiling information from many living trees in a specific area. It is important to note however that different species respond to changes in climatic variables in different ways.

Some older intact wood samples fortuitously escape decay can. These intact samples can extend the time covered by the dendrotic record. This is achieved by matching the ring depth changes to contemporary specimens. By using that method some areas have tree-ring records dating back a few thousand years. Older wood not connected to a contemporary record can be dated generally with radiocarbon techniques. A tree-ring record can be used to produce information regarding precipitation, temperature, hydrology, and fire corresponding to a particular area.

In working with longer time scales geologists must refer to the sedimentary record for data. Sediments are sometimes lithified to form rock. These sedimentary rocks may contain remnants of preserved vegetation, animals, plankton, or pollen. These preserved organic remains may help establish the characteristics of certain climatic zones. Biomarker molecules such as the alkenones may yield information about their temperature of formation. Chemical signatures as well can be used to reconstruct past temperature. This is particularly so of the Mg/Ca ratio of calcite in Foraminifera tests.

Isotopic ratios can provide further information. Specifically the O-18 isotope record responds to changes in temperature and ice volume. The O-13 isotope record reflects a wide range of factors which are often more difficult to disentangle, identify, and quantify. Sedimentary sea floor core sample are labeled to identify the exact spot on the sea floor where the sample was taken. Sediments from nearby locations can show significant differences in chemical and biological composition.

On a longer time scale, the rock record may show signs of sea level rise and fall. Oftentimes features such as "fossilized" sand dunes can be identified. Scientists can get a grasp of long term climate by studying sedimentary rock going back billions of years. The division of earth history into separate periods is largely based on visible changes in sedimentary rock layers that demarcate major changes in conditions. Often they include major shifts in climate.

The study of fossilized coral is known as “sclerochronology”. Coral "rings" are similar to tree rings except that they respond to a wider variety of ecological stimuli. These influences include water temperature, freshwater influx, pH changes, and wave action. From those “records” specialized equipment can be used to deduce the sea surface temperature and water salinity from the past few centuries. The O-18 isotope range of coralline red algae provides a useful proxy of the combined sea surface temperature and sea surface salinity at high latitudes and the tropics, where many traditional techniques are limited.

Within climatic geomorphology one approach often utilized by the discipline's researchers is to study relict landforms and thereby infer ancient climates. The study of past climates climatic geomorphology is considered by some researchers to be a theme of historical geology. However climatic geomorphology is of limited use to study recent (Quaternary, Holocene) large climate changes. This is due to the fact that these are seldom discernible in the geomorphological record.

The field of geochronology has scientists working on determining how old certain proxies are. For recent proxy archives of tree rings and corals the individual year rings can be counted and an exact year can be determined. Radiometric dating uses the properties of radioactive elements in proxies. In older material more of the radioactive material will have decayed. Thus the proportion of different elements will be different when contrasted with newer proxies.

One example of radiometric dating is radiocarbon dating. In the air cosmic rays constantly convert nitrogen into a specific radioactive carbon isotope known as “14C”. Plants then use this carbon to grow. However this isotope is not replenished anymore when the plant ties, and the 14C starts decaying. The proportion of 'normal' carbon and Carbon-14 gives information of how long the plant material has not been in contact with the atmosphere.

Knowledge of precise climatic events decreases as the record goes back in time, but some notable climate events are known. The first notable climactic event of course is at earth's beginning, and is known as the “Faint Young Sun Paradox”. Following is the “Huronian Glaciation” of about 2.4 billion years ago. At the point in time Earth was completely covered in ice, probably due to the “Great Oxygenation Event”. The “Later Neoproterozoic Snowball Earth” of about 600 million years ago was the precursor to the “Cambrian Explosion”.

Following was the “Andean-Saharan Glaciation” of about 450 million years ago. Following that was the “Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse” of about 300 million years ago. The the Earth's climate was rocked by the “Permian–Triassic Extinction Event of 251.4 million years ago. Thereafter followed a number of “Oceanic Anoxic Events”, notably those of about 120 and 93 million years ago, and later followed by other such events.

This was followed by yet another trauma to Earth known as the “Cretaceous–Paleogene Extinction Event of about 66 million years ago. This was followed by what is known as the “Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum” of 55 million years ago. Then by the most recent “ice age” known as the “Younger Dryas” or “The Big Freeze” or about 11,000 BC. As the ice age receded Earth basked in the “Holocene climatic optimum” of about 7,000 through 3,000 BC. There were extreme weather events of 535-536 AD. This was followed by the “Medieval Warm Period” between about 900 and 1300 AD. This was followed by the “Little Ice Age” of 1300 to 1800 AD. And finally the most notable climatic event of the recent past, the “Year Without a Summer” of 1816.

Moving on the the study of Earth's past atmospheres, the first atmosphere would have consisted of gases in the solar nebula, primarily hydrogen. In addition, there would probably have been simple hydrides such as those now found in gas giants like Jupiter and Saturn. These would have principally consisted of water vapor, methane, and ammonia. As the solar nebula dissipated these gases would have escaped the atmosphere, in part driven off by the solar wind.

Earth's next atmosphere would have consisted largely of nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and inert gases. The atmosphere was produced by outgassing from volcanism. The gasses produced by volcanism would have been supplemented supplemented the by gases produced during the late heavy bombardment of Earth by huge asteroids. A major part of carbon dioxide emissions produced to have been rapidly dissolved in water and built up as carbonate sediments.

Such water-related sediments have been found dating from as early as 3.8 billion years ago. About 3.4 billion years ago nitrogen was the major part of the then stable "second atmosphere". An influence of life has to be taken into account rather soon in the history of the atmosphere because hints of early life forms have been dated to as early as 3.5 billion years ago. The fact that it is not perfectly in line with the early sun's 30% lower solar radiance (compared to today) of the has been described as the "Faint Young Sun Paradox".

The geological record shows a continually and relatively warm surface during the complete early temperature record of Earth. The only significant exception was a cold glacial phase about 2.4 billion years ago. In the late Archaean eon an oxygen-containing atmosphere began to develop. The apparent cause was photosynthesizing cyanobacteria which have been found as stromatolite fossils from 2.7 billion years ago. Scientists refer to this as “the Great Oxygenation Event'.

The early basic carbon isotopy (isotope ratio proportions) was very much in line with what is found today. This fact suggests that the fundamental features of the carbon cycle were established as early as 4 billion years ago. The constant rearrangement of continents by plate tectonics influences the long-term evolution of the atmosphere. This process transfers carbon dioxide to and from large continental carbonate stores.

Free oxygen did not exist in the atmosphere until about 2.4 billion years ago, this during the Great Oxygenation Event. The appearance of free atmospheric oxygen is indicated by the end of the banded iron formations. Until then any oxygen produced by photosynthesis was consumed by oxidation of reduced materials, notably iron. Molecules of free oxygen did not start to accumulate in the atmosphere until the rate of production of oxygen began to exceed the availability of reducing materials.

At that point there was a shift from a reducing atmosphere to an oxidizing atmosphere. Atmospheric oxygen levels showed major variations until reaching a steady state of more than 15% by the end of the Precambrian. The succeeding time span was the Phanerozoic eon. It was at this point in the history of life that oxygen-breathing metazoan life forms began to appear. The amount of oxygen in the atmosphere has fluctuated over the last 600 million years. It reached a peak of 35% during the Carboniferous period. That was significantly higher than today's 21%.

Two main processes govern changes in the atmosphere. The first is the fact that plants use carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and in turn release oxygen back into the atmosphere. The second process involves the breakdown of pyrite and volcanic eruptions which release sulfur into the atmosphere. This oxidizes and that reduces the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere. However volcanic eruptions also release carbon dioxide, which plants can convert to oxygen.

The precise causes of the historical variations of the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere is not known. Periods with much oxygen in the atmosphere are associated with rapid development of animals. Today's atmosphere contains 21% oxygen. This is high enough for rapid development of animals.

Amongst the most profound influences in the history of earth have been the various glacial events. The Huronian glaciation is the first known glaciation in Earth's history. It lasted from about 2.4 to 2.1 billion years ago, The Cryogenian glaciation lasted from 720 to 635 million years ago. The Andean-Saharan glaciation lasted from 450 to 420 million years ago. The Karoo glaciation lasted from 360 to 260 million years ago.

We're presently in the Quaternary glaciation. It is the current glaciation period and began 2.58 million years ago. In 2020 scientists published a continuous, high-fidelity record of variations in Earth's climate during the past 66 million years. The study identified four climate states, separated by transitions that include changing greenhouse gas levels and polar ice sheets volumes. They integrated the data of various sources. The warmest climate state since the time of the dinosaur extinction is known as the "Hothouse". It lasted from about 56 to 47 million years ago. The mean average temperature on the plant was 25 degrees warmer than today (14C).

The climate of the late Precambrian showed some major glaciation events spreading over much of the earth. At this time the continents were bunched up in the Rodinia supercontinent. Massive deposits of tillites and anomalous isotopic signatures are found. The presence of these deposits gave rise to the Snowball Earth hypothesis. As the Proterozoic Eon drew to a close the Earth started to warm up.

By the dawn of the Cambrian and the Phanerozoic life forms were abundant and gave rise to what is known as “the Cambrian explosion”. At that point in time the average global temperatures were around 72 (22C). The Phanerozoic climate refers to the most recent 500 million years which has witnessed variances in the oxygen (18) isotope ratios, indicating climate change events.

Major drivers for the preindustrial ages have been variations of the sun, volcanic ashes and exhalations, relative movements of the earth towards the sun, and tectonically induced effects as for major sea currents, watersheds, and ocean oscillations. In the early Phanerozoic increased atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations have been linked to driving or amplifying increased global temperatures. Research has determined a climate sensitivity for the latter Phanerozoic which was calculated to be similar to today's modern range of values.

The difference in global mean temperatures between a fully glacial Earth and an ice free Earth is estimated at approximately 18 degrees farenheit (10 degrees centigrade). Of course far larger changes would have been observed at higher latitudes, and smaller ones at low latitudes. One requirement for the development of large scale ice sheets seems to be the arrangement of continental land masses at or near the poles. The constant rearrangement of continents by plate tectonics can also shape long-term climate evolution.

However the presence or absence of land masses at the poles is not sufficient to guarantee glaciations or exclude polar ice caps. Evidence exists of past warm periods in Earth's climate when polar land masses similar to Antarctica were home to deciduous forests rather than ice sheets. The relatively warm local minimum between the Jurassic and Cretaceous goes along with an increase of subduction and mid-ocean ridge volcanism. These were due to the breakup of the Pangea supercontinent.

Superimposed on the long-term evolution between hot and cold climates have been many short-term fluctuations in climate. These have been both similar to and sometimes more severe than the varying glacial and interglacial states of the present ice age. Some of the most severe fluctuations may be related to rapid climate changes due to sudden collapses of natural methane clathrate reservoirs in the oceans.

One such example was the “Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum”. A similar, single event of induced severe climate change after a meteorite impact has been proposed as reason for the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event. Other major thresholds are the Permian-Triassic and Ordovician-Silurian extinction events with various reasons suggested.

Ice core data for the past 800,000 years has enabled great insights into the Quaternary climate. The Quaternary geological period includes the current climate. There has been a cycle of ice ages for the past 2.2–2.1 million years. These actually started before the Quaternary, in the late Neogene Period. The data reveal cycles of about 120,000 years. It has been observed that ice ages deepen by progressive steps, but the recovery to interglacial conditions occurs in one big step.

Climate forcing is the difference between radiant energy (sunlight) received by the Earth and the outgoing longwave radiation back to space. Radiative forcing is quantified based on the CO2 amount in the tropopause. Dependent on the radiative balance of incoming and outgoing energy, the Earth either warms up or cools down. Earth radiative balance originates from changes in solar insolation and the concentrations of greenhouse gases and aerosols. Climate change may be due to internal processes in Earth sphere's and/or following external forcings.

The Earth's climate system involves the atmosphere, biosphere, cryosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere. The sum of these processes from Earth's spheres is what affects the climate. Greenhouse gasses act as the internal forcing of the climate system. Particular interests in climate science and paleoclimatology focus on the study of earth climate sensitivity in response to the sum of forcings.

External forcings include the Milankovitch cycles which determine both the distance between earth and the sun as well as the orientation of earth to the sun. Forcings also include solar insolation, which is the total amount of solar radiation received by Earth. Volcanic eruptions are also considered an external forcing. They also include human changes influencing the composition of the atmosphere as well as influences pertaining to land use.

On timescales of millions of years the uplift of mountain ranges and subsequent weathering processes of rocks and soils are an important part of the carbon cycle. This includes as well the subduction of tectonic plates. The weathering sequesters CO2 include the reaction of minerals with chemicals, especially silicate weathering with CO2. This removes CO2 from the atmosphere and reduces the radiative forcing. The opposite effect is volcanism. Volcanism is be responsible for a natural greenhouse effect by emitting CO2 into the atmosphere. This affects glaciation (Ice Age) cycles.

Scientists suggest that humans emit CO2 10,000 times faster than natural processes have done in the past. Other players include ice sheet dynamics and continental positions, as well as consequential vegetation changes. All of these have been and continue to be important factors in the long term evolution of the earth's climate. There is also a close correlation between CO2 and temperature, where CO2 levels have a strong control over global temperatures in Earth history.Paleoclimatology: Historical geology or paleogeology is a discipline that uses the principles and techniques of geology to reconstruct and understand the geological history of Earth. It focuses on geologic processes that change the Earth's surface and subsurface. It employs stratigraphy, structural geology and paleontology to determine the sequence of these events. Paleogeology also focuses on the evolution of plants and animals during different time periods in the geological timescale.

The discovery of radioactivity and the development of several radiometric dating techniques in the first half of the 20th century provided a means of deriving absolute versus relative ages of geologic history. A sub-specialty known as “economic geology” is involves the search for and extraction of fuel and raw materials. Economic geology is heavily dependent on an understanding of the geological history of an area. Another sub-specialty is environmental geology. Its focus includes most significantly the study of the geologic hazards of earthquakes and volcanism. This sub-specialty as well is heavily dependent on detailed knowledge of geologic history.

Nicolaus Steno was the first to observe and propose some of the basic concepts of historical geology. Also known as as Niels Stensen he is considered to be the "father of geology". One of his (then) controversial and revolutionary concepts was that fossils originally came from living organisms. His other equally famous observations are often grouped together to form the laws of stratigraphy.

James Hutton and Charles Lyell also contributed to early understanding of the Earth's history. Their contributions included observations at Edinburgh in Scotland concerning angular unconformity in a rock face. In fact it was Lyell that influenced Charles Darwin greatly in his theory of evolution. Lyell influences included his belief (then speculative) that the present is the key to the past.

Hutton first proposed the theory of “uniformitarianism”. This is now a basic principle in all branches of geology. Hutton also supported the idea that the Earth was very old. This was in opposition to the prevailing concept of the time. The prevailing view was that the Earth had only been around a few millennia. Uniformitarianism describes an Earth which was created by the same natural phenomena remain at work today.

The prevailing concept of the 18th century in the West was that earth was very young, and its history had been dominated by catastrophic events. This view was strongly supported by adherents of Abrahamic religions. This belief was based largely on a literal interpretation of their religious scriptural passages. The concept of uniformitarianism met with considerable resistance and the catastrophism vs. gradualism debate of the 19th century resulted.

A variety of discoveries in the 20th century provided ample evidence that Earth history is a product of both gradual incremental processes and sudden cataclysmic events. Violent events such as meteorite impacts and large volcanic explosions do shape the Earth's surface. However this is in addition to gradual processes throughout earth's history such as weathering, erosion and deposition. The present is the key to the past, and it includes catastrophic as well as gradual processes.

: We always ship books domestically (within the USA) via USPS INSURED media mail (“book rate”). There is also a discount program which can cut postage costs by 50% to 75% if you’re buying about half-a-dozen books or more (5 kilos+). Our postage charges are as reasonable as USPS rates allow. ADDITIONAL PURCHASES do receive a VERY LARGE

Your purchase will ordinarily be shipped within 48 hours of payment. We package as well as anyone in the business, with lots of protective padding and containers. International tracking is provided free by the USPS for certain countries, other countries are at additional cost.

We do offer U.S. Postal Service Priority Mail, Registered Mail, and Express Mail for both international and domestic shipments, as well United Parcel Service (UPS) and Federal Express (Fed-Ex). Please ask for a rate quotation. Please note for international purchasers we will do everything we can to minimize your liability for VAT and/or duties. But we cannot assume any responsibility or liability for whatever taxes or duties may be levied on your purchase by the country of your residence. If you don’t like the tax and duty schemes your government imposes, please complain to them. We have no ability to influence or moderate your country’s tax/duty schemes.

If upon receipt of the item you are disappointed for any reason whatever, I offer a no questions asked 30-day return policy. Obviously we have no ability to influence, modify or waive eBay policies.

ABOUT US: Prior to our retirement we used to travel to Eastern Europe and Central Asia several times a year seeking antique gemstones and jewelry from the globe’s most prolific gemstone producing and cutting centers. Most of the items we offer came from acquisitions we made in Eastern Europe, India, and from the Levant (Eastern Mediterranean/Near East) during these years from various institutions and dealers. Much of what we generate on Etsy, Amazon and Ebay goes to support worthy institutions in Europe and Asia connected with Anthropology and Archaeology. Though we have a collection of ancient coins numbering in the tens of thousands, our primary interests are ancient/antique jewelry and gemstones, a reflection of our academic backgrounds.

Though perhaps difficult to find in the USA, in Eastern Europe and Central Asia antique gemstones are commonly dismounted from old, broken settings – the gold reused – the gemstones recut and reset. Before these gorgeous antique gemstones are recut, we try to acquire the best of them in their original, antique, hand-finished state – most of them originally crafted a century or more ago. We believe that the work created by these long-gone master artisans is worth protecting and preserving rather than destroying this heritage of antique gemstones by recutting the original work out of existence. That by preserving their work, in a sense, we are preserving their lives and the legacy they left for modern times. Far better to appreciate their craft than to destroy it with modern cutting.

Not everyone agrees – fully 95% or more of the antique gemstones which come into these marketplaces are recut, and the heritage of the past lost. But if you agree with us that the past is worth protecting, and that past lives and the produce of those lives still matters today, consider buying an antique, hand cut, natural gemstone rather than one of the mass-produced machine cut (often synthetic or “lab produced”) gemstones which dominate the market today. We can set most any antique gemstone you purchase from us in your choice of styles and metals ranging from rings to pendants to earrings and bracelets; in sterling silver, 14kt solid gold, and 14kt gold fill. We would be happy to provide you with a certificate/guarantee of authenticity for any item you purchase from us. I will always respond to every inquiry whether via email or eBay message, so please feel free to write.