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”Shahnameh: The Epic of the Persian Kings” by Abolqasem Ferdowsi.

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DESCRIPTION: Slipcased pictorial hardcover w/printed covers. Publisher: Liveright (2017). Pages: 592. Size: 14¾ x 8¾ x 2¼ inches; 7 pounds. Summary: Vividly translated and lushly illustrated, this edition of the Persian epic Shahnameh is fully illuminated for new audiences. Ferdowsi’s classic poem Shahnameh is part myth, part history. It begins with the legend of the birth of the Persian nation and its tumultuous history. It contains magical birds and superhuman heroes and centuries-long battles. Written over 1,000 years ago, it was meant to protect Persian collective memory amidst a turbulent sea of cultural storms. Originally written in couplets, the translation and adaptation by Ahmad Sadri retells the mythological tales in prose format. The spectacular illustrations in this edition were created from elements culled from thousands of manuscripts, lithographs, and miniatures dating from the thirteenth through the nineteenth centuries. Each panel becomes a new work of art, an exquisite collage of traditional forms. 500+ full-color illustrations

CONDITION: NEW. New hardcover w/printed (decorative) laminated covers. Still in publisher sealed box. Unblemished and pristine in every respect. Pages are clean, crisp, unmarked, unmutilated, tightly bound, unambiguously unread. Satisfaction unconditionally guaranteed. In stock, ready to ship. No disappointments, no excuses. HEAVILY PADDED, DAMAGE-FREE PACKAGING! Meticulous and accurate descriptions! Selling rare and out-of-print ancient history books on-line since 1997. We accept returns for any reason within 30 days! #9420a.

PLEASE SEE DESCRIPTIONS AND IMAGES BELOW FOR DETAILED REVIEWS AND FOR PAGES OF PICTURES FROM INSIDE OF BOOK.

PLEASE SEE PUBLISHER, PROFESSIONAL, AND READER REVIEWS BELOW.

PUBLISHER REVIEWS:

REVIEW: [From the Author] The ancient legends of the Persian Book of Kings (Shahnameh) were versiﬁed by Abolqasem Ferdowsi (940-1020 AD), who was born to a family of small landowners near the city of Tus, in northeastern Iran. He dedicated thirty-three years of his life to Shahnameh and finished its second redaction one thousand and three years ago, in March 1010.

Shahnameh is of the essence of Iranian nationhood. Unlike the Egyptian, Syrian, and other North African populations of the Roman Empire that were thoroughly Arabized after their Islamic conquest in the seventh century AD, Persians were able to hold on to their language and calendar even after they converted to Islam. It has been argued that this was made possible because the Iranians' national identity was not fully invested in their pre-Islamic faith. Rather, it resided in a secular body of myth and legend that they preserved and which later would form the basis of Ferdowsi's great work.

To this day men, women, and children in Persianate societies from Asia Minor to China are able to recite lines of Shahnameh by heart. The book continues to be read in family gatherings and performed by professional reciters in the teahouses of Tajikistan, Iran, and Afghanistan. It was awareness of this living tradition of Shahnameh recitations that gave me and my colleagues Melissa Hibbard and Hamid Rahmanian the audacity to go where angels fear to tread. As we embarked on the journey to create a new edition of Iran's national epic with freshly narrated -stories printed against a fully illustrated backdrop, we consoled ourselves that we were walking in the footsteps of generations of previous performers and illustrators.

I never forgot the ﬁrst reciter of Shahnameh I saw at the age of seven somewhere near the city of Karaj. He wore a leather vest studded with shiny spikes and wielded a short cane that was his only prop. That lone cane turned into a sword, a mace, and even the neck of a neighing horse. The performer paced rapidly back and forth producing a range of sound effects for galloping horses, clashing swords, and collapsing rocks. He sonorously intoned the poems of Shahnameh in the middle of his prose narration as he played all of the parts from the last scenes of the battle of Rostam and Sohrab. What is remarkable is that I still remember not only the performance but also the pictures I made in my head as it went on.

The session ended with a cliffhanger as the hero Rostam climbed a pile of rocks, put his neck in a self-made noose, and kicked the rocks from beneath him to commit suicide. Later I learned that this final scene was not in any of the known copies of Shahnameh. But the knowledge did not diminish the worth of that performance because I also knew that the stories existed and evolved both before and after the completion of Ferdowsi's magnum.

REVIEW: “Shahnameh: The Epic of the Persian Kings” is the latest in a long tradition of illustrated texts of the Persian national epic. From the early fourteenth century paintings of the most colorful and dramatic episodes in Ferdowsi's poem accompanied the written text. At ﬁrst the manuscripts were small and their illustrations appeared in bands across part of the written page. Even then artists did not hesitate to break through the frame and extend pictorial elements into the margins.

By the 1330s royal and noble patrons were commissioning large-scale Shahnameh manuscripts with illustrations that were more complex in both their composition and the interaction of the ﬁgures than the earlier versions. In the fifteenth century the production of illustrated Shahnamehs increased. They ranged from the most outstanding princely manuscript made for the grandson of Timur (Tamerlane) in Herat in 1430, to the numerous Turkmen-style manuscripts from Shiraz created to satisfy the growing market for such books.

Illustrated Shahnamehs were not produced for Iranians alone, but were exported to the Ottoman Empire and India. There they inspired copies with paintings in the prevailing styles of the regions. The tradition of opulent royal Shahnamehs persisted in the sixteenth century, notably under Shah Tahmasp whose manuscript contained 258 remarkable illustrations. Although at times interest in illustrated Shahnamehs waned, the epic remained central to the poetic education of Persian-speakers. Even in the nineteenth century, when court artists were busy painting in oil on canvas or in lacquer on boxes and book covers, the new art of lithography was applied to illustrating the Shahnameh.

Hamid Rahmanian's new volume incorporates images that span the history of Shahnameh illustration, excerpting and weaving together figures familiar from many of the greatest manuscripts. Recognizing how broadly dispersed are the people in whose culture the Shahnameh plays a significant role, Rahmanian has employed the modern technology of the filmmaker and graphic artist to produce images that will appeal to a modern audience. Anyone who has read the Shahnameh realizes that it is far from an iteration of battles. Rather its stories involve love and luck, dreams and demons, prowess and political intrigue. In fact, the gamut of human emotion appears in the Shahnameh.

As in the Shahnamehs of past centuries, this book's many illustrations do more than translate the narrative episode into visual form. Rather, the illustrations and text enable a reader to contemplate the thoughts and actions of the protagonists while poring over the recombined details of a variety of earlier Shahnameh images. Many of the illustrations contain colors that recall those in Persian miniatures, but they have been intensified in keeping with a modern, cinematic sensibility. Likewise the dynamic silhouetting of pictorial details mitigates the stylization of the earlier paintings that make up the compositions in this book.

The varying scale of figures within individual illustrations breaks the conventions of earlier miniature painting, but for the modern viewer this corresponds to the distortions one finds, for example, in science fiction. In fact the dreamscape of the real and imaginary worlds found in the illustrations of this Shahnameh, while totally dependent on the art of the past, most closely evokes the fantasy literature of today in visual form. Thanks to the dramatic dynamism of Ferdowsi's epic, its contemporary interpretation in images is a vibrant feast for the imagination, making this a Shahnameh for the digital age [Sheila Canby, New York Metropolitan Museum of Art].

REVIEW: Hamid Rahmanian is a 2014 John Guggenheim Fellow. His work centers on film, theater and graphic arts. Rahmanian was educated in Tehran, Iran where he gained his B.F.A. in Graphic Design from Tehran University. His work as a graphic designer spans two decades. He owned and managed a top firm in Tehran for five years. In 1992, he received the highest honor and was awarded recognition as the youngest professional designer in Iran. He has received numerous awards for his achievements and his work has been exhibited in international festivals and competitions.

He continued working as a graphic designer in the US and has been commissioned to do work for cultural organizations and commercial companies including The United Nations, GQ Magazine, Lincoln Center, Tribeca Film Institute, Pacifica Radio/Democracy Now!, Aramex, and Eurasia Foundation. Mr. Rahmanian moved to the United States and earned a M.F.A. in Computer Animation in 1997 from Pratt Institute. He received “The First Place College Award” from the Academy of Television Arts and Sciences, was nominated for a Student Academy Award and was in competition at Annecy International Animation Festival for his animation, “The Seventh Day”.

According to the Wall Street Journal, in 1996, he was the youngest recipient ever to receive the National Interest Waiver from the U.S. for his outstanding work as an artist. After completing his studies, he was hired by Disney Feature Animation Company as a Look Development Artist where he worked on “Tarzan”, “The Emperor’s New Groove” and “Dinosaur”. In 1998, Mr. Rahmanian left Disney and established his own production company, Fictionville Studio. His first 35 mm short film, “An I Within”, received Kodak’s "Best Cinematography Award", “Best American Short” from the LA International Short Film Festival and ”Special Achievement Award” from the USA Film Festival.

He went on to make three documentaries. “Breaking Bread” (2000) and “Sir Alfred of Charles De Gaulle Airport” (2001), the story on which Spielberg’s “The Terminal” was based. Both were well received by the media and worldwide audiences. “Shahrbanoo” (2002) first premiered on PBS station WNET where it received the highest rating for an independently produced documentary and has been broadcast on networks around the globe. His first feature length fiction film “Day Break” (2005) premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival. It went on to screen at festivals and theaters all over the world, including the Venice and Tribeca Film Festivals in 2006 and won numerous international awards.

“The Glass House” (2008) was a feature length documentary which premiered at the Sundance Film Festival and IDFA. It was the winner of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe’s (OSCE) Human Rights Award, among other awards. His films have been used in the NGO sector to combat negative stereotypes about Iranians, to promote anti-capital punishment laws in the US, and to raise funds and awareness for the plights of disadvantaged women and girls around the world. His films have been televised on international networks, including PBS, Sundance Channel, IFC, Channel 4, BBC, DR2, and Al Jazeera.

In 2003, Mr. Rahmanian co-founded and was President (2004-2007) of the non-profit organization ArteEast, a leading New York-based nonprofit organization dedicated to engaging a growing global audience with the contemporary arts of the Middle East and North Africa. In 2009, he wrote and illustrated a graphic autobiography entitled “The Magnificent Book of M”, of which some of the illustrations were part of an exhibition called “Multiverse” at the Halsey Institute of Contemporary Art in 2011.

In 2010 he started working on this multi disciplinary project based on the tenth century Persian epic poem “Shahnameh” (“Book of Kings”) by Ferdowsi. Rahmanian’s vision was in introduce the art and stories of this collection of millennia-old myths and fables to a wide, diverse audience. The goal was to foster a more nuanced understanding of the Middle East and with the hope of entertaining young and old alike with a newly discovered world mythology. The first component of the project was an illustrated an adaptation entitled “Shahnameh: The Epic of the Persian Kings”, which the Wall Street Journal called “a masterpiece”.

This best selling 600 page art book currently published by Liveright Publishing and distributed by W. W. Norton & Company is in its second edition. His artwork from the book has been exhibited and purchased by several museums. In 2014 Rahmanian shifted his focus to theater arts, working with shadows and digital media, beginning with a short piece called “Zahaak: The Legend of the Serpent King”. In 2016 Mr. Rahmanian created a cinematic shadow play for the theater based on the love story of Zaul and Rudabeh from the Shahnameh, entitled “Feathers of Fire: A Persian Epic”. This production premiere at the Brooklyn Academy of Music in 2016 and is currently touring around the world.

In the same year he was commissioned by the Onassis Foundation to create a 19-minute shadow theater piece based on the Greek tragedy of “Antigone”, which was performed at the Onassis Cultural Center in New YorkY. In 2017 he released an immersive audiobook version of “Shahnameh: The Epic of the Persian Kings”, with an introduction by Frances Ford Coppola. He recently completed a pop up book, entitled, “Zahaak: The Legend Of The Serpent King”. This is a beautifully designed and engineered book adapted from the Shahnameh, which Le Monde called "A tour de France of animated books”. It will be released in 2018 through Fantagraphics Books.

Presently Rahmanian has been commissioned by the Silk Road Ensemble to create a multimedia video animation for their upcoming project “Heros”, which will premiere in 2019.

REVIEW: Abolqasem Ferdowsi, the son of a wealthy land owner, was born in 935 in a small village named Paj near Tus in Khorasan which is situated in today's Razavi Khorasan province in Iran. He devoted more than 35 years to his great epic, the “Shāhnāmeh”. It was originally composed for presentation to the Samanid princes of Khorasan, who were the chief instigators of the revival of Iranian cultural traditions after the Arab conquest of the seventh century.

Ferdowsi started his composition of the Shahnameh in the Samanid era in 977 A.D. During Ferdowsi's lifetime the Samanid dynasty was conquered by the Ghaznavid Empire. After 30 years of hard work, he finished the book and two or three years after that, Ferdowsi went to Ghazni, the Ghaznavid capital, to present it to the king, Sultan Mahmud.

Ferdowsi is said to have died around 1020 in poverty at the age of 85, embittered by royal neglect, though fully confident of his work's ultimate success and fame, as he says in the verse: " ... I suffered during these thirty years, but I have revived the Iranians (Ajam) with the Persian language; I shall not die since I am alive again, as I have spread the seeds of this language ..."

REVIEW: A little over a thousand years ago the Persian poet Ferdowsi of Tous collected and put into heroic verse the millennium-old mythological and epic traditions of Iran. It took him thirty years to write the sixty thousand verses that comprise the Shahnameh or "The Book of Kings." This monumental work begins with legends of the birth of the Persian nationhood and ends with the Arab conquest of Iran. Written in the aftermath of that national trauma, Shahnameh was meant to harbor the Persian collective memory, language, and culture in a turbulent sea of many historical storms.

Ahmad Sadri is currently professor of Sociology and Anthropology and James P. Gorter Chair of Islamic World Studies at Lake Forest College. He has written two books in Persian: "Reviving the Concept of Civilizations," and "An Apocalypse soon”.

Sheila Canby is the Patti Cadby Birch Curator in Charge of the Department of Islamic Art at the Metropolitan Museum of Art. She lives in New York City.

Hamid Rahmanian is a 2014 John Guggenheim Fellow, filmmaker, and graphic artist whose work has been exhibited in international competitions and publications. His narrative and documentary films have premiered at festivals such as Sundance, Toronto, Tribeca, and Venice, and have gained international recognition for their socially conscious storylines. He also worked for Disney.

REVIEW: Composed in the tenth century by the poet Firdowsi, the “Shah-nameb”, or “Book of Kings”, is Iran’s central literary work, a historical epic peopled with monarchs. Monarchs some of inspiring goodness, others of unmatched wickedness. Also peopled with handsome paladins, beautiful maidens, malevolent witches, and treacherous demons. The extraordinary quality of the paintings was known even in Shah Tahmasp’s time. One commentator wrote then of Sultan Muhammad’s page representing “The Court of Gayumars”; “the boldest painters hung their heads in shame before it”.

REVIEW: Reproduction and examination of a monumentally significant 16th century Persian manuscript. Including full-color reproductions of the illustrative material contained therein.

REVIEW: Vividly translated and lushly illustrated, this edition of the Persian epic “Shahnameh” is fully illuminated for new audiences.

REVIEW: A collection of stories and myths from ancient Iran filled with kings, heroes, princesses, magical animals, and demons. Written as an epic poem by the poet Ferdowsi in the 10th century and retold here in prose.

REVIEW: Abul-Qâsem Ferdowsi Tusi, also Firdawsi or Ferdowsi, was a Persian poet and the author of Shahnameh, which is one of the world's longest epic poems created by a single poet, and the greatest epic of Persian-speaking countries.

REVIEW: Retells the ancient Iranian epic poem of the tenth century, and includes tales of the Simurgh, a giant bird who brings an orphaned king into her nest; man-eating snakes; and the great hero Rustam.

REVIEW: A little over a thousand years ago the Persian poet Ferdowsi of Tous collected and put into heroic verse the millennium-old mythological and epic traditions of Iran. It took him thirty years to write the sixty thousand verses that comprise the Shahnameh or "The Book of Kings." This monumental work begins with legends of the birth of the Persian nationhood and ends with the Arab conquest of Iran. Written in the aftermath of that national trauma, Shahnameh was meant to harbour the Persian collective memory, language, and culture in a turbulent sea of many historical storms.

CONTENTS:

-- The kings of Yore: Kayumars to Zahhak.

-- A World Divided: Sons of Feraydun.

-- A Love that Triumphed: Zaul and Rudabeh.

-- A Hero is Born: Rostam.

-- The Follies of a King: Kay Kavous.

-- A Tragedy of Errors: Rostam and Sohrab.

-- The Martyred Prince: Siavosh.

-- Return of the King: Kay Khosrow.

-- The Wrong Path: Forud.

-- The Great War of Nations: Iran Besieged.

-- A Curious Foe: Akvaun the Demon.

-- A Perilous Adventure: Bizhan and Manizheh.

-- The Fall of a King: Afrasiab.

-- The Thirst for the Crown: Esfandiar.

-- The Demise of the Knightly House: Death of Rostam.

PROFESSIONAL REVIEWS:

REVIEW: As a book collector, I was skeptic about this book and I was wondering if this is yet another insufficient, flawed and graphic-less translation of Shahnameh, until it started climbing the IPC Top 10 Best Sellers Book List. IPC (Iran Politics Club) is the largest Iranian website in English and its best sellers list is let's say the Persian version of the New York Times best sellers book list. This made me curious and next thing you know; I bought the book! Wow, I surely do not regret it!

This book reminds me of the very fancy, hardcover, oversized, large deluxe luxury Shahnameh full of colored graphics and paintings in my father's library back in Iran, before 1979 during the reign of the Imperial Iran! I'll never forget that book. That was the ultimate courthouse style Shahnameh (Shahnameh Darbari) and one of the most valuable books in my father's grand library. As a child I had the privilege of having access to this magnificent library.

My father was a famous author, journalist, publisher and cabinet minister with this massive library and I basically grew up reading the books in this library. In addition, I had my own library and also had access to my mother's library. My father’s Shahnameh was the most valuable Shahnameh which I have ever seen until now! This Shahnameh, bravely and accurately stated, is the legitimate English version of that Shahnameh. This book is an oversized, hardcover, glossy, well printed, well designed and well translated version of Shahnameh. I can bravely state that this book is the best Shahnameh available in English. So far, I have not seen a better version.

As a book collector, author, journalist and publisher, I can surely testify that this book is indeed a literary treasure. This magnificent book is one of the few translated Shahnameh versions which does not make Ferdowsi shake in his grave in anger due to ruining his book! Ahmad Sadri has done a superb job translating this book and in various sections, he has basically written his own literature based on Ferdowsi's poems. What Sadri has done to Ferdowsi is a step short of what Fitzgerald had done to Khayyam. Fitzgerald in many sections had basically written the Rubaiyat Khayyam in English so it made sense, yet it was compatible and directly related to the original Omar Khayyam's Rubaiyat.

Fitzgerald done more than translation but he wrote his own poetry in English based on the original Khayyam's poetry in Persian. Sadri in many places and sections of this book has done the same to Ferdowsi. Sadri translated and somewhat wrote his own literature in English based on Ferdowsi's Persian text; however, the translation is compatible and makes perfect sense. If you don't do it this way, then the Persian poetry does not make sense in English. As a poet, many times in the past, I have tried to translate verse by verse from Persian to English, yet it will not make sense! On the other hand, not many people like Fitzgerald and Sadri can do it this way, simply because not many translators are also poets! Ahmad Sadri's work is masterful but the most important element about this book is the illustrations. Hamid Rahmanian is a fine artist. He has done superb graphic design, digital 3D style painting and the illustrations of this book. Basically, Rahmanian has taken the traditional Persian paintings and miniatures and then brought them to life via the 21sth century style of computer graphic design and 3D Style animation. Rahmanian is a wonderful artist and has done such a precious illustration on this book. The book is full of illustrations. With over 500 illustrations, this book gives a new meaning to the "illustrated Persian poetry book". The book is basically a graphic novel, illustrated almost on every page, and every illustration is colorful, realistic yet traditional. These illustrations are technically modern but traditionally original. They are superb graphic designs of the traditional Persian miniatures with a spice of hi-tech computer graphics. Sheila Canby's forewords are informative. The book is well printed, well published and well distributed by Amazon. This is a luxuriously collectible book for your library which is not just another pretty book, but it is a contentful, deep and serious epic Persian Poetry retelling the part mythical and part realistic history of the Persian Empire. Ferdowsi's Shahnameh is one of Iran's greatest literary and poetic works. Every Persian, lover of Iran or Poetry Book Collector must own an English version of Shahnameh, what better to add to your collection than this awesome piece of Persian Poetry?! This unique book with over 600 pages in total, has over 500 pages of masterful illustrations!

I strongly recommend for all to purchase this book from Amazon, now a fraction of the original price and a steal only available at this price in Amazon! I am telling you that if you love poetry and literature, buy this one. I guarantee it. For those of you familiar with my website, my writings, my works and my poetry, you surely know that I say it like it is. I am a blunt and no-nonsense critic of the Persian literature and poetry. Persian Poetry and Literature books in English come dime a dozen but only once a blue moon, a deal such as this will come along and at this price, you cannot miss out! This book is presently in the IPC Top 10 Best Sellers Book List and still climbing the chart. I promise you right here and right now that in the future, this book will become an out-of-print valuable collectable. I got mine, did you get yours? [Iran Politics Club].

REVIEW: The Shahnameh, Book of Kings, is an epic composed by the Iranian poet Hakim Abul-Qasim Mansur (later known as Ferdowsi Tusi), and completed around 1010 AD. Ferdowsi means ‘from paradise’, and is derived from the name Ferdous. Tusi means ‘from Tus’. In the poet’s case, the name Ferdowsi Tusi became a name and a title: "The Tusi Poet from Paradise".

The epic chronicles the legends and histories of Iranian (Aryan) kings from primordial times to the Arab conquest of Iran in the 7th century AD, in three successive stages: the mythical, the heroic or legendary, and the historic.

Ferdowsi began the composition in 977 AD, when eastern Iran was under Samanid rule. The Shahnameh he produced consisted of approximately 100,000 lines as 50,000 couplets, 62 stories and 990 chapters. It is a work several times the length of Homer’s "Iliad". The Samanids had Tajik-Aryan affiliation and were sympathetic to preserving Aryan heritage.

It took Ferdowsi thirty-three years to complete his epic, by which time the rule of eastern Iran had passed to the Turkoman Ghaznavids. The Shahnameh Ferdowsi produced was written in classical Persian when the language was emerging from its Middle Persian Pahlavi roots. It was written at a time when Arabic was the favoured language of literature. As such, Ferdowsi is seen as a national Iranian hero who re-ignited pride in Iranian culture and literature, and who established the Persian language as a language of beauty and sophistication. Ferdowsi wrote: “the Persian language is revived by this work”.

The earliest and perhaps most reliable account of Ferdowsi’s life comes from Nezami-ye Aruzi, a 12th-century poet who visited Tus in 1116 or 1117 to collect information about Ferdowsi’s life. According to Nezami-ye Aruzi, Ferdowsi Tusi was born into a family of landowners near the village of Tus in the Khorasan province of north-eastern Iran. Ferdowsi and his family were called Dehqan, also spelt Dehgan or Dehgān, which is now thought to mean landed, village settlers, urban and even farmer. However, Dehgan is also a name for the Parsiban, a group of Khorasani with Tajik roots.

Ferdowsi married at the age of 28 and eight years after his marriage – in order to provide a dowry for his daughter – Ferdowsi started writing the Shahnameh, a project on which he spent some thirty-three years of his life. Ferdowsi’s text is centered on the reigns of fifty monarchs (including three women) and can be divided into a legendary and a quasi-historical section.

It begins with the reign of Kayumars at the dawn of time and concludes with the last Sasanian king, Yazdigird (reigned 632–651), who was defeated by the Arabs. These fifty “chronicles” provide a framework for the dramatic deeds and heroic actions of a range of other personages who are often aided by—or at battle with—a host of fantastic creatures and treacherous villains.

The poem draws on a wealth of sources, including local and dynastic histories, the Avesta (the sacred text of the Zoroastrian religion of ancient Iran), and myths and legends preserved in oral tradition. “Our lives pass from us like the wind, and why should wise men grieve to know that they must die? The Judas blossom fades, the lovely face of light is dimmed, and darkness takes its place.”

Over the centuries, foreign conquerors and local rulers alike were drawn to the Shahnaman for its emphasis on justice, legitimacy, and especially the concept of divine glory. Known as Khavarnah in the Avesta and as farr in modern Persian, divine glory was considered the most important attribute of kingship, for it enabled rulers to govern and command obedience.

Not surprisingly, commissioning lavishly illustrated copies of the Shahnama became almost a royal duty. By representing the kings and heroes of the epic according to the style of their own times, members of the ruling elite were able to cast themselves as the legitimate heirs of Iran’s monarchical tradition, which according to Ferdowsi dates back to the beginning of time.

While Ferdowsi was composing the Shahnameh, Khorasan came under the rule of Sultan Mahmoud, a Turkoman Sunni Muslim and consolidator of the Ghaznavid dynasty. Ferdowsi sought the patronage of the sultan and wrote verses in his praise. The sultan, on the advice from his ministers, gave Ferdowsi an amount far smaller than Ferdowsi had requested and one that Ferdowsi considered insulting.

Ferdowski had a falling out with the sultan and fled to Mazandaran seeking the protection and patronage of the court of the Sepahbad Shahreyar, who, it is said, had lineage from rulers during the Zoroastrian-Sassanian era. In Mazandaran, Ferdowsi wrote a hundred satirical verses about Sultan Mahmoud, verses purchased by his new patron and then expunged from the Shahnameh’s manuscript (to keep the peace perhaps). Nevertheless, the verses survived.

Ferdowsi returned to Tus to spend the closing years of his life forlorn. Notwithstanding the lack of royal patronage, he died proud and confident his work would make him immortal.

Ferdowsi wrote the Shahnameh in Persian at a time when modern Persian was emerging from middle Persian Pahlavi admixed with a number of Arabic words. In his writing, Ferdowsi used authentic Persian while minimizing the use of Arabic words. In doing so, he established classical Persian as the language of great beauty and sophistication, a language that would supplant Arabic as the language of court literature in all Islamic regimes in the Indo-Iranian region.

"I turn to right and left, in all the earth I see no signs of justice, sense or worth: a man does evil deeds, and all his days are filled with luck and universal praise. Another’s good in all he does – he dies a wretched, broken man whom all despise.”

If the Shahnameh transliterations this author possesses are correct, Ferdowsi even used the term Parsi and not Farsi to name the Persian language, Farsi being the Arabic version of Parsi. The public for their part got to hear verses and legends in Chaikhanas or tea houses and at other gatherings frequented by travelling bards and storytellers – the famed Naqqal.

A few erudite individuals would also recite the verses in private gatherings eliciting the approving bah-bah. Shahnameh Ferdowsi was and is also read aloud in the gymnasiums of the Mithraeum-like Zurkhanes – where pahlavans, the strong-men of Iran, train with their maces and clubs. During their meditative exercises that have spiritual overtones, a musician plays a drum while reciting Shahnameh verses that recount the heroic deeds of Rustam and other champions of Iran. The epic itself sits in a place of special reverence within the Zurkhane.

"Shahnameh: The Epic of the Persian Kings" is the illustrated edition of the classic work “Shahnameh Ferdowsi”. This new prose translation of the national epic is illuminated with over 500 pages of illustrations and was first published in April 2013.

The lush and intricate illustrations in this edition have been created by award-winning graphic artist and filmmaker Hamid Rahmanian, incorporating images from the pictorial tradition of the Persianate world from the fourteenth to the nineteenth centuries. The new translation and adaptation by Ahmad Sadri, retells the mythological and epic stories of the original poem in prose format. This Shahnameh is an extraordinary literary and artistic accomplishment.

"I’ve reached the end of this great history and all the land will talk of me. I shall not die, these seeds I’ve sown will save my name and reputation from the grave. Men of sense and wisdom will proclaim when I have gone, my praises and my fame." [Welcome to Iran].

REVIEW: “Shahnameh: The Epic of the Persian Kings”, illustrated by Mr. Hamid Rahmanian, a noted filmmaker and graphic designer, and translated by Dr. Ahmad Sadri, Gorter Professor of Islamic World Studies and Professor of Sociology at Lake Forest College, affords the reader an exciting introduction to Ferdowsi's epic saga of ancient Persian triumphs, tragedies, romances, and heroic exploits. “Shahnameh: The Epic of the Persian Kings” is a lavish publication with almost 600 pages of striking illustrations. These were collected and reassembled by Rahmanian from thousands of miniatures and illustrated manuscripts, ranging in geographical locale from India to Turkey. This is quite possibly the most beautiful book that we have ever seen.

Written over a thousand years ago in medieval Iran, Ferdowsi's epic is as important to Persians as the “Illiad” is to Greeks and the “Ramayana” to Indians. Ferdowsi is responsible for safeguarding a collective Persian past, one before the Arab conquests of the seventh century AD, through his collection of Persian myths and legends. Despite the enduring and enormous popularity of the Shahnameh across the Persian-speaking Near East for over a Millennium, it remains relatively unknown and vastly underappreciated in the West. Through this publication, Rahmanian and Sadri have given one of the greatest treasures in the canon of world literature new vigor and enhanced appeal.

Although in its original form the Shahnameh was composed of a series of couplets, Sadri's translation and adaptation is presented in melodious prose. Those familiar with the sounds and cadence of Farsi will delight in Sadri's translation, which retains the whimsical feel of the original, while the prose narrative compliments the ethereal, breathtaking illustrations found throughout the publication. When reading the text, we found ourselves marveling at how skillfully Sadri was able to abridge the text into accessible chapters for a modern audience.

Rahmanian is a gifted artist and the illustrations found throughout the book are simply beautiful. Moreover, Rahmanian's blending of artistic styles from across the Near East adds to the monumental scope of Sadri's prose. It is difficult to describe Rahmanian's artistic style succinctly, but we would characterize it as a mélange of assorted traditional Persian styles. This being said, it would not be entirely inappropriate to describe Shahnameh: The Epic of the Persian Kings as a “graphic novel”.

Aside from the gorgeous illustrations and the charming prose, we found Ms. Sheila Canby's foreword to be informative. Rahmanian's Preface and Sadri's Translator's Note, Editorial Philosophy, and The Vision delineate how this version of the Shahnameh differs from others. To help guide readers through the complicated world of ancient Persian lore, there is a useful family tree for the main characters. The book concludes with a chapter on how Rahmanian was painstakingly able to illustrate this title.

The Ancient History Encyclopedia strongly recommends this book to those stirred by great art and literature. It makes wonderful and imaginative reading, whether you are already familiar with the plot of the Shahnameh or not.

REVIEW: "Shahnameh: The Epic of the Persian Kings" is a new illustrated edition of the classic work written over one thousand years ago by Abolqasem Ferdowsi, one of Persia’s greatest poets. This new prose translation of the national epic is illuminated with over 500 pages of illustrations.

A little over a thousand years ago a Persian poet named Ferdowsi of Tous collected and put into heroic verse the Millennium old mythological and epic traditions of Iran. It took him thirty years to write the sixty thousand verses that comprise the Shahnameh ("The Book of Kings").

This monumental tome is one of the most important literary works of Iran and like other great epics, such as Gilgamesh, The Odyssey, Nibelungenlied and Ramayana, it is a record of the human imaginative consciousness. It is well known and has been adapted through out the Near East, Central Asia and India but is mostly unknown in the West.

The stories of the Shahnameh tell the long history of the Iranian people. It begins with the creation of the world and the origin myths of the arts of civilization (fire, cooking, metallurgy, social structures, etc.) and ends with the Arab conquest of Persia in the seventh century AD. A mix of myth and history, the characters of Shahnameh take the readers on heroic adventures filled with superhuman champions, magical creatures, heart-wrenching love stories, and centuries-long battles.

Ferdowsi was grieved by the fall of the Persian Empire. Shahnameh was meant to harbor the Persian collective memory, language, and culture amidst a turbulent sea of many historical storms and to preserve the nostalgia of Persia’s golden days. Heroes of Shahnameh are often torn between incompatible loyalties: moral duty against group obligations, filial piety against national honor, etc.

Some Iranian kings and heroes appear in Shahnameh as shining examples of courage and nobility. Others are portrayed as flawed human beings who lose their divine “charisma,” their loved ones, and even their own lives to pettiness and hubris. Ferdowsi stresses his belief that since the world is transient, and since everyone is merely a passerby, one is wise to avoid cruelty, lying, avarice and other evils; instead one should strive for order, justice, honor. truth and other virtues.

Shahnameh has survived as the embodiment of the pre-Islamic Persian soul, but it is much more than a national treasure. As a document of human collective consciousness, it reflects the dilemmas of the human condition as it confronts us with the timeless questions of our existence. The present version covers the brief mythological opening of Shahnameh as well as the main bulk of its epic stories.

The productiojn team is composed of Hamid Rahmanian, an award-winning filmmaker and graphic artist whose work has been exhibited in international competitions and publications. His narrative and documentary films have premiered at Venice, Sundance, Toronto, Tribeca, and IDFA film festivals. He has won numerous international awards and his works have been televised on international networks, including PBS, Sundance Channel, IFC, Channel 4, BBC, DR2, and Al Jazeera. He lives in Brooklyn, New York.

Also Dr. Ahmad Sadri, Translation and Adaptation. Ahmad Sadri is professor of Sociology and Anthropology and James P. Gorter Chair of Islamic World Studies at Lake Forest College. He is the author of "Max Weber’s Sociology of Intellectuals" published by Oxford University Press and selected as the 1993 academic book of the year by Choice, the publication of American Library Association. He has written two books in Persian, "Reviving the Concept of Civilizations" and "An Apocalypse Soon", and his published translations include "Saddam City" (from Arabic) and "Reason, Freedom and Democracy in Islam" (from Persian). He lives in Gurnee, Illinois.

Also Melissa Hibbard, Editorial Director. Melissa Hibbard is an independent writer and producer. Her latest film, "The Glass Horse", produced in association with the Sundance Channel received several awards including the prestigious Human Rights Award (OSCE). Her films have been well received by critics and audiences and have been part of Sundance, Tribeca, Venice, IDFA and Toronto film festivals and been broadcast on international networks around the world. She lives in Brooklyn New York.

And finally, the forward was written by Sheila Canby. Sheila Canby is the Curator in Charge of the Islamic Art Department at the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Previously she was Curator of Islamic Collections at the British Museum. Her publications include "Persian Painting" and "The Golden Age of Persian Art". She lives in New York City.

REVIEW: The “Shahnameh”, which literally means ‘The Book of Kings,’ is a long epic poem written by the Persian poet Ferdowsi around 1000 AD, and it is considered to be the world’s longest epic poem written by a single poet – it contains 50,000 couplets. Vintage copies of this work are usually gorgeously illustrated with Persian miniature paintings, but this new edition is absolutely stunning. It is filled to bursting with bright pictures that created by artist Hamid Rhamanian, who used images from various pictures of old manuscripts to create new imagery. Honestly, when you see the book in person, these images are just breathtakingly beautiful, and there are 500 glorious pages of them.

The text has been vividly translated into English by Ahmad Sadri, the James P. Gorter Chair of Islamic World Studies at Lake Forest College. It is structured according to the mythical and historical reign of 50 Persian Kings, covering the period from the creation of the world until the Arab conquest of Iran in the 7th century. The epic can be roughly divided into three parts. The first part tells of the mythical creation of Persia and its earliest mythical past. The second part tells of the legendary Kings and the heroes Rostam and Sohrab. The third part blends historical fact with legend, telling of the semi-mythical adventures of actual historical Kings.

The stories throng with heroes and villains, demons and dragons and deeds of derring-do, the book tells the ageless story of the struggle between good and evil. This edition is beautifully bound in cloth, the pages are sewn in, and it is protected by a very sturdy slip case.

REVIEW: “Shahnameh: The Persian Book of Kings” is the great epic of Persia, composed by the poet Ferdowsi between 980 and 1010. It tells the story of pre-Islamic Iran, beginning at the time of the mythic creation through the Arab invasion of the seventh century. Grieved by the fall of the Persian Empire, Ferdowsi sought to create a work that would capture the memory, culture and nostalgia of the golden days of Persia. A mix of mythology and history, packed with stories of triumph and courage, failure and cruelty, love and war, “Shahnameh” can only be compared to works such as “Gilgamesh”, the “Mahabharata”, Homer’s “Odyssey” or Dante's “Divine Comedy”.

Hamid Rahmanian is an award-winning filmmaker and graphic artist based in New York City. Inspired by the wealth of imagery he found in different editions of “Shahnameh”, Rahmanian experimented with bringing together images from different styles and periods. The work grew and grew. Different characters came to life, and 100,000 hours of work later, he had created an entirely new illustrated edition of the classic text. Culled from thousands of illustrated manuscripts, lithographs and miniatures dating from the 14th to 19th centuries, each page is a collage of traditional forms transformed into a wholly new work that Sheila Canby, Curator of Islamic Art at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, has dubbed "a Shahnameh for the digital age".

Rahmanian's artwork is complemented, meanwhile, by a new English prose translation of Ferdowsi's verse by Ahmad Sadri, James P. Gorter Chair of Islamic World Studies at Lake Forest College. [Asia Society New York].

REVIEW: The new, impeccable translation and adaptation of the Epic of Persian Kings by Ahmad Sadri brought to life a host of heroic characters and wove their adventures into a thrilling story spanning thousands of years. Now make sure to tighten your seat belts. This experience will take you on a journey back to the world of ancient Iranian heroes, monsters, lovers, and warriors. This is going to be one heck of a ride.

REVIEW: This best-selling book is one of the most sought after books on Shahnameh and Persian culture. It's a beautiful introduction to the cherished epic poetry of Iran. Painstakingly produced and created by artist Hamid Rahmanian and translated and adapted by Ahmad Sadri, this book will delight the novice and scholar alike.

REVIEW: The “Shahnameh”, also transliterated as “Shahnama” ("The Epic of Kings"), is a long epic poem written by the Persian poet Ferdowsi between about 977 and 1010 AD, and is the national epic of Greater Iran. Consisting of some 50,000 "distichs" or couplets (2-line verses), the “Shahnameh” is the world's longest epic poem written by a single poet. It tells mainly the mythical and to some extent the historical past of the Persian Empire from the creation of the world until the Islamic conquest of Persia in the 7th century.

Modern Iran, Azerbaijan, Afghanistan and the greater region influenced by the Persian culture (such as Georgia, Armenia, Turkey and Dagestan) celebrate this national epic. The work is of central importance in Persian culture, regarded as a literary masterpiece, and definitive of the ethno-national cultural identity of modern-day Iran, Afghanistan and Tajikistan. It is also important to the contemporary adherents of Zoroastrianism, in that it traces the historical links between the beginnings of the religion with the death of the last Sassanid ruler of Persia during the Muslim conquest and an end to the Zoroastrian influence in Iran.

REVIEW: Composed more than a Millennium ago, the “Shahnameh” - the great royal book of the Persian court - is a pillar of Persian literature and one of the world's unchallenged masterpieces. Recounting the history of the Persian people from its mythic origins down to the Islamic conquest in the seventh century, the Shahnameh is the stirring and beautifully textured story of a proud civilization. But the Shahnameh (or, literally, the 'Book of Kings') is much more than a literary masterpiece: it is the wellspring of the modern Persian language, a touchstone for Iranian national consciousness and its illustrations, in manuscripts of different eras, are the inspiration for one of the world's greatest artistic traditions. Illustrations drawn from a wide range of artists and styles, display the timeless flexibility of the Shahnameh story as well as the marvelous ingenuity of the Persian artistic experience. Shahnameh is an essential textual and pictorial guide to one of the world's great cultural achievements.

REVIEW: The Shahnameh, an epic poem recounting the foundation of Iran across mythical, heroic, and historical ages, is the beating heart of Persian literature and culture. Composed by Abu al-Qasem Ferdowsi over a thirty-year period and completed in the year 1010, the epic has entertained generations of readers and profoundly shaped Persian culture, society, and politics. For a Millennium, Iranian and Persian-speaking people around the globe have read, memorized, discussed, performed, adapted, and loved the poem.

REVIEW: "Shahnameh: The Persian Book of Kings" is the timeless masterpiece by the Persian poet Ferdowsi. The epic poem, believed to have been written between 977 and 1010 AD, tells of the mythological and historical past of Persia from the creation of the world up until the Islamic conquest of Iran in the seventh century. The "Shahnameh" is a captivating story of an ancient world and details much of early Persia's history, culture, and Zoroastrian religion. The poem, consisting of over 50,000 couplets, or two-line verses, is a work of great importance in Persian culture and helped shape the development of the modern Persian language. The poem is regarded as the national epic and symbol of Iran and is celebrated in many areas that were once a part of the ancient Persian Empire, such as Afghanistan, Turkey, Armenia, and Georgia. The lyrical account of Persian history in "Shahnameh" has had a profound influence on Persian literature and the work is referenced in the timeless love poems of Rumi and Hafiz. "Shahnameh" endures as an important historical record of an ancient people and a beautiful and poetic celebration of the Persian culture.

REVIEW: "Epic Iranian tale gets intimate upgrade...For all of its many adaptations, “Shahnameh” has remained largely unknown in the West except in scholarly circles and among Iranians. But New York based artist Hamid Rahmanian's recent illustrated rendition with translator Ahmad Sadri, “Shahnameh: The Epic of the Persian Kings could change that”. [The Guardian].

REVIEW: "This edition is simply breathtaking: 600 illustrations dance across every page, each telling a story in a thousand intricate and beautiful artistic flourishes. Accompanied by a translation of the text that is charming, accessible, and rich in the nuances of the Persian language, it is a treasure that will be cherished and handed down to subsequent generations.” [Huffington Post].

REVIEW: A gorgeous new translation of the Persian epic [NPR, All Thing Considered].

REVIEW: One of the most beautiful books I've ever been given [Neil Gaiman, UK Author].

REVIEW: An Iranian epic for the masses [CNN International].

REVIEW: A Persian Masterpiece, Still Relevant Today [The Wall Street Journal].

REVIEW: Immerse yourself in the distant past with this epic poem from the Persian tradition. Penned more than one thousand years ago by the famed poet Ferdowsi. The “Shahnameh” weaves history and myth into a lyrical, action-packed work of art that you won't be able to put down. This book is a must-read for folklore connoisseurs.

REVIEW: Brings new, vivid life to the epic tales of the ancient Persian kings [The Atlantic].

REVIEW: The Shah-Nameh (Book of Kings) is Iran's national epic, composed in the 10th century. This copy was written and illustrated in the 16th century and contains illustrations of stunning beauty.

REVIEW: A study of Persian miniature painting. Reproduces pages from a sixteenth-century Islamic manuscript which details early Iranian history and contains miniatures by leading Safavid painters.

READER REVIEWS:

REVIEW: Hamid Rahmanian took many illustrations from carious versions of the “Shah-Nameh” and recast them to illuminate the text "with over 500 pages of lavish illustrations", as the publisher puts it. And the result is one of the most magical and uniquely beautiful books in my home library. Every time I look at it, read from it, browse through it I am happy that I bought it. Literally, every page is alive with color and design that illustrates the events of the text. The consistently high quality of these illustrations is breathtaking - there is not a false moment in the whole 572-page book! How many publications can you give such unreserved praise!

Now for the text, this is not the full text of Ferdowsi's epic poem. A writer named Ahmad Sadri wrote a prose summary of the poem which makes up the text. In Dick Davis's monumental complete translation, the illustrations serve his complete translation. In this version, Sadri's prose serves the illustrations. So the two versions are exact opposites. What this means is that this magnificent collection of creative illustrations can accompany you as you read Davis's translation. Or you can skip the epic in its complex and convoluted narrative (886 pages in the Penguin edition!) and enjoy this version as an object of art.

Either way you will be enriched by your encounter with one of the great war epics of world literature, a work which occupies the same exalted status in Islamic culture that the "Iliad" and the "Aeneid" occupy in Western culture. (And aren't we Americans past due in appreciating Iranian culture in particular, considering our 21st century karma has inextricably entwined the fates of our two societies?) One further note: in 2006, the artist Zak Smith published a collection of pictures which illustrates what happens on each page of Thomas Pynchon's 1973 novel, "Gravity's Rainbow", an enormously complicated book well served by Smith's scintillating pictures.

To one who has indeed the whole of Ferdowsi's epic poem, I can sincerely commend this version as an alternative to reading the medieval text. It is as if you were to see a film version of a novel that does justice to the book. For example, Terence Malick's film, "The Thin Red Line", from 1999 does justice to James Jones's 1962 novel. The important issue as I see it is this: in today's world cultural literacy involves a knowledge of the literature of the world of Islam. This version of one of the seminal works of Persian literature can provide that knowledge, and what's more, the experience of it through art.

REVIEW: The recently translated and fully illuminated and illustrated version of the epic of the Persian king is itself an achievement of epic proportions. Ahmad Sadri has a mesmerizing way of relating the epic battles and erotic exploits of the heroes and heroines of “The Book of Kings”. His method of abridging the text and presenting it in user friendly chapters for the modern reader is a masterpiece of parsimonious selection and engaging presentation. The translator remains fiercely committed to the original content and refuses to add or subtract any relevant detail. But he also is judicious in cutting out the repetitious and the trivial.

For instance the chapter dealing with the Return of the King Kay Khosrow from Turan (that has been curiously left out of the Dick Davis 800 page translation of “Shahnameh”) reads at once as an epic tale and a modern adventure movie script. I hope that the hard work of Ahmad Sadri will pave the way for other experts to roll up their sleeves and follow suit in rendering other works of Iran's poetic heritage. I must confess that I came close to experiencing an epiphany in certain moments of reading this gorgeous version of Shahnameh, a state that I had not achieved in my previous encounters with these stories.

In a certain sense, reading it in this eloquent English translation did not merely refresh the story in my mind; it allowed me to look at what was familiar in an entirely new light. Sadri and Rahmanian have collaborated in such a perfect way as to enliven the ancient Persian epic and impact the emotional landscape of entire new generations. I am eagerly looking forward to their future works and to works inspired by the trend they have set.

REVIEW: This edition of "Shanameh" is an adaptation, as labeled on the first page; it is certainly shorter than the full text. But it is accompanied by beautifully ornate, full illustrations on every page, original to the edition, and the text gives a good sense of the full work. This is a large scale (about 14 inches tall and 10 wide) deluxe production, covered in bright green cloth with a gold and maroon emblem on the front. The illustrations are stunning, and repay close attention.

There is a long tradition of illustrations for the Shanameh, both for Iranian patrons and for export to the Ottoman Empire and India. The introduction doesn’t discuss how this fits into Islamic prohibitions of figurative art. There was a major exhibition of Shanameh art at the Metropolitan Museum of Art several years ago, and it would be interesting to compare these contemporary, but traditional, illustrations with the ones in the catalog.

Wikipedia says Ferdowsi wrote this between 977 and 1010. It portrays Iran from earliest time until the Islamic conquest in the seventh century. The only religion mentioned in it is Zoroastrianism. The translation/adaptation is a mix of prose and poetry, although my extracts here only quote the infrequent poetic pieces. Ferdowsi’s original consists of 50,000 couplets. As in the Bible, some people live for hundreds of years, while others age and die around them. There are fairies and demons, although in this adaptation humans are by far the main characters.

I’m not going to try to summarize the Wikipedia commentary of the Shanameh’s importance in Persian history, language and literature here; but learning about the role of the poem would be well worth while. At first the names and genealogy go by at dizzying speed, but the story settles in to a tale of three of four generations of two main familes in Persia and a handful in Turan, to the northeast of modern Iran (Turkmenestan).

This is the national epic of Iran, the stories all children presumably hear from infancy. They also hear beautiful prose and poetry, and they hear about heros who try to cauterize the last emotional wounds and stop the cycle of revenge. "False confidence leads a foolish man to slaughter. He stomps on solid ground but it turns out to be a layer of straw floating on a puddle of water."

At a deeper level, there is an epic story of dynasties and political negotiations about what kind of government will prevail. Ferdowsi is also an incredible psychologist. His kings and warriors are always in flux between their impetuous impulses and reflective wisdom. "The world is full of mysteries as it makes and breaks. Love and wisdom forsook them both, nor did one of them pause to correct his mistakes. Fish, onager, and beasts of burden in their mangers know their own, but greed so blinded father and son that they faced each other as strangers."

He portrays many of the early kings of Persia and weak or disastrous rulers, who embroiled their countries in unnecessary wars and were vindictive or unappreciative of the brave defenders. Other rulers, however, were upright and wise, and fostered art, science and justice. There is a touching story of one king at only sixty years old, worn down by his duties, climbing a mountain in winter to die, disappearing, and the heroes who accompanied him against his counsel dying in the blizzard as well.

One gets a sense of the different cultural background of simultaneous political and military leaders and dynasties that I read as a very old tradition that may be a source of the later approach to the very different scopes of political and religious rule, when compared to the modern West. Just a guess.

Women are not omitted. There is a story that is very close to the Greek "Phaedre", with disastrous results. Other women are mothers with wise advice, beautiful daughters and brides, and brave widows committing mass suicide to avoid capture as war booty. Horses are just about as important as lovers. As the supreme hero Rostam is finally returned in state to his city after a gruesome death by treachery at the end of the work, his faithful horse is treated to the same honored trip via a bejeweled platform on an elephant.

"Magnificent buildings decay by the dint of time and exposure to the elements wrecks even a house of flint. But the poetic edifice I have erected in rhyme shall endure the contagion of the rain and the sun. For three decades have I thus suffered to restore this Persian tongue and now my work is done."

REVIEW: I bought this incredible book on Amazon a few weeks ago. One must be a poet to even attempt the great Persian epic of kings, the “Shahnameh”. When I lived in Iran as a teenager in the 1970s, I would occasionally bumble into a bar or teahouse and quite often there would be a man reciting and acting out something to the rapt attention of the crowd, everyone except me that is, the long-haired faringi boy looking for kebab and chai. I had no clue what was going on but it was most certainly the "Shahnameh".

Imagine it being a common occurrence to go into a Western bar and hear a poet's heartfelt rendition of Shakespeare... and the customers listening and enjoying it. That's the kind of gravitas this book has in Persian culture and in the history of great literature. I've tried to read the Shahnameh, but I don't speak Farsi and the beautiful lyricism of the language was lost to me in translation. What this book does extremely well is to apply the grand artistry of Persian heritage to the English translation of the prose. Every page is a joy to look at, so well crafted and illustrated.

Now, at long last, I know what I was missing... but hey, the kebabs were always delicious and the teapots never ending. ;-)

REVIEW: Purchase this lovely gift that shouts sophistication, good taste, high quality, and class. The pages are incredibly illustrated, with a great chance that you will spend moments lost in admiring the mesmerizing shapes, symbols, and range of colors on the page. This is a must buy for artists, historians, academics, and world travelers, anyone who appreciates the written word and historical art…Purchased 3 times already as a gift for dear friends, with resounding success!

REVIEW: I bought this book mainly for my three book savvy, history and methodology loving daughters, aged 8 to 11 years old. They’ve been reading it solo or listening as I read it to them, they also take turns reading to each other and I can tell they’re definitely intrigued. It has many, many pages of colorful pairings and pictures enhancing the dramatic essence of each story. I can’t help but gush about how luxuriously this book has been designed, almost breathtakingly stunning. The smooth translation from Farsi into English also is absolutely delightful, simple and easy to follow. The book is quite heavy with a gorgeous hard cover and very high end quality which makes for a wonderful sentimental gift for your loved ones or a wonderful addition to your own library to keepsake and enjoy many years to come.

REVIEW: I salute both Hamid Rahmanian (Illustrator) and Ahmad Sadri (Translator) for their magnificent and painstaking endeavor in producing this exquisite book. It is written in clear and lucid English. Once you start reading, you get so engrossed that you begin to dislodge yourself from the 21st century to the realm great Persian Kings. Each and every illustration is of highest quality and makes you really ponder about the civilization that existed in that era.

I really feel that the book of this magnitude and scale should receive a much wider coverage. I would also like to bring this book to the attention of both academicians and the lay persons in India. With this thought in mind, I have already donated the book to the library maintained by R K Cama Oriental Institute, Mumbai, India. Zoroastrians, both in India and abroad, should quietly look back at the Old Persian Civilization and Culture and be proud of it.

REVIEW: This is such a great book. As a Shahname lover I have read many versions of this epic work and there are number of translations of Shahname out there. What I love about this edition is the great translation of Shahname (staying loyal to the content and story lines), its ease of reading for all ages and most of all its marvelous illustrations. Every single page of this book is a piece of art. I am truly amazed with the talent and effort that illustrator had put on this work, just speechless. There are many amazing illustrations of Shahname stories available from great masters of miniature painting and they are all great.

What I love about the illustrations in this volume is how the artist has a hint of modern art on it, he made it stand out from all other works and made it more appealing to readers from all ages and nationalities. As I said earlier there is not a single page of this heavy volume that is not decorated with great illustrations. In terms of publishing there is no shortness of quality and I would like to appreciate all the effort that has been invested on this volume. I would like to add that this can be a great book for children especially teenagers. It is all about ethics and daily struggles of humans, love, destiny, heroism, war, humanity, responsibility and so on through amazing stories. This is the third time I am purchasing this book as my friends saw it, loved it and kept it to themselves (consider it a great gift). I highly recommend this book actually to any one of any age.

REVIEW: Don't you just love it when a beautifully bound book has already won your heart before you even turn the first page. This 'work' truly is a treasure with page after page of stunning historical illustrations that will make you want to know more about the rich Persian culture.

REVIEW: I'm so fascinated by this amazing piece of art! Even though I read the original masterpiece in Farsi/Persian, Ahmad Sadri's lucid and adroit translation is as beautiful, attractive and engaging! I'm also amazed by Hamid Rahmanian's illustrations. One can spend a good mount of time wandering and pondering in patterns, designs and colors. I'm so glad that I have this book and highly recommend it to art and literature lovers.

REVIEW: A great starter for people who are not familiar with Ferdowsi's original Book of Kings - Shahnameh - published centuries ago. And for those more familiar they can appreciate the delicate collage and revitalization of all the artwork that has been inspired by the original literary masterpiece over the past few centuries. A great read and visual treat for fans of comic books, graphic designers, artists, storytellers alike. Comes highly recommended for yourself and everyone you know!

REVIEW: Rahmanian and Sadri have done an extraordinary service in making these stories accessible to Westerners in such an attractive form. The translation is clear and the illustrations on every page are stunning. In Iran, the Shahnameh is the fundamental treasury of classical Persian culture, bringing together the mythic/historical tales of the origins of a national identity. There is no single equivalent in European culture, but if one imagines that the Iliad, the tales of King Arthur and Roland had been compiled by Shakespeare, one gets close to the importance that it holds for Persians.

Ferdowsi wrote it all in verse and purposely used only Persian words and none of the many Arabic words that had entered the language with the arrival of Islam. His verses are often memorized and recited and the characters and words of the Shahnameh appear in the poetry of Hafiz, Saadi, Rumi and others. Storytellers still enact the story of Rustam and make grown men weep. Buy the book and you will gladly spend hours absorbed in tales of heroism, villainy, loyalty and tenderness, in which people weep tears of blood and love inspires superhuman feats. The illustrations pull you in, showing the central action but surrounded by the rich cavalcade of life. It is rare that a volume of this quality is available.

REVIEW: On “Shahnameh”: a symbolic story of man's journey to find his higher self; a story of love, desire, and triumph written by the greatest story teller of all times, Ferdowsi. On Translation: I briefly went over it and it seemed heartfelt and easy to relate to. One of the greatest works I have ever seen. On Publication: great quality and a true artwork. This is a book recommended by many enlightened souls as a guide to show us the path to salvation.

REVIEW: I've only had this book in my possession for a few days, but I could tell immediately upon picking it up that this is a quality item. There is not a doubt in my mind that this book will last, and that I'll be able to pass it to my children and hopefully theirs. Even removing it from the sleeve feels magical. Every page is alive and vibrant, done in a style my Western eyes are unfamiliar with, yet which speaks to me the way that only truly great art can. I can't speak to the text at all. I've read that it's a prose summary, not the poem itself. Hopefully that makes the work more accessible; I know that I'm capable of paying attention to dry epic poems, but I don't think my daughter is. Long story short, in probably any other circumstance, I wouldn't even consider leaving a review without having read the book and owned it for 6+ months; in this instance, however, the work is so moving, I was compelled.

REVIEW: For hundreds of years, Shahnameh's everlasting tales have been told in songs and plays from heart to heart: the stories of Zaal's solemn wisdom, Rostam's epic heroism, Siavash's heartbreaking veracity, and Sohrab and Gordafarid's fantastical romance. Here, Hamid Rahmanian and his masterpiece, reconstruct the myths using pictorial elements of the past. This book is magnificent not only in its presentation, but also in its process of creation, from Ferdowsi's unbound imagination to great Safavid masters' miniature paintings, and finally to Hamid's inexhaustible search for the perfect marriage of the two.

REVIEW: Simply a masterpiece! I purchased this book in reminiscing one of the greatest masterpieces of literature in the world " Shahnameh" or "the Chronicle of the King". Although I am still missing the beautiful original poems in Farsi from its writer/poet Ferawsi but exquisite drawings (miniature) and the story telling makes up for my longing. Large cut, good binding and glossy pages from cover to cover makes this book one of my cherished possessions. For the quality and the workmanship have gone into this book I recommend it to other literature enthusiasts.

REVIEW: It will be a while before I could say I have "finished" this book. It is one of the most beautifully printed and bound books you will ever buy. The use of the ancient Persian illustrations was a brilliant use of history and art to create something unique. The English translation by Dr. Sadri makes reading the text a joy without losing the poetic imagery that one can only imagine exemplified the original. How wonderful to be able to collect such a beautiful and interesting piece of history.

REVIEW: Everyone I have shown this book to has been wildly impressed. That includes a few people who I bought it for as a gift, as well as friends and acquaintances. Personally, I love this book for the way it brings you into another culture that feels foreign and familiar at the same time. Through the mediums of great epic poetry and marvelous art, we are exposed to a universally fulfilling epic that, through Sadri's translation, reminds us that behind every language you don't understand is the humanity that brings us all together.

REVIEW: This book is truly beautiful -- and this applies to the incredible graphics, the stories themselves, and this wonderfully accessible translation. The crispness of the translation and editing resulted in something delightfully readable for a range of ages, while preserving the striking emotional impact of these tales of heroism, wisdom, joy, and loyalty as well as of tragedy, betrayal, foolishness, arrogance, and loss. While expensive compared to most books, this one is well worth it, even for those unfamiliar with the historical importance of the Shahnameh in Persian society over the past 1,000 years.

REVIEW: What a beautiful work of art! I am Iranian/Persian and my fiancé is Danish. We have been reading this book together and enjoying it tremendously. What a shame in Iran’s school books there is so little of this treasure of a culture and literature and then too much of religious studies instead. We both can’t wait to share and enjoy the book and beautiful stories with our future kids. Grateful for all those who made it possible and available to us.

REVIEW: Words cannot describe how beautiful this book is. The art is stunning and every page is a testament of the hard work the illustrator and the author have put into this work. If you enjoy Persian art, mythology, folklores and ancient history, this is the book for you. Don't forget about kids! If you are looking for something different for your kids, “Shahnameh” is the book to read to them. Just let their imagination run wild with the images and stories of kings, dragons, beasts and superheroes.

REVIEW: For years I wanted to see and read an English version of "Shahnameh", the kings stories. A book that while growing up touched our hearts and world, the original written by Ferdowsi in early fourteenth century, a poetic feast, fully written in Farsi, he managed not to use Arabic words, to show that "Farsi/Persian" language remains intact, even after the Islamic and Arabic language influence in the kingdom. He made an epic and heroic master peace, about good and evil, love and sacrifice.

Knowing that two amazing artists, historians and academics, Ahmad Sadri and and Hamid Rahmaninan, have collaborated and published "Shahnameh" in English with such beautiful illustrations, was a the best news. “The Epic of the Persian Kings”, is a feast by itself, beautifully written and translated in modern English. It is difficult to put the book down, it is a gift to all that the eyes must see and read everyday. History is re-written, all over again, Ferdowsi would be proud. It is a "fantasy literature" as Sheila Canby puts it. Gets all the Stars to be my number one poetic and artistic book after so many years. A must have.

REVIEW: This English version of Iran's answer to the “Iliad”, Ferdowsi's “Shahnameh” (“The Book of Kings”) stands head and shoulders above other translations of this great work. Not only is the translation more pithy and digestible than other attempts that I've read, the artwork alone is enough to justify buying it! It mixes clips of Ferdowsi's original Persian along with art inspired by the celebrated Persian miniature paintings, but with a modern, graphic novel sensibility (and, if my eyes don't deceive me, a rendition of Ahura Mazda in the face of the sun that is derived from the Nadir Divan-Beghi madraseh in Bukhara). In short, anyone who is interested in Iranian history, great storytelling, mythology, or gorgeous artwork will love to have this to their collection. Definitely something to treasure!

REVIEW: This entire book is a work of Art, and a fitting form for the great classic epics of the Persian Kings. It is a beautiful coffee table trophy, except that you would not want your guests to spill any coffee on such a magnificent book. If you are interested in this place and period of history, I strongly recommend this book. It would make a wonderful gift for someone special.

REVIEW: This artistically sumptuous volume is mesmerizing to view, as well as to read. The illustrations were painstakingly assembled by Hamid Rahmanian from actual artwork found in several centuries of manuscripts. Ahmad Sadri's prose translation of Ferdowsi's poetry is easy to read. The legends of ancient Iran are fascinating. I lived in Iran as a youth, during the time of the shah. I have kept up with the country and I have a number of Iranian friends. Many given names that we see in the news today can be found in this ancient poetic compilation of the prehistory of Persia. I highly recommend this fabulous tome!

REVIEW: "Shahnameh" pays testament to traditional Persian scripture through the translation of virtuous stories that are relevant for today's generations. The translations provide the raw truth of good facing obstacles to overcome evil. Loyalty, valor, and honor are the common motifs that are demonstrated by the protagonist Persian kings in their epic journeys to fight evil. The clash of these mythological-like characters with superhuman powers can be comparable to action-packed Stan Lee Marvel movies; however, "Shahnameh" carry more substance and better back stories. As an art teacher, I find the illustrations to be of the utmost quality. I feel that the whimsical illustrations are so well matched with the stories and of museum quality that they fit nicely with every written word.

REVIEW: I bought this book for a Chistmas present for my husband, who is interested in old Persian literature. I had a sneak peek before wrapping it and it would be an understatement to say I was surprised. The quality of the paper is fantastic, the illustrations are beautiful and meticulously detailed, and the translation is superb. As a translator, I have come across my share of bad literary translations, but this exceeded all my expectations. It has obviously been well researched and lovingly put together. As for the quality of the book itself, it appears substantially more expensive than it actually was. On the whole, a fantastic purchase and a must for all lovers of literature.

REVIEW: “Shahnameh: The Epic of the Persian Kings” by Hamid Rahmanian Illustrator and Design; Ahmad Sadri Translator and Adaption. I am so thrilled that I ordered this book. I love the way the book has updated the old Shahnameh and brought it forward so that it is easier to understand and appreciate the ancient Persian supermen. Absolutely taken by The Epic's illustration and the fact that the techniques used to design the art works bridge the past to present. This book has vibrant, unique and clear colors and design combines computerized illustrations with old style of Persian miniature paintings. I highly recommend this valuable book for children and adults. Great book to put on your coffee table or library. Good quality paper and ink used.

REVIEW: This is a tremendously beautiful book, from the cover to the endpapers to each dramatic spread. Not until I got the book and read the artist's note did I really appreciate how the book was made. The images are all carefully spliced-together bits and pieces from existing medieval illustrations of the Shahnameh. It's meticulous work, often involving restoration, and it creates a world that is so much more fantastical and imaginative than a single artist's would be. The text strikes me as very readable and smooth--it doesn't have that slightly off quality that some translations do. I'm giving this as a gift to several children I know--it has the lushness and dramatic stories of the best books of European Fairy tales.

REVIEW: Off-the-charts excellent graphic work. This long, ancient book has been as much about the art (through the ages) as the stories. This example by Ferdowsi incorporates selections of art images from the best historical examples--combines them with others--snips, cuts, pastes, tweaks, etc until the old images become new in the truest sense. Every page is magnificent. For even more fun--check out the youtube videos available to watch him demonstrate how he worked his new-fangled magic on the old-master images. You're in for a treat.

REVIEW: I rarely write reviews but this book deserves one. I always wanted to learn about Ferdowsi's Persian mythos. This book is equivalent to the Greek “Iliad”. It is ambitious and truly takes you on a journey that takes across several lineages of kings. I wish there was more. The book is densely packed with great stories, so I hope we will possibly see more books of this sort.

REVIEW: Absolutely beautiful book! It's like having your very own illuminated manuscript!! The story is very engaging and easy to read. Persian was the major literary language of the Middle East and India from at least 800 AD until the 19th century. It is inexcusable that this, and other great classics of Persian and Arabic literature, have been so overlooked in the West. This book should help correct this problem. Highly recommended.

REVIEW: I recommend this book to everyone! It is an all around great production. They have helped create something that has long been overdue. This book is so well done and a great contribution to the world of Persian arts and literature, especially for the new generation of Persians who cannot read Farsi. The text is easy to follow and reflects the original Farsi and the illustrations not only bring the stories to life but also double as a Persian art album. Bravo to the authors! This book should be in every home collection of Persian literature and art.

REVIEW: It is extremely high quality book! I am so excited to read it! It is relatively easy to understand, has fantastic imagery and illustrations and translation is fantastic! I can't say enough good things about it! Thank you so much to the team putting this together!

REVIEW: Even if you don’t read a word of this book, the artwork makes it worth having. The combination though is perfect. This book is great for all levels of interest, whether you’ve had little exposure or lots.

REVIEW: Beautiful heirloom book that is now pride of place on my most prominent display case. Remarkable story and visuals and the audiobook narration is spellbinding too. Clearly a labor of love; and a credit to all involved.

REVIEW: This book is unbelievably beautiful. Best buy I have ever made. Thank you to the generous and talented publisher. Unbelievable beautiful art photography!

REVIEW: I have a translation of the Shahnameh but bought this beautifully illustrated book to read to my grandchildren who, I’m sure, will be mesmerized by the stories and amazing scenes unfolding on every new page. How wonderful it would be to have epic tales as amazing as this one from all corners of our world.

REVIEW: This book has gorgeous color pictures on every page. It was put together by an expert on Persian miniature painting graphics. It is not an dry tome by a scholar who wants to analyze the words of the Shahnameh but is rather for a reader who is seriously interested in the story who values the visual quality offered.

REVIEW: I purchased the audiobook of this book and the hard copy, now listening and reading the same time is so amusing, and god the story is marvelous. Had never felt so much emotion as much as I got with Shahnameh

REVIEW: Great art work. It's a luxurious book that gives you the feel of the richness of cultural context. The high quality and colorful pages along with authentic images make it great. What I loved most about it is that these images refer to the actual paintings done for several centuries. Very suitable to second generation Iranian diaspora, indeed. It's heavy book as is and the gorgeous cover seals the deal !

REVIEW: I got this book as a gift for a friend. But the book is so beautiful and high quality that I decided to buy one for myself as well.

REVIEW: The more research i have done on the author and how he created this book, the more I appreciate it. It made a great gift when i was visiting my future in-laws for the first time, her father loved is so much, I ended up getting one for myself as well. it a huge book, it sits nicely on my shelf on display.

REVIEW: The best part of “Shahnameh” is the fantastic paintings. The best material. I recommend to all Persian parents to buy for sake of their children and it is easy for new generation to read it in English.

REVIEW: I love it! It’s absolutely stunning! I’ve bought it for my teenage cousins to introduce them to Persian literature and they love it! Thank you.

REVIEW: I am so happy to find this amazing book, all the details and paintings are fantastic, the quality is perfect.

REVIEW: Amazing book with good quality and beautiful pictures!

REVIEW: Iranian painting-specifically miniature painting in books-has always been regarded as one of the most original and exquisite forms of the pictorial arts, and indeed its style is unique. This manuscript epitomizes Iranian art and provides the ideal artistic experience that only a true masterpiece can give. This shows the choicest paintings to be found in the manuscript.

REVIEW: First published in 1522 by Shah Isma'il, the founder of the Safavid dynasty, as a present to his son, Prince Tahmasp. Court artists continued their work on the 759 folios for almost two decades. No Islamic volume of the time has a more complete set of colorful, carefully executed miniatures, being a virtual art gallery compared to other royal illuminated manuscripts.

REVIEW: Composed in the tenth century by the poet Firdowsi this book is Iran's Primary literary work. This tome contains hundreds of magnificent paintings by Iranian artists.

ADDITIONAL BACKGROUND:

Ancient Mesopotamia: The oldest known communities in Mesopotamia are thought to date from 9,000 BC, and include the ancient city of Babylon. Several civilizations flourished in the fertile area created by the Tigris and Euphrates rivers flowing south out of Turkey. These river valleys and plains of Mesopotamia are often referred to as the “fertile Crescent” by historians and archaeologists. The region lies between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, which are about 250 miles apart from one another.

The ancient Sumerians and Babylonians were inhabitants of Mesopotamia. Ancient Mesopotamia included parts of what is now eastern Syria, southeastern Turkey, and most of Iraq. This whole area layus between the Tigris and the Euphrates Rivers. By 4,000 BC large cities had developed within the region. Considered one of the cradles of civilization, the region is referred to frequently in The Bible. Biblical accounts even describe the region as the birthplace of Abraham. The region also produced the first written records, as well as the wheel.

The region was conquered by the Akkadians in the 24th century BC. The Akkadians ruled for about two centuries. The ancient city of Ur controlled the region for the next two centuries until about 2,000 B.C. Mesopotamia was not again united until about 1750 BC. At that point in time the Kingdom of Babylon arose and reigned supreme in the area for about one and one-half centuries. The Babylonians in turn were conquered by Hittites from Turkey in about 1595 BC. The longest control of the area was by the ancient Assyrians, who ruled the area from about 1350 through about 600 BC.

After a brief interlude of chaos, the Persians conquered the area. The Persians controlled the region for three centuries until Persia and all of its territories were conquered by Alexander the Great. This occurred in the last of the 4th century BC. However the Greeks only held the region for about one century before it again fell to the Persians. The Persians and Romans wrestled over the area for a number of centuries. Finally in the 7th century AD the area of Mesopotamia fell to the Islamic Empire [AncientGifts].

The Roots of Ancient Persia: Persis was the ancient Greek name of the approximate area of modern Fars in Central Iran. The name is derived from the Persian “pars” from the Persians who settled in the area in the 7th century BC. Prior the place was known as Anšan. “Persis” also referred to the latter Persian state of the Hellenistic and Imperial periods. Persis was the Persian homeland. It was a land predominated by river basins and plateaus which stretched forth from the Zagros Mountains.

The region consisted of river-drained plains between two ridges of the Zagros Mountains, running horizontally from east to west. The land was composed of basins and valleys. It was agriculturally fertile, sustained by a complex web of irrigation ditches. The north-western plains were characterized by more hills and valleys at a higher altitude. This region received more rain than the south-eastern counterpart. In the higher altitudes, temperate forests could be found with oaks, date palms, and pomegranates.

In this region was Pasargade (present-day ), the early capital of the Persian Kings of Kings. Equally famous was the city of Persepolis. Nearer to the salt lakes in the north lay Ansan, the ancient seat of Persian power. Ansan was the original home of Cyrus the Great, founder of the Persian Empire. The Mand River separated Ansan from other cities in the east.

Persis is also the name given today to a small kingdom of the eponymous area which lasted roughly from 300 BC to 211/212 AD. Little is recorded pertaining to the early history of the Kingdom of Persis. It is only dimly lit, characterized by conjecture and contradictory hypotheses. According to the most recent analysis the kingdom appeared during the reign of the Hellenic King Seleucos. Seleucos was one of Alexander-the-Great's generals/successors. During Seleucos's reign of 305-281 BC Persis and the whole Middle East were under Seleucid control.

Seleucos apparently formed an alliance with a local Persian dynasty which grew to gain , substantial power in Persis. Persis rulers took the title of “Frataraka”, or “keeper of the fire”; This title appears to have been equivalent to a sub-satrap title. Their power in Persis was complimented by the presence of a Seleucid satrap of Persis. This balance of power led to some sort of co-existence, but the precise details relationship are not fully understood.

The four first rulers of Pesis were “Artaxares I” (“Ardaxshir” in Persian), “Oborzes” (or “Wahabarz”), “Autophradates I” (or “Vadfradad”), and “Bagadates” (or “Bagdan”). These ruler retained the title of “Frataraka” title and minted coins under that authority. It seems Persis kept fairly good relations with the Seleucids. The exception occurred during the reign of Oborzes, during the period of about 270 to 240 BCE), when according to the Greek Historian Polyaeneus the forces of Persis killed around 3,000 Greek colonists.

Evidence of turbulent reigns can be found in coin overstrikes. These indicate for instance that the rulers Autophradates I and Bagadates were not on good terms with one another. When the Seleucid Antiochos III came to power he installed a Greek by the name of Alexander alongside Alexander's brother Molon at the head of the Persis satrapy in Media. According to Polybius the 2nd century BC Hellenic/Greek Historian Polybius Alexander despised Antiochos III. Alexander helped his brother Molon along with the Upper Satrapies to revolt against Antiochos III during the period 222-220 BC.

Again according to Polybius when Alexander and Molon were defeated the two committed suicide. Antiochos III then sent Tychon who was chief secretary of his army to “take the command of the Persian gulf province”. The revolt must have been supported by the Persis Frataraka, as the Persis dynasty disappeared until the reign of “Autophradates II” (or “Vadfradad” in Persian). Onward from the reign of this ruler until that of the last ruler the Kings of Persis all bore the title “Malakh” instead of “frataraka”.

Persis kings seem to have maintained their loyalty to the Seleucids the Parthians defeated the Seleucids in 141 BCE. The Parthians then kept the Persis kingdoms as vassals, as they also later did with several little kingdoms in Mesopotamia. One of the kings of Persis was Ardashir. The son of Sassan, Ardashir revolted against the Parthian King Artabanos VI in 211/2 AD defeated him. Thus Ardashir founded the Sassanian empire. This ended the kingdom of Persis as under his rule Ardashir simply merged Persis with the defeated Parthian Empire.

Very little is known of the cultural aspects of the kingdom of Persis. They ruled from Estakhr, where Achaemenid tombs are located. The dynasty shows several indications of Hellenization on their coins and on the scarce representation they left history, alongside reminiscent pictures from Achaemenid art. Administration aspects were probably similar to those used by the early Sassanids, with a king giving orders to several kyrios (Lords). Ultimately the legacy of the kingdom of Persis became visible through Sassanid cultural elements, even though many important aspects remain unknown [Ancient History Encyclopedia].

Ancient Persia: Ancient Persia (geographically roughly equivalent to modern-day Iran) is among the oldest inhabited regions in the world. Archaeological sites in the country have established human habitation dating back 100,000 years to the Paleolithic Age. Semi-permanent settlements most likely for hunting parties were well-established before 10,000 BC. The earliest archaeological finds in the region include Neanderthal seasonal settlements and tools. These finds help trace human development in the region from the Paleolithic through the Neolithic and Chalcolithic Ages.

The city of Susa (modern-day Shushan), which would later become part of Elam and then Persia, was founded in 4395 BC, making it among the oldest in the world. Although Susa is often equated with Elam, they were different polities. Though it was contemporaneous with Elamite culture Susa was founded before even the Proto-Elamite Period, which ran from about 3200 through 2700 BC. The ancient kingdom of Elam in this area was among the most advanced of its time. Its oldest settlement is the archaeological site of Chogha Bonut. Chogha Bonut dates back to around 7200 BC before it conquered in part by the Sumerians, later completely by the Assyrians, and then by the Medes.

The Median Empire of 678 to 550 BC was followed by one of the greatest political and social entities of the ancient world, the Persian Achaemenid Empire. This empire existed from 550 through 330 BC at which point in time it was conquered by Alexander the Great. One of Alexander's successor generals founded the Seleucid Empire which controlled much of the region from 312 through 63 BC. However the Seleucids gradually lost control of the region to the Parthian Empire, which existed from 247 BC through 224 AD. The Parthians were in turn succeeded by Sassanian Empire, which controlled the region from 224 through 651 AD. The Sassanian Empire was the last of the Persian governments to hold the region before the Muslim Arab conquest of the 7th century AD.

Aryan tribes are thought to have initially migrated to the region at some point prior to the 3rd Millennium BC. Their country would later be referred to as Ariana and Iran, literally the land of the Aryans. The term 'Aryan' should be understood according to the ancient Iranian language of Avestan. The term literally meant “noble”, “civilized” or “free man” and designated a class of people. The term had nothing to do with race in general, or Caucasians specifically. The term refers to Indo-Iranians who applied the term to describe themselves in the religious works known as the Avesta. The term 'Aryan' interpreted as referencing racial Caucasians was not advanced until the 19th century.

These Aryan tribes were made up of diverse people who would become known as Alans, Bactrians, Medes, Parthians, and Persians, among others. They brought with them a polytheistic religion closely associated with the Vedic thought of the Indo-Aryans. The Indo-Ayrans were the peoples who would settle in northern India. The religion was characterized by dualism and the veneration of fire as an embodiment of the divine. This early Iranian religion held the god Ahura Mazda as the supreme being. Other deities in the pantheon included among others; Mithra (sun god/god of covenants), Hvar Khsata (sun god), and Anahita (goddess of fertility, health, water, and wisdom).

At some point between 1500 and 1000 BC the Persian visionary Zoroaster claimed divine revelation from Ahura Mazda. Also known as Zarathustra, he advocated recognizing the purpose of human life as choosing sides in an eternal struggle. The struggle was between the supreme deity of justice and order, Ahuras Mazda, and his adversary Angra Mainyu. The latter was the god of discord and strife. Human beings were defined by whose side they chose to act on. Zoroaster’s teachings formed the foundation of the religion of Zoroastrianism. This religion would later be adopted by the Persian empires and influence and shape their culture.

The Persians settled primarily across the Iranian plateau and were well-established by the 1st Millennium BC. They settled primarily across the Iranian plateau. The Medes united under a single chief named Dayukku. Dayukku was known to Greek history as Deioces. He ruled from 727 through 675 BC, and founded the Mede state in Ecbatana. Dayukku’s grandson was Cyaxares. He ruled from 625 through 585 BC and would extend Median territory into modern-day Azerbaijan. Under their king Achaemenes in the late 8th century BC the Persians consolidated their control of the central-western region of the Bakhityari Mountains. Their capital city was Anshan.

As noted above the Elamites were already established in this area at the time. They were most likely the indigenous population. The Persians under their king Thiepes settled to the east of Elam in the territory known as Persis. Thiepes was the son of Achaemenes, and he ruled from 675 through 640 BC. The territory of Persis was also known as Parsa, and is roughly contemporaneous with modern Fars. Persis which would give the tribe the name they are known by (“Persian”).

The Persians later extended their control of the region into Elamite territory. They intermarried with Elamites and eventually absorbed the culture. Sometime prior to 640 BC Thiepes divided his kingdom between his sons Cyrus I and Ararnamnes. Cyrus ruled the northern kingdom from Anshan from about 625 through 600 BC. Arianamnes ruled in the south. Under the rule of Cambyses I (who ruled from 580 through 559 BC) the two kingdoms were re-united, who ruled from Anshan.

The Medes were the dominant power in the region. The kingdom of the Persians was actually a small vassal state under the Medes. This situation would reverse after the fall of the Assyrian Empire in 612 BC. Already weakening the fall of the Assyrian Empire was hastened by the campaigns of the Medes and Babylonians. They had led a coalition against the weakening Assyrian state. The Medes at first maintained control until they were overthrown by Cyrus II. Cyrus II was also known as “Cyrus the Great” and is credited with the founding of the Achaemenid Empire. He was the son of Persian Cambyses I, and grandson of Astyages of Media who had ruled from bout 585 through 550 BC.

In about 550 BC Cyrus II overthrew his grandfather Astyages of Media and began a systematic campaign to bring other principalities under his control. He conquered the wealthy kingdom of Lydia in 546 BC, Elam (Susiana) in 540 BC, and Babylon in 539 BC. By the end of his reign, Cyrus II (“the Great”) had established an empire which stretched from the modern-day region of Syria down through Turkey and across to the borders of India. This became known as the Achaemenid Empire, named for Cyrus II’s ancestor Achaemenes.

Cyrus II is unique among ancient conquerors for his humanitarian vision and policies as well as encouraging technological innovations. Much of the land he conquered suffered from a lack of adequate water supply. Cyrus he had his engineers revive an older means of tapping underground aquifers known as a qanat. The qanat was a sloping channel dug into the earth with vertical shafts at intervals. These vertical shafts reached down to the channel. Thus through the access provided by the shafts water could be brough up to ground level from the subterranean channel, or “qanat”.

Cyrus II is often erroneously credited with inventing the qanat system. However the qanat system was actually attested to earlier by Sargon II of Assyria. Sargon ruled from 722 through 705 BC. An inscription describing his 714 BC Urartu campaign notes qanats in use around the city of Ulhu in Western Iran. The qanat system is mentioned as creating fertile fields from any river. It seems Cyrus II developed a much wider network of qanats across a much greater area. However the system was actually an earlier Persian invention.

Likewise an earlier innovation was the yakhchal. These were great domed coolers which created and preserved ice. They were in essence the first refrigerators. Cyrus encouraged the widespread us of the yakhchal. Cyrus II’s humanitarian efforts are well-known through the Cyrus Cylinder. This preserves a record of his policies and proclamation of his vision. That vision was that everyone under his reign should be free to live as they wished as long as they did so in peaceful accord with others.

One example of such humanitarianism might be the fact that after Cyrus conquered Babylon he allowed the Jews to return to Judah. Prior the Jews had been taken from their homeland by King Nebuchadnezzar who had ruled from 605 through 562 BC. This event is known to history as the “Babylonian Captivity”. Cyrus even provided the Jews with funds to rebuild their temple. Cyrus also allowed the Lydians to continue their worship of their goddess Cybele.

All Cyrus II asked in return for this magnanimosity was that citizens of his empire live peacefully with each other, serve in his armies, and pay their taxes. In order to maintain a stable environment Cyrus (“the Great”) he instituted a governmental hierarchy. Naturally Cyrus was at the top of the hierarchy. Following were the advisors who surrounded him, and who relayed his decrees to secretaries. These then passed on Cyrus's decrees to regional governors (“satraps”) in each province (“satrapy”).

The governors, known as “satraps”, only possessed authority over bureaucratic-administrative matters. A military commander in province, known as a “satrapy”, possessed oversight authority with respect to military/police matters. By dividing the responsibilities of government in each satrapy, Cyrus II lessened the chance of any official amassing enough money and power to attempt a coup.

The decrees of Cyrus the Great, as well as any other news, traveled along a network of roads linking major cities. The most famous of these would become the Royal Road running from Susa to Sardis. This was established after the rule of Cyrus by one of his successors, Darius I. Messengers would leave one city and find a watchtower and rest-station within two days. There the messenger would be given food, drink, a bed, and once refreshed, was provided with a new horse to travel on to the next station.

The Persian postal system was considered by the Greek Historian Herodotus to be a marvel of his era. The Persian system became the model for later similar postal systems. Cyrus founded a new city as capital, Pasargadae. However Cyrus moved between three other cities which also served as administrative hubs. These cities were Babylon, Ecbatana, and Susa. The Royal Road connected these cities as well as others. Thus the king was constantly informed of the affairs of state.

Cyrus was fond of gardening and made use of the qanat system to create elaborate gardens. These gardens were known as “pairi-daeza”, which eventuallyu gave rise to the English word and concept of “paradise”. Cyrus is said to have spent as much time as possible in his gardens daily while also managing the expansion of his empire.

Cyrus died in 530 BC, possibly in battle. He was succeeded by his son Cambyses II, who ruled from 530 through 522 BC. Cambyses II who extended Persian rule into Egypt. Modern scholars continue to debate the identity of Cambyses's successor, It could either of been his brother Bardiya, or a Median usurper named Gaumata. Gaumata took control of the empire in 522 BC.

According to some historical accounts it is suggested that Cambyses II assassinated his brother Bardiya. Gaumata then assumed Bardiya’s identity while Cambyses II was campaigning in Egypt. Either way a distant cousin of the brothers assassinated this ruler, whatever his true identity, 522 BC. The cousin took the regnal name of Darius I, who was also known as “Darius the Great”. Darius I ruled from 522 through 486 BC), and would extend the empire even further. Darius would also initiate some of the empire's most famous building projects. These would include the great ancient city of Persepolis, which became one of the empire's capitals.

Domestic unrest broke out during Darius's reign even though he continued Cyrus II’s policy of tolerance and humanitarian legislation. Such unrest was not uncommon as it was standard for provinces to rebel after the death of a monarch. This “tradition” stretched as far back in time to the Akkadian Empire of Sargon the Great in Mesopotamia, who had ruled from 2334 through 2279 BC.

The Ionian Greek colonies of Asia Minor were among these areas of unrest. Since their rebellious efforts were backed by Athens, Darius launched an invasion of Greece. The advance of Darius's armies was halted at the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC. After his death Darius (“the Great”) was succeeded by his son Xerxes I. Xerxes I ruled from 486 through 465 BC. He is most famous for raising what is believed to be the largest army in history up to that point for his unsuccessful invasion of Greece of 480 BC.

Following the failed invasion history records that Xerxes I occupied himself with building projects. Most notable among these projects were additions to the great city of Persepolis. Darius's successors likewise continued building additions to the capital city. The Achaemenid Empire would remain stable under later rulers until it was eventually conquered by Alexander the Great. This occurred during the reign of Darius III, who ruled from 336 through 330 BC.

Darius III was assassinated by his confidante and bodyguard Bessus. Bessus then proclaimed himself Artaxerxes V. However he only ruled from 330 to 329 BC as shortly after assassinating Darius III he was executed by Alexander the Great. Alexander styled himself as Darius’ successor and is often referred to as the last monarch of the Achaemenid Empire.

After Alexander’s death in 323 BC his empire was divided up amongst his generals. One of these was Seleucus I Nicator. Seleucus had taken control over Alexander's conquests in Central Asia and Mesopotamia. Expanding these territories he founded the Seleucid Empire. Ruling from 305 to 281 BC Seleucus Hellenized the region. Seleucus kept the Persian model of government and religious toleration. However he filled the top administrative positions with Greeks. Even though Greeks and Persians intermarried, the Seleucid Empire favored Greeks. Greek became the language of the court.

Seleucus began his reign putting down rebellions in some areas and conquering others. However he always maintained the Persian governmental policies which had worked so well in the region in the past. Even though this same practice was followed by Seleucus' immediate successors, regions rose in revolt. Some such as Parthia and Bactria managed to break away and gain their independence. For instance in 247 BC Arsaces I of Parthia established an independent kingdom which would become the Parthian Empire. Arsaces would rule from 247 through 217 BC.

The Seleucid king Antiochus III (“the Great”) who ruled from 223 through 187 BCE) would retake Parthia briefly in around 209 BC. However Parthia was on the rise and shook off Seleucid rule afterwards. Antiochus III was the last effective Seleucid king. However though he had reconquered and expanded the Seleucid Empire, he was defeated by Rome at the Battle of Magnesia in 190 BC. The consequential Treaty of Apamea forced upon him by the Romans in 188 BC resulted in significant losses. As a consequence of the treaty the empire was diminished to less than half its former size.

Shortly after this the Parthian king Phraates seized on the Seleucid defeat and expanded Parthian control into former Seleucid regions. Phraates ruled from 176 through 171 BC. His successor Mithridates I would rule from 171 through 132 BC. Mithridates consolidated these regions and expand the Parthian Empire further. Parthia continued to grow as the Seleucid Empire shrank. During this time of Seleucid decline and Parthian growth the Seleucid king Antiochus IV Epiphanes focused entirely on his own self-interests. Antiochus IV ruled from 175 through 164 BC. His successors would continue the pattern.

The result was that the Seleucids were finally reduced to a small buffer kingdom in Syria after their defeat by the Roman general Pompey the Great. In contrast following the reign of Mithridates II the Parthian Empire was at its height. Mithridates II ruled from 124 through 88 BC. By the point in time that the Seleucids suffered their defeat at the hands of Pompey the Great in 63 BC, the Parthians had expanded their empire even further.

The Parthians reduced the threat of rebellion in their provinces by shrinking the size of their satrapies, which by that point in time were called “eparchies”. They allowed the kings of conquered regions to retain their positions with all rights and privileges. These client kings paid tribute to the Parthian Empire, enriching that treasury, while maintaining peace simply because it was in their own best interests. The resulting political stability allowed Parthian art and architecture to flourish while prosperous trade further enriched the empire. Both the art and the architecture reflected a seamless blend of Persian and Hellenistic cultural characteristics.

The Parthian army was the most effective fighting force of the age. This was principally due to the army's cavalry and the perfection of a technique known as the “Parthian shot”. This technique was executed by mounted archers who while feigning retreat would turn and shoot backward at advancing adversaries. This technique is the source of the English language phrase “parting shot”. This characteristic tactic of Parthian warfare as a complete surprise to their adversaries. It remained so even after opposing forces became aware of it.

Under Orodes II (who ruled from 57 through 37 BC) the Parthians easily defeated and killed the triumvir Crassus of Rome at the Battle of Carrhae in 53 BC. The Parthians later defeated the Roman forces of Mark Antony in 36 BC. The Parthians thus delivered two severe blows to the might, morale, and reputation Rome's military might.

Nonetheless Rome’s power continued to increase following the reorganization as an empire, founded by Octavius Augustus, who ruled from 27 BC through 14 AD. By 165 AD the Parthian Empire had been severely weakened by incessant and frequent Roman campaigns. The last Parthian king was Artabanus IV who ruled from 213 through 224 AD. Artabanus was overthrown by his vassal Ardashir I.

Ardashir I was a descendant of Darius III and a member of the royal Persian house. During his reign from 224 through 240 AD Ardashir I was chiefly concerned first, with building a stable kingdom founded on the precepts of Zoroastrianism. Second to protect that stable kingdom from Roman warfare and influence. To this end Ardashir he made his son Shapur I co-regent in 240 AD. When Ardashir I died a year later, Shapur I became “King of Kings”. Ruling from 240 through 270 AD, Shapur initiated a series of military campaigns to enlarge his territory and protect his borders.

Like his father Shapur I was a devout Zoroastrian, but adhered to a policy of religious tolerance in keeping with the practice of the Achaemenid Empire. Jews, Christians, and members of other religious faiths were free to practice their beliefs, build houses of worship, and participate in government. The religious visionary Mani who lived from 216 through 274 AD was founder of Manichaeism and was a guest at Shapur I’s court. Shapur I [rpved himself quite capable as an administrator. He ran his new empire efficiently from the capital at Ctesiphon, which had earlier been the seat of the Parthian Empire.

Shapur also commissioned numerous building projects. He initiated the architectural innovation of the domed entrance and the minaret. He revived the use of the qanat which the Parthians had neglected. He also revived the yakhchal (refrigerator) as well as wind-towers. The wind towers were also known as wind “catchers”. These were originally an Egyptian invention and were used for ventilating and cooling buildings.

It may also have been Shapur who commissioned the impressive Taq Kasra arch. This arch is still standing at Ctesiphon, although some scholars credit this to the later monarch Kosrau I. Shapur perceived that his Zoroastrian vision cast him and the Sassanians as the forces of light. They believed themselves to be serving the great god Ahura Mazda. They preceived themselves as opposing the forces of darkness and disorder, which were epitomized by Rome.

Shapur I’s campaigns against Rome were almost universally successful. Shapour even succeeded in capturing the Roman emperor Valerian, who had ruled Rome from 253 through 260 AD. Shapur forced Valerian into a role as Shapur's personal servant, using him as a footstool when mounting his horse. Shapur saw himself as a warrior king and lived up to that vision. He took full advantage of Rome’s weakness during the Crisis of the Third Century (which lasted from 235 through 284 AD) to enlarge the Sassanian Empire.

Shapur I lay the foundation for the Sassanian Empire which his successors would build upon. The greatest of Shapur's successors was Kosrau I. Kosrau I, also known as Anushirvan the Just, ruled from 531-579 AD. Kosrau I reformed the tax laws so they were more equitable. He divided the empire into four sections. The defense of each section was the responsibility of its own general. This permitted quick response to both external or internal threats. Thus Kosrau managed to tightly secure the Sassanian borders.

Kosrau also elevated the importance of education. He founded the Academy of Gondishapur. The Academy was the leading university and medical center of its day. Scholars from India, China, Greece, and elsewhere composed its faculty. Kosrau I continued the policies of religious tolerance and inclusion, as well as the ancient Persian antipathy towards slavery. Prisoners of war taken by the Roman Empire became slaves. Prisoners of war taken by the Sassanian Empire became paid servants. It was was also illegal to beat or in any way injure a servant, no matter one’s social class. Thus the life of a 'slave' within the Sassanian Empire was far superior to the lives of slaves elsewhere in the ancient world.

The Sassanian Empire is considered the height of Persian rule and culture in antiquity. It is perceived to have built upon the best tenets of the Achaemenid Empire, not only incorporating these characteristics, but improving upon them. As was the case with most (if not all) other ancient empires, the Sassanians declined the result of weak rulers who made poor choices. Contributing factors also included the corruption of the clergy and the onslaught of the Bubonic Plague in 627 and 628 AD.

Unable to recover from these handicaps, particularly decimation by the plague, the Sassanians were unable to muster the strength (or population necessary) to resist conquest by the Muslim Arabs in the 7th century AD. Even so Persian technological, architectural, and religious innovations would come to shape the culture of the conquerors and their religion. The high civilization of ancient Persia continues today with direct, unbroken ties to its past through the Iranian culture.

Although modern-day Iran corresponds to the heartland of ancient Persia, The Islamic Republic of Iran is a multi-cultural entity. To say one is Iranian is to state one’s nationality. In contrast to say one is Persian is to define one’s ethnicity. These are not synonyms. Iran’s multi-cultural heritage directly descends from the paradigm of the great Persian empires of the past. These were characterized by many different ethnicities living within within those empires. That past is reflected in the diverse and welcoming character of Iranian society in the present day [Ancient History Encyclopedia].

The Achaemenid Empire of Persia: East of the Zagros Mountains a high plateau stretches off towards India. While Egypt was rising up against the Hyksos, a wave of pastoral tribes from north of the Caspian Sea was drifting down into this area and across into India. By the time the Assyrians had built their new empire, a second wave had covered the whole stretch between the Zagros and the Hindu Kush. Some tribes settled, others retained their semi-nomadic lifestyle. These were the Iranian peoples.

Like all nomadic peoples lacking police and law courts, a code of honor was central to the Iranian tribes. Their religious beliefs differed from those of farming people. Whereas the farmers of Egypt and Mesopotamia had converted nature gods into city guardians, the Iranians had begun distilling them into a few universal principles. Zoroaster who lived sometime around 1000 BC drove this process. For Zoroaster the only god was the creator, Ahura Mazda, bringer of asha. Asha was light, order, truth. Asha was the law or logic by which the world was structured. Even those who were not practicing Zoroastrians grew up shaped by a culture that valued simple ethical ideas such as telling the truth.

In some areas, one tribe would manage to gather a collection of other tribes under its leadership. The Medes were one such. They built a capital at Ecbatana (literally translated as ‘meeting place’). Ecbatana was situated in the eastern Zagros, from where the Medes extended their power. In 612 BC Cyaxares, King of the Medes, stormed Nineveh with the Chaldeans. Thereafter Cyaxares pushed into the north-west. In 585 BC the Medes were fighting the Lydians on the Halys river when a solar eclipse frightened both sides into making peace. Soon thereafter Cyaxares died leaving an empire of sorts to his son Astyages, who ruled from 585 to 550 BC.

One of the regions whose tribes paid tribute to the Medes was Persia. Persia was situated south-east of Ecbatana, beyond Elam. There were around 10 or 15 tribes in Persia, of which one was the Pasargadae. The leader of the Pasargadae always came from the Achaemenid clan. In 559 BCE a new leader was chosen, Cyrus II, who became known as “Cyrus the Great’.Some historical accounts record that Cyrus was the grandson of Astyages on his mother’s side. However his biological descendance from the Mede ruler did not preclude Cyrus from wanting to shake off the Median yoke.

By 552 BC Cyrus had formed the Persian tribes into a federation and begun a series of uprisings. When the inevitable showdown with his grandfather Astyages came in 550 BC history records that the Medes mutinied and joined Cyrus to march on Ecbatana. Cyrus took the title ‘Shah (or King) of Persia’ and built a capital on the site of his victory. Cyrus named his city “Pasargadae”, after his tribe. Winning the Medes over had landed Cyrus with a vague, sprawling empire of countless different peoples. This presented Cyrus with challenges arising from cultural diversity, suspicion, and outright hostility.

Lydia and Chaldean Babylon had agreements with the Medes. Neither felt comfortable about a Persian takeover led by Cyrus. Lydia was won because Cyrus did not play by the rules. After an indecisive battle near the Halys river one autumn, King Croesus (who ruled from about 560 to 546 BC) returned to Sardis. King Croesus did so with the customary expectation that fighting would resume in the spring. But Cyrus followed him home and captured Sardis itself, Lydia’s capital and richest of the Ionian cities.

A century earlier, Lydia had minted the ancient world's first coins, making Ionia a hub of commerce. Now all this fell to Cyrus. As for Croesus himself it seems against all precedent Cyrus may have spared his life. Cyrus developed a reputation for sparing conquered rulers enabling him to seek their advice on how best to govern their lands. How much of this reputation was warranted is hard to know. However it is known that prior to Cyrus no one would have followed such a route with respect to the leader of a vanquished foe. In the ancient world this would have been construed as a sign of weakness.

Cyrus by contrast saw cooperation as a strength. This was particularly so when it came to securing his main goal, the conquest of Babylon. Rather than trying to take the world’s greatest city by force, Cyrus fought a propaganda campaign to exploit the unpopularity of its king, Nabonidus. Babylon’s traditions would be safer with Cyrus was the message propagandized. The gates of Babylon were opened and palm fronds were laid before him as he entered the city.

Once in Babylon, Cyrus performed the religious ceremonies Nabonidus had neglected. Cyrus returned confiscated icons to their temples around the country. These acts enabled Cyrus to legitimize his rule over in Babylon. Religious leaders proclaimed that Cyrus's rule was clearly sanctioned by the Babylonian gods. Cyrus established that his empire would be based, in effect, on a kind of contract between himself and the various peoples in his care. They would pay their tribute. In return Cyrus would ensure all were free to worship their own gods and live according to their customs.

The exiled Jews were allowed to go home and given money towards the building of a new temple in Jerusalem. This earned Cyrus a glowing write-up in the Old Testament as well as providing him with a useful buffer state against Egypt. Cyrus’s multiculturalism made an enduring imperial peace a real possibility at last and defined the way later empires sought to achieve stable rule. It was obvious to Cyrus that this was the only way he could hope to hold on to his conquests. But his was a vision only someone from outside the civilizations of the river valleys, with their intense attachments to local gods, could have conceived.

Cyrus’s son and successor Cambyses II ruled from 529 through 522 BC. Cambyses added Egypt to the Persian Empire. However a revolt broke out at home. It was apparently led by a Median priest posing as Cambyses’s brother, whom Cambyses had secretly murdered. Cambyses hurried back home but died on the way. He left one of his generals, a distant relative, to step in. His name was Darius. Darius I eventually became known in history as “Darius the Great”. His first act of of business was to kill the Median priest pretending to the throne. However even with that accomplished Darius was faced with uprisings were by then breaking out all over. Darius thus found himself having to re-establish Cyrus’s conquests.

The army and the noble clans of Persia had grown rich from imperial rule. With their support Darius regained control of the Empire and extended it into the Indus Valley. The Indus proved to be a prize worth several times more in tribute than had been Babylon. Darius realized that if the empire were to work, it needed efficient organization. He divided the empire into 20 satrapies, or provinces. Each satrapy paid a fixed rate of tribute to Persia. Each satrapy was run by a centrally appointed satrap, or governor, often related to Darius.

To prevent a satrap from building an independent power base, Darius appointed a separate military commander answerable only to him. Imperial spies known as the ‘king’s ears’ kept tabs on both the military commanders and the satraps. They reported back to Darius through the postal service. The postal service connected the empire with a network of roads along. Couriers could change horses at stations spaced a day’s travel apart.

Darius took much of this structure from the Assyrians, simply applying it on a larger scale. However Darius's system of tribute was something new. Previously tribute had been essentially protection money paid to avoid trouble. However Darius treated it instead as a tax. He used the tribute income to build a navy. He embarked on massive public-spending programs, pumping money into irrigation works, mineral exploration, roads, and a canal between the Nile and the Red Sea.

Darius also established a common currency. This made working far from home much easier. Darius also brought together teams of craftsmen from all over the Empire to build, an imperial capital at Persepolis. This was done under the direction of Persian architects. Here Darius could keep his gold and silver in a giant vault, which soon proved to be too small to hold all of Darius's wealth. Persepolis also showed off the multi-ethnic scope of his empire.

Persepolis became a display case for the artistic styles of just about every culture within the empire, held in an overarching frame of Persian design. The city was a visualization of Cyrus’s idea of empire. However Darius never acknowledged the preceding achievements of Cyrus which provided a foundation for Darius. Darius seems to have had “a chip on his shoulder” about not belonging to Cyrus’s branch of the Achaemenid clan.

As he outstripped Cyrus’s achievements, Darius began to present himself in an ever more exalted manner. Darius dropped the title Shah in favor of the grander title Shahanshah (‘King of Kings’). Like Persepolis, however, all of Darius's achievements followed directly from Cyrus’s vision. Cyrus had played the part of Babylon’s king when he entered the city. However Darius's concept of empire demanded a ruler who stood above all kings linked to the interests of any one community. It required a “king of kings”.

Darius’s later rule saw trouble in the Mediterranean. In 499 BC there was a Greek revolt in Ionia. After eventually quashing it, Darius’s fleet sailed to punish Athens for backing the rebels. However Darius's naval forces encountered a surprise defeat. If the Persian empire was not to appear dangerously weak militarily, the Greeks would have to be taught a lesson. But when Darius raised taxes to fund a military rearmament drive, he provoked unrest in more important areas such as Egypt.

It fell to Darius’s son Xerxes Ito restore order in Egypt and take up the Greek issue. Xerxes ruled from 486 through 465 BC. Xerxes carried himself even more loftily still than Darius. With both Darius and Cyrus as precedents, Xerxes had had even more to prove. But Xerxes lacked the cultural sensitivity both Darius and Cyrus had displayed. When tax increases produced riots in Babylon in 482 BC, Xerxes sacked the city, destroyed the temple, and melted down the solid gold statue of Marduk.

The statue was reportedly solid gold, three times the size of a man. With the melting of Marduk, so vanished Babylon’s greatness. Marduk’s gold funded Xerxes efforts to begin the process of assembling forces to crush the Greeks. However in 480 BC Xerxes was prematurely forced into battle. Xerxes suffered a worse military humiliation than his father. Thereafter history suggests that Xerxes largely withdrew into the cocoon embodied by the luxury of his court and harem.

When Cyrus entered Babylon he had mimicked the behavior of a Mesopotamian king for public consumption. But by the time of Zerxes the private lives of Persian rulers had actually taken Mesopotamian form. Shut up in opulent isolation, the later Achaemenid rulers played out an increasingly gaudy pantomime of harem intrigue and palace assassination.

Ancient Iranian Cities: Even local archaeologists with the benefit of air-conditioned cars and paved roads think twice about crossing eastern Iran's rugged terrain. "It's a tough place," says Mehdi Mortazavi from the University of Sistan-Baluchistan in the far eastern end of Iran, near the Afghan border. At the center of this region is the Dasht-e Lut, Persian for the "Empty Desert.” This treacherous landscape, 300 miles long and 200 miles wide, is covered with sinkholes, steep ravines, and sand dunes. Some of the sand dunes top 1,000 feet (300 meters) in height. It also has the hottest average surface temperature of any place on Earth. The forbidding territory in and around this desert seems like the last place to seek clues to the emergence of the first cities and states 5,000 years ago.

Yet archaeologists are finding an impressive array of ancient settlements on the edges of the Dasht-e Lut. These ancient settlements date back to the period when urban civilization was emerging in Egypt, Iraq, and the Indus River Valley in Pakistan and India. In the 1960s and 1970s archaeologists found the great centers of Shahr-i-Sokhta and Shahdad on the desert's fringes and another, Tepe Yahya, far to the south. More recent surveys, excavations, and remote sensing work reveal that all of eastern Iran, from near the Persian Gulf in the south to the northern edge of the Iranian plateau, was peppered with hundreds and possibly thousands of small to large settlements. Detailed laboratory analyses of artifacts and human remains from these sites are providing an intimate look at the lives of an enterprising people who helped create the world's first global trade network.

Far from living in a cultural backwater, eastern Iranians from this period built large cities with palaces, used one of the first writing systems, and created sophisticated metal, pottery, and textile industries. They also appear to have shared both administrative and religious ideas as they did business with distant lands. "They connected the great corridors between Mesopotamia and the east," says Maurizio Tosi, a University of Bologna archaeologist who did pioneering work at Shahr-i-Sokhta. "They were the world in between."

By 2000 B.C. these settlements were abandoned. The reasons for this remain unclear and are the source of much scholarly controversy. However history is clear, urban life didn't return to eastern Iran for more than 1,500 years. The very existence of this civilization was long forgotten. Recovering its past has not been easy. Parts of the area are close to the Afghan border, long rife with armed smugglers. Revolution and politics have frequently interrupted excavations. And the immensity of the region and its harsh climate make it one of the most challenging places in the world to conduct archaeology.

The enigmatic explorer Sir Aurel Stein was famous for his archaeological work surveying large swaths of Central Asia and the Middle East. Stein slipped into Persia at the end of 1915 and found the first hints of eastern Iran's lost cities. Stein traversed what he described as "a big stretch of gravel and sandy desert" and encountered "the usual...robber bands from across the Afghan border, without any exciting incident." What did excite Stein was the discovery of what he called "the most surprising prehistoric site" on the eastern edge of the Dasht-e Lut. Locals called it Shahr-i-Sokhta ("Burnt City") because of signs of ancient destruction.

It wasn't until a half-century later that Tosi and his team hacked their way through the thick salt crust and discovered a metropolis rivaling those of the first great urban centers in Mesopotamia and the Indus. Radiocarbon data showed that about the time the first substantial cities in Mesopotamia were being built around 3200 BC the site of Dasht-e Lut was founded, It flourished for more than a thousand years. During its heyday in the middle of the third Millennium BC the city covered more than 150 hectares. It may have been home to more than 20,000 people. It's population was likely equivalent to the large cities of Umma in Mesopotamia and Mohenjo-Daro on the Indus River. A vast shallow lake and wells likely provided the necessary water, allowing for cultivated fields and grazing for animals.

Built of mudbrick the city boasted a large palace. There were separate neighborhoods for pottery-making, metalworking, and other industrial activities. There were also distinct areas for the production of local goods. Most residents lived in modest one-room houses. However there were some were larger compounds with six to eight rooms. Bags of goods and storerooms were often "locked" with stamp seals, a procedure also common in Mesopotamia in the era.

Shahr-i-Sokhta boomed as the demand for precious goods among elites in the region and elsewhere grew. Though situated in inhospitable terrain, the city was close to tin, copper, and turquoise mines. It also laid on the route bringing lapis lazuli from Afghanistan to the west. Craftsmen worked shells from the Persian Gulf, carnelian from India, and local metals such as tin and copper. Some they made into finished products, and others were exported in unfinished form. Lapis blocks brought from the Hindu Kush mountains, for example, were cut into smaller chunks and sent on to Mesopotamia and as far west as Syria.

Unworked blocks of lapis weighing more than 100 pounds in total were unearthed in the ruined palace of Ebla, close to the Mediterranean Sea. Archaeologist Massimo Vidale of the University of Padua says that the elites in eastern Iranian cities like Shahr-i-Sokhta were not simply slaves to Mesopotamian markets. They apparently kept the best-quality lapis for themselves, and sent west what they did not want. Lapis beads found in the royal tombs of Ur, for example, are intricately carved, but of generally low-quality stone compared to those of Shahr-i-Sokhta.

Pottery was produced on a massive scale. Nearly 100 kilns were clustered in one part of town and the craftspeople also had a thriving textile industry. Hundreds of wooden spindle whorls and combs were uncovered, as were well-preserved textile fragments made of goat hair and wool that show a wide variation in their weave. According to Irene Good, a specialist in ancient textiles at Oxford University, this group of textile fragments constitutes one of the most important in the world. Their great antiquity provides unparalleled insight into an early stages of the evolution of wool production. Textiles were big business in the third Millennium B.C., according to Mesopotamian texts. However heretofore actual textiles from this era had never before been found.

A metal flag found was found at Shahdad. Shahdad was one of eastern Iran's early urban sites and dates to around 2400 BC. The flag depicts a man and woman facing each other, one of the recurrent themes in the region's art at this time. A plain ceramic jar also found at Shahdad, contains residue of a white cosmetic. The complex formula analyzed is evidence for an extensive knowledge of chemistry among the city's ancient inhabitants. The artifacts also show the breadth of Shahr-i-Sokhta's connections. Some excavated red-and-black ceramics share traits with those found in the hills and steppes of distant Turkmenistan to the north. Other ceramic wares are similar to pots made in Pakistan to the east, which at that time was home to the Indus civilization.

Tosi's team found a clay tablet written in a script called Proto-Elamite. The Proto-Elamite script emerged at the end of the fourth Millennium BC. Its emergence was just after the advent of the first known writing system, cuneiform, which evolved in Mesopotamia. Other such tablets and sealings with Proto-Elamite signs have also been found in eastern Iran, such as at Tepe Yahya. This script was used for only a few centuries starting around 3200 BC. Indications are that it may have emerged in Susa, just east of Mesopotamia. However by the middle of the third Millennium BC it was no longer in use. Most of the eastern Iranian tablets record simple transactions involving sheep, goats, and grain. It seems likely the records could have been used to keep track of goods in large households.

While Tosi's team was digging at Shahr-i-Sokhta, Iranian archaeologist Ali Hakemi was working at another site, Shahdad. Shahdad is on the western side of the Dasht-e Lut. This settlement emerged as early as the fifth Millennium BC on a delta at the edge of the desert. By the early third Millennium BC Shahdad began to grow quickly as international trade with Mesopotamia expanded. Tomb excavations revealed spectacular artifacts amid stone blocks once painted in vibrant colors. These include several extraordinary, nearly life-size clay statues placed with the dead. The city's artisans worked lapis lazuli, silver, lead, turquoise, and other materials imported from as far away as eastern Afghanistan. They also worked shells from the distant Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean.

Evidence shows that ancient Shahdad also possessed a large metalworking industry at this time. During a recent survey archaeologists found a vast hill covered with slag from smelting copper. The hill covered an area nearly 300 feet by 300 feet. Vidale says that analysis of the copper ore suggests that the smiths were savvy enough to add a small amount of arsenic in the later stages of the process to strengthen the final product – the first step to producing bronze.

Shahdad's metalworkers also created such remarkable artifacts as a metal flag dating to about 2400 BC. Mounted on a copper pole topped with a bird, perhaps an eagle, the squared flag depicts two figures facing one another on a rich background of animals, plants, and goddesses. The flag has no parallels and its use is unknown.

Vidale also found evidence of a sweet-smelling nature. During a spring 2009 visit to Shahdad, he discovered a small stone container lying on the ground. The vessel appears to date to the late fourth Millennium BC. It was fashioned from chlorite, a dark soft stone favored by ancient artisans in southeast Iran. Using X-ray diffraction at an Iranian lab it was discovered to possess lead carbonate sealed in the bottom of the jar. Lead carbonate was used as a white cosmetic. Analysis also identified fatty material that likely was added as a binder. Also present were traces of coumarin, a fragrant chemical compound found in plants and used in some perfumes. Further analysis showed small traces of copper, possibly the result of a user dipping a small metal applicator into the container.

Other sites in eastern Iran are only now being investigated. Recently Iranian archaeologists Hassan Fazeli Nashli and Hassain Ali Kavosh from the University of Tehran have been digging in a small settlement a few miles east of Shahdad called Tepe Graziani. The site is named for the Italian archaeologist who first surveyed the site. They are trying to understand the role of the city's outer settlements by examining this ancient mound. The mound measures 30 feet high, 525 feet wide, and 720 feet long. Excavators have uncovered a wealth of artifacts including a variety of small sculptures depicting crude human figures, humped bulls, and a Bactrian camel dating to approximately 2900 B.C. A bronze mirror, fishhooks, daggers, and pins are among the metal finds. There are also wooden combs that survived in the arid climate. "The site is small but very rich," says Fazeli. The archaeologists theorize that the site may have been a prosperous suburban production center for Shahdad.

Sites such as Shahdad and Shahr-i-Sokhta and their suburbs were not simply islands of settlements in what otherwise was empty desert. Fazeli adds that some 900 Bronze Age sites have been found on the Sistan plain, which borders Afghanistan and Pakistan. Mortazavi has been examining the area around the Bampur Valley, in Iran's extreme southeast. This area was a corridor between the Iranian plateau and the Indus Valley. It also served as a corridor between Shahr-i-Sokhta to the north and the Persian Gulf to the south. A 2006 survey along the Damin River identified 19 Bronze Age sites in an area of less than 20 square miles.

The Damin River periodically vanishes. Contemporary farmers then depend on underground channels called qanats to transport water. As is the case with contemporary farmers, ancient eastern Iranians were very savvy in marshaling their few water resources. They lacked the large rivers or Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley. Using satellite remote sensing data, Vidale has found remains of what might be ancient canals or qanats around Shahdad. This in part suggests how it may have been possible for the ancient inhabitants to support themselves in this harsh climate 5,000 years ago, as they still do today.

The large eastern Iranian settlement of Tepe Yahya produced clear evidence for the manufacture of a type of black stone jar for export that has been found as far away as Mesopotamia. Archaeologists also hope to soon continue work that began a decade ago at Konar Sandal, 55 miles north of Yahya. This site is situated near the modern city of Jiroft, in southeastern Iran. France-based archaeologist Yusef Madjizadeh has spent six seasons working at the site. The site has revealed a large city centered on a high citadel with massive walls beside the Halil River. That city and neighboring settlements like Yahya produced artfully carved dark stone vessels that have been found in Mesopotamian temples. Vidale notes that Indus weights, seals, and etched carnelian beads found at Konar Sandal demonstrate connections with that civilization as well.

Many of these settlements were abandoned in the latter half of the third Millennium BC. By 2000 BC the vibrant urban life of eastern Iran faded away into history. Barbara Helwig of Berlin's German Archaeological Institute suspects a radical shift in trade patterns precipitated the decline. Instead of moving in caravans across the deserts and plateau of Iran, Indus traders began sailing directly to Arabia and then on to Mesopotamia. At the same time to the north the growing power of the Oxus civilization in today's Turkmenistan may have further weakened the role of cities such as Shahdad.

Others archaeologists and historians blame climate change. The lagoons, marshes, and streams may have dried up. Even even small shifts in rainfall can have a dramatic effect on water sources in the area. Here there is no Nile, Tigris, Euphrates, or Indus to provide agricultural Bounty through a drought. Even the most sophisticated water systems may have failed during a prolonged dry spell. It is also possible that an international economic downturn may have played a role. The destruction of the Mesopotamian city of Ur around 2000 BC was well as the later decline of Indus metropolises such as Mohenjo-Daro might have spelled doom for a trading people. The market for precious goods such as lapis collapsed.

There is no clear evidence of widespread warfare, though Shahr-i-Sokhta appears to have been destroyed by fire several times. But a combination of drought, changes in trade routes, and economic trouble might have led people to abandon their cities. There is evidence that the populations returned to a simpler existence of herding and small-scale farming. Not until the Persian Empire rose 1,500 years later did people again live in any large numbers in eastern Iran. Not until modern times did cities once again emerge in the region. This also means that countless ancient sites are still awaiting exploration on the plains, in the deserts, and among the area's rocky valleys [Ancient History Encyclopedia].

The Ancient City of Susa: Susa was one of the oldest cities in the world. Part of the site is still inhabited as Shush, Khuzestan Province, Iran. Excavations have uncovered evidence of continual habitation dating back to 4395 BC. However the vidence establishes that this early community grew from an even older one dating back to around 7000 BC. Susa was one of the principal cities of the Elamite, Achaemenid Persian, and Parthian empires.

Susa was originally known to the Elamites as 'Susan’ or 'Susun’. The Greek name for the city was Sousa and the Hebrew, Shushan. It is mentioned in the Bible in the books of Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah, and most notably the Book of Esther. There it was described as the home of both Nehemiah and Daniel. The contemporary city of Shush presently occupies most of the ancient city’s location. However an archaeological site of largely unexcavated tells is nearby. The temple/palace area and graves were excavated in the 19th and 20th centuries, but further excavation is required.

According to UNESCO, “the excavated architectural monuments include administrative, residential, and palatial structures”. The site contains several layers of urban settlement dating from the 5th Millennium BC through the 13th century AD. The old city was situated between the modern rivers Karkheh and Dez. These rivers were described as the Choaspes and Eulaeus. The two rivers were mentioned in the Biblical Book of Daniel 8:2, where Daniel received his vision. The rivers bring mud down from the Zagros Mountains making the area one of the most fertile in the region.

Susa began as a small village in the Neolithic Age around 7000 BC and had developed into an urban center by around 4200 BC. At some point in its development the people created a monumental platform which served as the base for a temple. The temple was most likely dedicated to the god Inshushinak, patron deity of Susa. Inshushinak was the god of darkness and the afterlife. So it is no surprise that graves were dug around the platform and offerings made to both the god and the deceased. In the form of ceramic vessels over 2,000 offerings have been excavated from this area alone.

According to the Metropolitan Museum of Art in addition to ceramics the cemetery contained some fifty-five hammered copper “axes”. They are similar in shape to stone examples that have been widely found at contemporary sites and were probably used as hoes. These objects contain greater quantities of copper than do finds from any other site of the same period. Unquestionably they represent considerable wealth.

Ceramics, agriculture, and metallurgy seem to have been the primary focus of employment in the city in these early stages. Images from the period also show women at work in textiles. As Susa grew the smaller villages surrounding it were abandoned. The so-called “Proto-Elamite Period” which had existed from about 3200 through 2700 BC transition to the “Old Elamite Period”. The Old Elamite Period ran from about 2700 through 1600 BC. During this period ceramics became more refined and trade was established firmly with other nations.

The Elamites had been living in their own small cities to the east of the Gulf. They had resided there almost as long as Sumerians had occupied the Mesopotamian plain. Like that of most ancient people their ultimate origin is unknown. However Elamite cities grew up not only just south of the Caspian Sea, but also along the southern border of the large scale desert plateau that lay east of the Zagros Mountains.

Susa was the political center of Elam early in the 4th Millennium BC. There remain a fortress, still extant, which dates back to this period. In addition there are ruins of buildings from the Persian, Macedonian, Syrian-Greek, and Parthian eras. Together they make the site of Susa of particular historical importance. Susa provides significant evidence of the evolution of cultures in the region over a vast period of time. Susa was accorded status as a site of Outstanding Universal Value by UNESCO in 2015. From about 2700 BC the Elamites were led by kings. The twinned cities of Susa and Awan served as the center of the Elamite civilization. Awan was located north of Susa and was initially the more important of the two cities as a political and religious center. In 2700 BC the first recorded war in the history of the world occurred. King Enembaragesi of the Sumerian city of Kish defeated the Elamites of Awan Susa in battle and briefly established Sumerian culture in the region. Sargon of Akkad (who ruled from 2334 through 2279 BC) subsequently absorbed the region into his Akkadian Empire. Eventually however the kings of Awan were able to negotiate their autonomy with Sargon’s grandson Naram-Sin (who ruled from 2261 through 2224). This reflected the waning power of the Akkadian Empire.

Despite the decline of the Akkadian Empire Susa would not retain its independence for long. Susa was taken by Shulgi of Ur (who ruled from 2029 through 1982 BC) as part of his expansionist policy. Shulgi again introduced Sumerian culture to the city as cultural diffusion was a central platform of his administration. However the Elamites and nomadic Amorites of the region resisted the Sumerian efforts. Whenever on occasion their strength allowed they threatened Ur. The finally succeeded in throwing off Sumerian domination during the latter part of the reign of Ibbi-Sin (who ruled from 1963 through 1940 BC. With that event the Third Dynasty of Ur fell to the Elamites.

Between the reigns Shulgi and Ibbi-Sin Ur experienced a continual decline of power and prestige. Ur was taken by Hammurabi of Babylon (who ruled from 1792 to 1750 BC) when he conquered the whole of Mesopotamia. Susa was amongst the Elamite cities sacked by the Babylonian king around 1764 BC. The sacking of the Elamite cities was in retaliation for Elamite aggression. The city was burned and the statues of the goddesses and their priestesses carried back to Babylon. According to one prominent historian, “this was a polite and sacred version of carrying off your enemy’s wives and ravishing them”. As Babylonian power declined following Hammurabi’s death in 1750 BC Awan and Susa became stronger. By around 1500 BC Awan-Susa became powerful enough to conquer the southern city of Anshan. The monarchs of the period would sign their names, “King of Anshan and Susa” in a show of unity and strength of the region. Scholars identify this event as the beginning of the Middle Elamite Period. This period ran from around 1600 through 1100 BC. During the Middle Elamite Period Elam in general and Susa in particular were their peak.

At this time Susa became capital of the region of Susiana. This area corresponds to the modern-day Khuzestan Province of Iran. Elamite script replaced Akkadian in official documents. The kings of Susa grew more and more powerful until by about 1200 BC they were in complete control of their region. At his point in time the Kings of Susa began their own policy of expansion and conquest, as well as completing grand building projects. The most famous of these projects was the city of Dur-Untash and its temple complex. These were built by the Elamite king Untash-Napirisha who ruled from sbout 1275 through 1240 BC.

For reasons not known to history Untash-Napirisha located his great religious complex 19 miles (31 kilometers) south-east of Susa and surrounded it with a new city. The most impressive aspect of the complex would include the massive ziggurat at its center. The ziggurat was surrounded by an inner enclosure with numerous temples. Inside a second enclosure more secular buildings were located. The ziggurat was devoted to both Napirisha, the great god of Elam, and Inshushinak, the patron deity of Susa.

The construction was truly monumental. It contained millions of bricks. A substantial portion of these were baked at great expense of fuel. The inner core of sun-dried brick was encased in a 2-meter-thick layer of baked brick. Every tenth layer of the outer casing had a row of bricks inscribed with a dedication from Untash-Napirisha to Inshushinak. Because of the solidity of its construction it is the best-preserved ziggurat in the Near East.

Most likely Untash-Napirisha created Dur-Untash simply because Susa at this time had become so well-developed that there was not space for such a monumental complex. Nonetheless after his death the aristocrats of Susa stopped construction at Dur-Untash and religious rites resumed centered at Susa. The Metropolitan Museum of Art notes that copper discs have been found at Susa. It is believed that they were probably worn by priests during certain ceremonies and were ultimately buried with their owners. Like the copper “axes” described earlier, these copper discs attest to the wealth of the city.

During the Middle Elamite Period Susa prospered and flourished not only as the capital but as a center of commerce and a religious site. The best artisans of the region were employed in creating grand structures and monuments. In fact the best translation of the name of these artisans is “specialists”. These specialists had studied extensively and gained their skills under the tutelage of a master. The kings of this period added to the city’s splendor. However probably none had increased the city's splendor as much as during the Shutrukid Dynasty which reigned from about 1210 through 1100 BC. The best known of these kings to history is Shutruk Nakhunte, who ruled from about 1185 through 1150 BC. It was Shutruk Nakhunte who invaded Mesopotamia, defeated the Kassites, and established the Elamite Empire. However he is most famous for his sack of the cities of Sippar and Babylon in about 1150 BC. At the conclusion of that sacking the Elamites reclaimed and carried back to Susa both the statue of the god Marduk, as well as the stele of the Code of Hammurabi. The Elamite Empire would last throughout the Skutrukid Dynasty. However it steadily lost power. It eventually vanished into obscurity during the early part of the Neo-Elamite Period, which ran from about 1100 through 540 BC.

Little is known of the early Neo-Elamite Period as many of the records have either been lost or remain unexcavated. Evidence points to early clashes with the Neo-Assyrian Empire which existed from 912 through 612 BC. Evidence also suggests alliances with various other powers, but details are scarce. However Assyrian documents record Susa’s support of the Chaldean rebel Merodach-Baladan against the Assyrian king Sargon II, who ruled from 722 through 705 BC. Those documents also attest to repeated clashes between Susa and Sargon's son Sennacherib, who ruled from 705 through 681 BC.

Sennacherib’s son, Esharaddon ruled from 681 through 669 BC. Esharaddon conquered Elam and took Susa, but did not damage the city. Good relations were established between Susa and the Assyrians afterwards. However the relationships deteriorated under the reign of Esharaddon’s son Ashurbanipal, who ruled from 668 through 627 BC. The deterioration of the relations can be attributed to the fact that the Elamites had rebelled and attacked Assyrian cities. Ashurbanipal crushed the uprising and sacked Susa, destroying the city. The sacking of Susa was to avenge the perceived wrongs the people of Mesopotamia had suffered at the hands of the Elamites. Susa was was rebuilt and inhabited sometime after Ashurbanipal’s attack. The Neo-Assyrian Empire fell to a coalition led by Babylonians and Medes in 612 BC. Susa fell under the control of the Medes until Elam was taken by the Achaemenid Empire of Cyrus the Great in 540 BC. Cyrus the Great ruled from 559 to 530 BC. His conquests effectively ended Elamite history. However Susa continued as an important urban center. Under the Achaemenid Empire Susa flourished as the Persian kings devoted as much time and effort to beautifying the city as the former Elamite kings had.

Susa in fact became the capital of the Persian Empire under Cyrus's successor Cambyses II (who died 522 BC). Susa was then rebuilt and expanded by the Persian King Darius the Great (who ruled from 522 to 486 BC). Susa proved to be the favorite of all of Darius's residences. Darius the Great built his monumental palace there which was added on to by his successor Xerxes I, who ruled from 486 through 465 BC. There were other capitals in Persia including Pasargadae, Persepolis, and Ecbatana. However it is clear that Susa was the best known and most often mentioned in history. Owing to its location Persepolis was unknown to the Greek historians until it was destroyed by Alexander the Great (who ruled the Macedonian from 336 to 323 BC). The city continued to flourish until it was sacked by Alexander the Great in 330 BC. Even then Alexander did not destroy the city. Susa became the site of the so-called Susa Weddings of 324 BC. There Alexander married over 10,000 Macedonians and Persians in an effort to unite the two cultures. After Alexander’s death in 323 BC the region went to his general Seleucus, who ruled from 321 through 315 BC. Seleucus founded the Seleucid Empire and renamed the city Seleucia on the Eulaeus. Greek architecture and styling began to appear beside the older works of the Elamites and the Persians. Susa remained an important center of commerce, as well as the capital, during this period. The city would continue to thrive under the later Parthian Empire which existed from 247 BC through 224 AD.

Under the Parthians Susa was one of the two capital cities, the other being Ctesiphon. As Ctesiphon was repeatedly taken by Rome during the Parthian-Roman conflicts, kingship was transferred to Susa. Susa was out of reach of Rome as it was further to the east and more easily defensible.

The Parthian Empire was toppled by Ardashir I, who was also known as Ardashir the Unifier. Ardashir ruled from 224 through 241 AD and founded the Sasanian Empire. The Sasanian Empire would last from Ardashir's founding in 224 AD through until 651 AD. During this time Susa declined in prestige. It became a focal point for the Christian community of the region who antagonized the Sasanians through their alignment with Rome. Susa eventually drew Christians from the surrounding areas until it was sacked by the Sasanian king Shapur II. Shapur II who ruled from 309 through 379 AD dispersed Susa's population.

However Susa again revived and again achieved prosperity until it was sacked and destroyed by invading Muslim armies in 638 AD. The Arab forces are said to have found a silver sarcophagus during the invasion which was believed to house the body of the prophet Daniel from the Bible. The tomb of Daniel can still be visited in modern-day Shush. Susa yet again recovered from destruction at the hands of the Muslim armies and remained a significant commercial and religious center. However Susa was again destroyed by invading Mongols in 1218 AD.

Susa's destruction was utter, and the city never regained its prominence. Susa lay in ruin and its buildings were harvested by the local population for stone. Although some buildings were still periodically inhabited by nomads, the city was largely abandoned until the 19th century. It was then that European and American museums and cultural institutions sent teams to the regions of ancient Mesopotamia and Persia. This was in an effort to corroborate biblical narratives through archaeological evidence.

The first archaeological efforts at Susa were undertaken in 1854. The first serious and systematic excavation took place in 1884. This effort was led by the French archaeologist Jacques de Morgan. The excavation team was under constant threat by the local population. The team was forced to devote significant time and resources toward building a castle for protection and as a base of operations. Although they were excavating and working to preserve the site of ancient Susa, the team also used material from the site to construct the building now known as Shush Castle. Also known as the Archaeologist’s Castle, the construction is dated to about 1885. Excavations at the site continued into the 20th century. However turmoil in the region has repeatedly interrupted the work there. Today Susa is considered one of the most important archaeological sites in the world. Susa is also potentially among the largest of the world's archaeological sites as although it has been excavated and researched for over 150 years, a significant portion of the ancient site remains buried. Urban expansion of Shush together with hydraulic works implemented upstream on the two nearby rivers, has threatened the site. However conservation and preservation efforts continue. The ruins of the once great city of Susa continue to draw visitors from around the world as an archaeological park [Ancient History Encyclopedia].

Ancient Persian Culture: Ancient Persian culture flourished between the reign of Cyrus II. Cyrus II was known as “Cyrus the Great”, and ruled from about 550 through 530 BC. Cyrus was founder of the Achaemenid Persian Empire which in one form or another lasted until the fall of the Sassanian Empire in 651 AD. However the foundations of Persian culture were already long before the 6th century BC reign of Cyrus the Great. Cultural elements can be traced backward prior to the 3rd Millennium BC when Aryan (Indo-Iranian) tribes migrated to the region. The region thus became known as “Ariana” or Iran – the “land of the Aryans”. The Persians were only one of the tribes who settled in the territory of Persis (also known as “Parsa”, modern-day Fars).

Initially, the Persians were subject to another Aryan tribe, the Medes. The Medes assisted in toppling the Assyrian Empire of Mesopotamia in 612 BC, extending their geographical dominated and forming their own empire. The Medes were overthrown by their vassal Cyrus the Great in around 550 BC. Thereafter with the rise of the Achaemenid Empire Persian culture began to blossom and fully mature. It should be noted, however, that many of the cultural advancements Cyrus II is routinely given credit for were actually developed centuries and even millennia prior by earlier Persians and Medes. This includes such innovations as the “qanat” system of irrigation, the “yakhchal”, and the Persian forms of military organization). Cyrus the Great's contribution was in recognizing worthwhile concepts and adapting them on a large scale. This character would be mirrored by many of his successors. This Persian culture came to influence the ancient Greeks and many other civilizations. The effects of Persian influence continue to resonate around the world in the present era.

Cyrus the Great's vision of an all-inclusive empire embraced the concept of permitting its citizens to live and worship as they pleased. The only stipulation was that they pay their taxes and cause no problems for their neighbors or the king. This concept provided the basis for one of the most vital and influential cultures of the ancient world. Much has been made of the Greek influence on the Persians during the period after the fall of the Achaemenid Empire and until the conquest by Alexander the Great in 330 BC. However long before and long after Alexander and the succeeding Hellenistic Seleucid Empire of 312 to 63 BC, Persian culture influenced the Greeks as well as many other ancient civilizations.

Persian Religion: The Aryan tribes who settled in the Iranian Plateau and environs brought with them a polytheistic religion whose supreme being was Ahura Mazda, the “Lord of Wisdom”. Ahura Mazda was accompanied by many other lesser gods and spirits under his dominion. Among these the most popular were “Mithra” (the god of covenants and the rising sun); “Anahita” (the goddess of fertility, health, water, and wisdom; “Atar” (the god of fire); and “Hvar Khsata” (the god of the full sun). These forces of good stood in opposition to the evil spirit of chaos. Ahura Mazda, source of all good, was both invoked and worshiped through a ritual known as the “yazna”. This ritual took the form of a meal to which the deity was invited). At the yazna a drink called hauma was prepared from the juices of a plant and consumed. The identify of the particular plant has never been confirmed, but it did have the effect of altering the participants’ minds and allowing an apprehension of the divine. Fire kindled at the yazna was both a sacred element in itself as well as a manifestation of the divine presence in the form of Atar, god of fire.

At some point between 1500 and 1000 BC the Persian prophet Zoroaster claimed to receive a revelation from Ahura Mazda. Also known as “Zarathustra” he preached a new religion known as Zoroastrianism. This developed the concepts of the earlier religion into a monotheistic framework. Zoroaster recognized Ahura Mazda as the supreme being. However the religion posited that Mazda was the only god. No other gods were required. Furthermore it was posited that Mazda was engaged in an eternal struggle with Angra Mainyu. Also known as Ahriman, this was the eternal spirit of evil. The religion held that the purpose of human life was to choose which deity one would follow. This choice would inform and direct all of one’s actions as well as one’s final destination. One who chose Ahura Mazda would live a life devoted to Asha, or “truth and order”. They would adhere to the practices of Good Thoughts, Good Words, and Good Deeds. One who chose Angra Mainyu would live a life attached to Druj, or “lies and chaos”. Their lives would be characterized by self-indulgence, faithlessness, and cruelty.

After death Zoroastrianism taught that all souls would cross the Chinvat Bridge. Those who had been righteous would go to the House of Song, or paradise. On the other hand those who had followed Angra Mainyu’s path were dropped into the House of Lies. This was a vision of hell in which one was condemned to feel eternally alone, no matter how many other souls were near. Those individuals would also suffer various torments. At some point in the future the religion held that a messiah would come. He was known as the “Saoshyant”, or “One Who Brings Benefit”. At that point linear time would end in an event known as “Frashokereti”. Thereupon all would be reunited with Ahura Mazda in paradise, even those who had been led astray by evil.

Zoroasterism retained the ritual of the yazna and the concept of fire as a divine element. However the two had morphed into a manifestation of Ahura Mazda instead of Atar. Scholars continue to debate the precise nature of Zoroastrianism. The Zoroastrian scripture (the “Avesta”) strongly suggests it is a monotheistic religion whose dualistic characteristics were exaggerated later in a movement known as Zorvanism. This movement was popular during the Sassanian Empire, which existed from 224 through 615 AD). Zoroastrianism lent many important elements characteristic of the faith to later religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. These elements included a focus on a single, uncreated, supreme being. Also the importance of human free will and choice in living a good life. Significant elements also included judgment after death, the coming of a messiah, and final account at the end of time, These elements were not only adopted within Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, they also influenced many other religions as well.

Persian Social Hierarchy and Women: It is unclear how much Zoroastrianism influenced Cyrus the Great. Indeed it many not have been any influence at all since. The famous inscriptions mentioning Ahura Mazda could as easily be referencing the old religion as the new. The same could be said for later Achaemenid rulers in different eras, although it seems fairly certain that Darius I “the Great” (ruling from 522 to 486 BC) and Xerxes I (ruling from 486 to 465 BC) were Zoroastrians. Irrespective of these issues the social hierarchy of Persian culture was informed by the religious belief positing the king at the apex and all others following subordinate. After all the king was considered to have been divinely appointed.

Even if he was the first son of a previous king, which he often was not, the king’s fundamental legitimacy was not due to that paternity or even to his belonging to the ruling dynasty: it came directly from God, His Grace or Divine Effulgence. This was known as “Farrah” in Middle Persian, and “farr” in New Persian. Thus the Persian kings did not draw their legitimacy from an aristocratic and/or priestly class. Rather it was bestowed directly from God. The king possessing the farr or divine grace granted to him by God. A king (or “Shah”) was supported only as long as he possessed that “farr”. When a king was deposed it was thought he had lost the favor of God. As long as he ruled, however, he was at least in theory supported by the social hierarchy.

The social hierarchy ran, top to bottom, from: the king and the royal family; the priests (or “magi”); nobles (aristocrats and “satraps”); then military commanders and subordinate elite forces (such as the Persian “Immortals”); then merchants followed by artisans and craftspeople; and then finally by peasants and at the lowest level, slaves. Within each class, there were also hierarchies. After the king came the king’s mother and then the queen, or the mother of the king’s chosen successor. These were followed by the king’s sons, then daughters. After those followed the King's brothers and sisters, with other relatives bringing up the rear. In the priestly class, there was a high priest and then lesser priests. The same paradigm applied all the way down to slaves, as there were some slaves who supervised others.

Men and women often worked the same jobs. Women were highly respected. Early evidence of this is seen in the goddess Anahita. Anahita not only presided over fertility and health but water and wisdom as well. In such an arid land water was the vital life-giving element. Wisdom encompassed the ability to discern rightly in determining life's choices. Specifics on women’s roles, jobs, and general treatment come from the Persians themselves. This information is through the so-called Fortification and Treasury Texts found at Persepolis. Persepolis was the capital of the empire commissioned by Darius I, “the Great”. There is contained lists of rations, payments, and job titles amongst other information.

Women served as supervisors. Especially skilled and powerful women held the title of “Arashshara”, or “great chief”). Female artisans and craftspeople often supervised shops creating goods not only for daily use but for trade. They were paid the same as their male counterparts. This is evidenced by accounting statements showing the same rations of grain and wine for female and male workers. Pregnant women and those who had recently given birth received higher pay. If a woman gave birth to a son she was rewarded with extra rations for a month. The attending hysician received the same reward, However this is the only discrepancy in pay known to exist between the sexes. Women could own land, conduct business, and there is even evidence that women served in the military.

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ABOUT US: Prior to our retirement we used to travel to Eastern Europe and Central Asia several times a year seeking antique gemstones and jewelry from the globe’s most prolific gemstone producing and cutting centers. Most of the items we offer came from acquisitions we made in Eastern Europe, India, and from the Levant (Eastern Mediterranean/Near East) during these years from various institutions and dealers. Much of what we generate on Etsy, Amazon and Ebay goes to support worthy institutions in Europe and Asia connected with Anthropology and Archaeology. Though we have a collection of ancient coins numbering in the tens of thousands, our primary interests are ancient/antique jewelry and gemstones, a reflection of our academic backgrounds.

Though perhaps difficult to find in the USA, in Eastern Europe and Central Asia antique gemstones are commonly dismounted from old, broken settings – the gold reused – the gemstones recut and reset. Before these gorgeous antique gemstones are recut, we try to acquire the best of them in their original, antique, hand-finished state – most of them originally crafted a century or more ago. We believe that the work created by these long-gone master artisans is worth protecting and preserving rather than destroying this heritage of antique gemstones by recutting the original work out of existence. That by preserving their work, in a sense, we are preserving their lives and the legacy they left for modern times. Far better to appreciate their craft than to destroy it with modern cutting.

Not everyone agrees – fully 95% or more of the antique gemstones which come into these marketplaces are recut, and the heritage of the past lost. But if you agree with us that the past is worth protecting, and that past lives and the produce of those lives still matters today, consider buying an antique, hand cut, natural gemstone rather than one of the mass-produced machine cut (often synthetic or “lab produced”) gemstones which dominate the market today. We can set most any antique gemstone you purchase from us in your choice of styles and metals ranging from rings to pendants to earrings and bracelets; in sterling silver, 14kt solid gold, and 14kt gold fill. We would be happy to provide you with a certificate/guarantee of authenticity for any item you purchase from us. I will always respond to every inquiry whether via email or eBay message, so please feel free to write.