This authored monograph presents the state-of-the-art improvements in 2D materials, focusing on their most significant achievements, as well as recent emergence and potential applications. The book discusses synthetic protocols as well as the structural chemistry and physical properties of various 2D materials and explores their energy-related utilization. The main energy harvesting applications such as piezoelectric generators, solar cells and hydrogen evolution reactions are analyzed, while special focus is also given to the related energy storage technologies such as rechargeable batteries, supercapacitors and wearable energy storage devices. This volume sheds new light on 2D materials and their applications and will be a useful tool for graduates and academics working in the fields of materials science, materials physics and chemistry.
Dr. Muhammad Ikram obtained his Master's degree (M. Phil Physics) from Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan in 2010. He obtained his Ph.D. degree in Physics from the Department of Physics, Government College University (GCU) Lahore through the Pak-US joint project between the Department of Physics, GCU Lahore, Pakistan, and the University of Delaware, USA in 2015. He served as deputy director of Manuscript Science at Punjab textbook board (Pakistan). Later on (2017-to date), Ikram joined the Department of Physics, GC University Lahore as an Assistant Professor of Physics and Principal of Solar Cell Applications Lab. Ikram received the Seal of Excellence Marie Sklodowska Curie Actions Individual Fellowship in 2017 and 2020. In 2021, Ikram was included in the 2 % top scientists from Pakistan announced by Stanford University. His research interest involves the synthesis and characterization of inorganic semiconductor nanomaterials, 2D materials for water treatment optoelectronic, and electrocatalytic applications.
Mr. Ali Raza obtained his B.S (Physics) degree from the University of Gujrat (Punjab, Pakistan) in 2016 and his Master's degree (M. Phil) in Material Physics from Riphah International University, Islamabad Pakistan in 2019. Raza completed his M. Phil research work in the Solar Cell Applications Lab at GCU Lahore (Punjab, Pakistan) and later worked as a Research Associate in the same lab on the field of catalytic and energy harvesting applications of pure and engineered 2D materials (TMDCs, Graphene, h-BN, and MXenes). Currently, he is serving as Lecturer (Research) at the Department of Physics, University of Sialkot, Punjab, and has enrolled as a Ph.D. scholar at CAS Key Laboratory of Design and Assembly of Functional Nanostructures, Fujian Institute of Research on the Structure of Matter, CAS. His current research directions are the fabrication of functional 2D-Materials for catalytic and other energy-harvesting applications.
Prof. Dr. Salamat Ali is working as a Professor of Physics at Riphah Institute of Computing and Applied Sciences (RICAS), Riphah International University Lahore Campus, and Retired as a Full Professor of Physics from GC University Lahore. He has completed his Ph.D. in 1996 from the Durham University, U.K. in Superconductivity and Magnetism and his Post-Doc. in 2006 from the K.F. University of Graz, Austria, with specialization in Nanotechnology. He also completed training in Solar Cell Technology from the University of Delaware, USA in 2012. His current research interests include Water purifications, Sensor technology, Development of medicines for cancer treatment. He has 35 years of experience in Material Science.
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Background
1.2 Why 2D materials?
References
Chapter 2
Advances in Ultrathin 2D Materials
2.1 Revolution of 2D materials
2.2 Recent advances
2.2.1 Research highlights
2.3 Classification of 2DMs
2.3.1 Layered van der Waals solids
2.3.2 Layered ionic solids
2.3.3 Surface assisted non-layered solids
References
Chapter 3
Composition and Materials Chemistry
3.1 Graphene
3.1.1 Structural chemistry
3.1.2 Edge alignment in graphene
3.1.3 Band engineering
3.2 Transition metal dichalcogenides
3.2.1 Structural chemistry
3.3 Mxenes
3.3.1 Crystal structure
3.4 g-C3N4
3.4.1 Crystal structure
3.5 Covalent organic frameworks
3.5.1 Design principle
3.5.1.1 Symmetric topologies
3.5.1.2 Asymmetric topologies
3.6 Metal-organic framework
3.6.1 Structural chemistry
References
Chapter 4
Synthetic Protocols
4.1 Micromechanical cleavages
4.1.1 Scotch tape method
4.1.2 Viscoelastic stamps
4.1.3 Sandpaper-assisted exfoliation
4.1.4 Electrostatic-assisted exfoliation
4.1.5 Wet-grinding technique
4.1.6 Wet-jet milling method
4.1.7 Liquid exfoliations
4.1.7.1 Sonication-assisted liquid exfoliation
4.1.7.1.1 Sonication type and power
4.1.7.1.2 Sonication time
4.1.7.2 Shear force-assisted liquid exfoliation
4.2 Ion intercalation exfoliation
4.2.1 Intercalation routes
4.2.1.1 Chemical intercalation
4.2.1.2 Electrochemical intercalation
4.2.1.3 Intercalation chemistry of 2D materials
4.2.1.4 Mechanism
4.3 Oxidation-assisted exfoliation
4.4 Wet-chemical syntheses
4.4.1 Hydro/Solvothermal synthesis
4.4.2 2D-oriented attachment
4.4.3 Self-sssembly of nanocrystals
4.4.4 2D-templated synthesis
4.4.5 Hot-injection method
4.4.6 Interface-mediated synthesis
4.4.7 Other WC-synthesis methods
4.5 Chemical vapor deposition
4.5.1 Graphene and hexagonal Boron Nitride
4.5.1.1 Effect of substrate
4.5.1.2 Effects of precursor and pressure
4.5.1.3 Wafer-scale growth
4.5.2 Transition metal dichalcogenides
4.5.2.1 Effects of precursor and seed
4.5.2.2 Substrate engineering
4.5.2.3 Effect of temperature and gas
4.5.2.4 Layer-controlled and patterned growth
References
Chapter 5
2D-Heterostructures
5.1 Advances in 2D-van der Waals heterostructures
5.2 Properties
5.2.1 Band tuning
5.2.2 Charge transportation in 2D heterostructures
5.2.2.1 Mono-particle transports
5.2.2.2 Generation of interlayer excitons
5.2.3 Magnetism in 2D heterostructures
5.3 Fabrication
5.3.1 Mechanical transfer methods
5.3.2 CVD growth
5.3.2.1 One-step CVD method
5.3.2.2 Two-step CVD method
5.3.2.3 Multi-step CVD method
5.3.2.4 Vertically stacked 2D heterojunctions
5.3.2.5 Laterally stacked 2D heterojunctions
5.3.3 Doping and chemical functionalization
5.3.4 Electrostatically assembled heterostructures
5.3.4.1 Flocculation
5.3.4.2 Langmuir-Blodgett assembly
5.4 Advance applications of 2D-heterostructures
5.4.1 Tunneling devices
5.4.2 Interaction with light
5.4.2.1 Photovoltaic applications
5.4.2.2 Light-emitting diodes
5.4.3 Plasmonic devices
References
Chapter 6
Energy-related Applications
6.1 Energy harvesting
6.2 Mechanical energy harvesting
6.2.1 Piezoelectric energy harvesting
6.2.1.1 Piezoelectricity in 2D materials
6.2.1.1.1 In-plane piezoelectricity
6.2.1.1.2 Out-of-plane piezoelectricity
6.2.1.2 Piezoelectric nanogenerators
6.2.1.2.1 MoS2-based energy harvesters
6.2.1.2.1.1 Superior piezoelectricity from grain boundary in MoS2 monolayers
6.2.1.2.2 WSe2-based energy harvesters
6.2.1.2.3 a-In2Se3-based energy harvesters
6.2.1.2.3.1 In2Se3-based heterostructures for piezoelectricity
6.2.1.2.3.2 Physical mechanism
6.2.1.2.4 h-BN energy harvesters
6.2.1.2.4.1 Performance of BN-based nanogenerator
6.2.1.2.4.2 Mechanism
6.2.1.2.5 Other 2D materials-based energy harvesters
6.3 Solar energy harvesting
6.3.1 Solar cells
6.3.1.1 TMDCs in Si-based solar cells
6.3.1.2 TMDCs in organic solar cells
6.3.1.3 2D Materials in perovskites solar cells
6.3.1.3.1 Device architecture
6.3.1.3.2 2D Materials-based conventional perovskites solar cells
6.3.1.3.2.1 Electron transport layer
6.3.1.3.2.2 Hole transport layer
6.3.1.3.2.3 Active layer
6.3.1.3.3 Inverted perovskites solar cells
6.3.1.3.3.1 Electron transport layer
6.3.1.3.3.2 Hole transport layers
6.3.1.3.3.3 Active layer
6.3.2 Hydrogen evolution
6.3.2.1 Transition metal dichalcogenide
6.3.2.2 Graphene-like materials
6.3.2.3 2D-MOFs and composites
6.3.2.4 MXenes and composites
6.3.2.5 Other 2D materials
6.3.3 Oxygen evolution reaction
6.3.4 Reduction of CO2
6.4 Energy storage devices
6.4.1 Supercapacitors
6.4.1.1 Graphene-based supercapacitors
6.4.1.1.1 High volumetric capacitance graphene-based materials
6.4.1.2 Transition metal dichalcogenides
6.4.1.3 MXenes
6.4.1.4 Other 2D materials
6.4.2 Rechargeable batteries
6.4.2.1 Lithium-ion batteries
6.4.2.2 Sodium-ion batteries
6.4.2.3 Other batteries
6.5 Wearable energy harvesting and storage devices
6.5.1 Flexible supercapacitors
6.5.1.1 Flexible stability of wearable supercapacitors
6.5.2 Wearable batteries
6.5.2.1 Energy storage performances
6.5.2.2 Flexible stability of wearable batteries
6.5.3 Photodetectors
6.5.4 Other types of wearable energy harvesters
References
Chapter 7
Concluding Remarks and Outlook
7.1 Challenges
7.2 Suggestions
Index