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The world has become increasingly networked and unpredictable. Decision makers at all levels are required to manage the consequences of complexity every day. They must deal with problems that arise unexpectedly, generate uncertainty, are characterised by interconnectivity, and spread across traditional boundaries. Simple solutions to complex problems are usually inadequate and risk exacerbating the original issues. Leaders of international bodies such as the UN, OECD, UNESCO, and WHO -- and of major business, public sector, charitable, and professional organizations -- have all declared that systems thinking is an essential leadership skill for managing the complexity of the economic, social and environmental issues that confront decision makers. Systems thinking must be implemented more generally, and on a wider scale, to address these issues. An evaluation of different systems methodologies suggests that they concentrate on different aspects of complexity. To be in the best position to deal with complexity, decision makers must understand the strengths and weaknesses of the various approaches and learn how to employ them in combination. This is called critical systems thinking. Making use of over 25 case studies, the book offers an account of the development of systems thinking and of major efforts to apply the approach in real-world interventions. Further, it encourages the widespread use of critical systems practice as a means of ensuring responsible leadership in a complex world. Comments on a previous version of the book: Russ Ackoff: 'the book is the best overview of the field I have seen' JP van Gigch: 'Jackson does a masterful job. The book is lucid ...well written and eminently readable' Professional Manager ( Journal of the Chartered Management Institute ): 'Provides an excellent guide and introduction to systems thinking for students of management'

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The world has become increasingly networked and unpredictable. Decision makers at all levels are required to manage the consequences of complexity every day. They must deal with problems that arise unexpectedly, generate uncertainty, are characterised by interconnectivity, and spread across traditional boundaries. Simple solutions to complex problems are usually inadequate and risk exacerbating the original issues. Leaders of international bodies such as the UN, OECD, UNESCO, and WHO -- and of major business, public sector, charitable, and professional organizations -- have all declared that systems thinking is an essential leadership skill for managing the complexity of the economic, social and environmental issues that confront decision makers. Systems thinking must be implemented more generally, and on a wider scale, to address these issues. An evaluation of different systems methodologies suggests that they concentrate on different aspects of complexity. To be in the best position to deal with complexity, decision makers must understand the strengths and weaknesses of the various approaches and learn how to employ them in combination. This is called critical systems thinking. Making use of over 25 case studies, the book offers an account of the development of systems thinking and of major efforts to apply the approach in real-world interventions. Further, it encourages the widespread use of critical systems practice as a means of ensuring responsible leadership in a complex world. Comments on a previous version of the book: Russ Ackoff: 'the book is the best overview of the field I have seen' JP van Gigch: 'Jackson does a masterful job. The book is lucid ...well written and eminently readable' Professional Manager ( Journal of the Chartered Management Institute ): 'Provides an excellent guide and introduction to systems thinking for students of management'

Author Biography

MICHAEL C. JACKSON is Emeritus Professor at the University of Hull, editor- in-chief of Systems Research and Behavioral Science, and MD of Systems Research Ltd. He graduated from Oxford University, gained an MA from Lancaster University and a PhD from Hull, and has worked in the civil service, in academia and as a consultant. Between 1999 and 2011, Mike was Dean of Hull University Business School, leading it to triple-crown accreditation. Mike has been President of the International Federation for Systems Research and the International Society for the Systems Sciences. He is a Companion of the Association of Business Schools, a Chartered IT Professional, and a Fellow of the British Computer Society, the Cybernetics Society, the Chartered Management Institute, the Operational Research Society and the International Academy for Systems and Cybernetic Sciences. Mike has received many awards, two honorary degrees, and has been a visiting professor at numerous international universities. In 2011 he was awarded an OBE for services to higher education and business. In 2017 he received the Beale Medal of the UK Operational Research Society for 'a sustained contribution over many years to the theory, practice, or philosophy of Operational Research.' The previous version of this book Systems Thinking: Creative Holism for Managers was translated into four languages.

Table of Contents

Preface xvii


Introduction xxv


Part I Systems Thinking in the Disciplines 1


1 Philosophy 3


1.1 Introduction 3


1.2 Kant 4


1.3 Hegel 8


1.4 Pragmatism 9


1.5 Husserl and Phenomenology 10


1.6 Radical Constructivism 11


1.7 Conclusion 12


2 The Physical Sciences and the Scientific Method 15


2.1 Introduction 15


2.2 The Scientific Method and the Scientific Revolution 16


2.3 The Physical Sciences in the Modern Era 19


2.4 The Scientific Method in the Modern Era 21


2.5 Extending the Scientific Method to Other Disciplines 24


2.6 Conclusion 25


3 The Life Sciences 27


3.1 Introduction 27


3.2 Biology 27


3.3 Ecology 35


3.4 Conclusion 40


4 The Social Sciences 43


4.1 Introduction 43


4.2 Functionalism 44


4.3 Interpretive Social Theory 49


4.4 The Sociology of Radical Change 52


4.5 Postmodernism and Poststructuralism 56


4.6 Integrationist Social Theory 59


4.7 Luhmann's Social Systems Theory 62


4.8 Action Research 67


4.9 Conclusion 68


Part II The Systems Sciences 71


5 General Systems Theory 75


5.1 Introduction 75


5.2 von Bertalanffy and General System Theory 75


5.3 von Bertalanffy's Collaborators and the Society for General Systems Research 79


5.4 Miller and the Search for Isomorphisms at Different System Levels 80


5.5 Boulding, Emergence and the Centrality of "The Image" 82


5.6 The Influence of General Systems Theory 85


5.7 Conclusion 86


6 Cybernetics 89


6.1 Introduction 89


6.2 First?Order Cybernetics 91


6.3 British Cybernetics 95


6.4 Second?Order Cybernetics 102


6.5 Conclusion 108


7 Complexity Theory 111


7.1 Introduction 111


7.2 Chaos Theory 112


7.3 Dissipative Structures 117


7.4 Complex Adaptive Systems 119


7.5 Complexity Theory and Management 125


7.6 Complexity Theory and Systems Thinking 136


7.7 Conclusion 144


Part III Systems Practice 147


8 A System of Systems Methodologies 151


8.1 Introduction 151


8.2 Critical or "Second?Order" Systems Thinking 152


8.3 Toward a System of Systems Methodologies 155


8.3.1 Preliminary Considerations 155


8.3.2 Beer's Classification of Systems 155


8.3.3 The Original "System of Systems Methodologies" 157


8.3.4 Snowden's Cynefin Framework 160


8.3.5 A Revised "System of Systems Methodologies" 162


8.4 The Development of Applied Systems Thinking 166


8.5 Systems Thinking and the Management of Complexity 169


8.6 Conclusion 169


Type A Systems Approaches for Technical Complexity 171


9 Operational Research, Systems Analysis, Systems Engineering (Hard Systems Thinking) 173


9.1 Prologue 173


9.2 Description of Hard Systems Thinking 175


9.2.1 Historical Development 175


9.2.2 Philosophy and Theory 177


9.2.3 Methodology 179


9.2.4 Methods 182


9.2.5 Developments in Hard Systems Thinking 184


9.3 Hard Systems Thinking in Action 188


9.4 Critique of Hard Systems Thinking 191


9.5 Comments 196


9.6 The Value of Hard Systems Thinking to Managers 197


9.7 Conclusion 197


Type B Systems Approaches for Process Complexity 199


10 The Vanguard Method 201


10.1 Prologue 201


10.2 Description of the Vanguard Method 203


10.2.1 Historical Development 203


10.2.2 Philosophy and Theory 206


10.2.3 Methodology 209


10.2.4 Methods 211


10.3 The Vanguard Method in Action 212


10.3.1 Check 213


10.3.2 Plan 215


10.3.3 Do 216


10.4 Critique of the Vanguard Method 220


10.5 Comments 224


10.6 The Value of the Vanguard Method to Managers 225


10.7 Conclusion 226


Type C Systems Approaches for Structural Complexity 227


11 System Dynamics 229


11.1 Prologue 229


11.2 Description of System Dynamics 231


11.2.1 Historical Development 231


11.2.2 Philosophy and Theory 233


11.2.3 Methodology 241


11.2.4 Methods 244


11.3 System Dynamics in Action 247


11.4 Critique of System Dynamics 249


11.5 Comments 258


11.6 The Value of System Dynamics to Managers 258


11.7 Conclusion 259


Type D Systems Approaches for Organizational Complexity 261


12 Socio?Technical Systems Thinking 263


12.1 Prologue 263


12.2 Description of Socio?Technical Systems Thinking 264


12.2.1 Historical Development 264


12.2.2 Philosophy and Theory 268


12.2.3 Methodology 276


12.2.4 Methods 279


12.3 Socio?Technical Systems Thinking in Action 280


12.4 Critique of Socio?Technical Systems Thinking 281


12.5 Comments 288


12.6 The Value of Socio?Technical Systems Thinking to Managers 289


12.7 Conclusion 289


13 Organizational Cybernetics and the Viable System Model 291


13.1 Prologue 291


13.2 Description of Organizational Cybernetics 296


13.2.1 Historical Development 296


13.2.2 Philosophy and Theory 299


13.2.3 Methodology 311


13.2.4 Methods 317


13.3 Organizational Cybernetics in Action 320


13.4 Critique of Organizational Cybernetics and the Viable System Model 325


13.5 Comments 337


13.6 The Value of Organizational Cybernetics to Managers 339


13.7 Conclusion 340


Type E Systems Approaches for People Complexity 341


14 Strategic Assumption Surfacing and Testing 343


14.1 Prologue 343


14.2 Description of Strategic Assumption Surfacing and Testing 346


14.2.1 Historical Development 346


14.2.2 Philosophy and Theory 348


14.2.3 Methodology 353


14.2.4 Methods 355


14.3 Strategic Assumption Surfacing and Testing in Action 357


14.4 Critique of Strategic Assumption Surfacing and Testing 360


14.5 Comments 365


14.6 The Value of Strategic Assumption Surfacing and Testing to Managers 366


14.7 Conclusion 367


15 Interactive Planning 369


15.1 Prologue 369


15.2 Description of Interactive Planning 371


15.2.1 Historical Development 371


15.2.2 Philosophy and Theory 375


15.2.3 Methodology 379


15.2.4 Methods 382


15.3 Interactive Planning in Action 384


15.4 Critique of Interactive Planning 388


15.5 Comments 394


15.6 The Value of Interactive Planning to Managers 395


15.7 Conclusion 395


16 Soft Systems Methodology 397


16.1 Prologue 397


16.2 Description of Soft Systems Methodology 401


16.2.1 Historical Development 401


16.2.2 Philosophy and Theory 404


16.2.3 Methodology 411


16.2.4 Methods 420


16.3 Soft Systems Methodology in Action 427


16.4 Critique of Soft Systems Methodology 431


16.5 Comments 441


16.6 The Value of Soft Systems Methodology to Managers 442


16.7 Conclusion 443


Type F Systems Approaches for Coercive Complexity 445


17 Team Syntegrity 447


17.1 Prologue 447


17.2 Description of Team Syntegrity 449


17.2.1 Historical Development 449


17.2.2 Philosophy and Theory 450


17.2.3 Methodology 455


17.2.4 Methods 458


17.3 Team Syntegrity in Action 459


17.4 Critique of Team Syntegrity 462


17.5 Comments 468


17.6 The Value of Team Syntegrity to Managers 470


17.7 Conclusion 470


18 Critical Systems Heuristics 471


18.1 Prologue 471


18.2 Description of Critical Systems Heuristics 473


18.2.1 Historical Development 473


18.2.2 Philosophy and Theory 476


18.2.3 Methodology 479


18.2.4 Methods 484


18.3 Critical Systems Heuristics in Action 485


18.4 Critique of Critical Systems Heuristics 490


18.5 Comments 502


18.6 The Value of Critical Systems Heuristics to Managers 508


18.7 Conclusion 509


Part IV Critical Systems Thinking 511


19 Critical Systems Theory 515


19.1 Introduction 515


19.2 The Origins of Critical Systems Theory 516


19.2.1 Critical Awareness 517


19.2.2 Pluralism 519


19.2.3 Emancipation or Improvement 522


19.3 Critical Systems Theory and the Management Sciences 524


19.4 Conclusion 528


20 Critical Systems Thinking and Multimethodology 531


20.1 Introduction 531


20.2 Total Systems Intervention 540


20.2.1 Background 540


20.2.2 Multimethodology 541


20.2.3 Case Study 545


20.2.4 Critique 553


20.3 Systemic Intervention 558


20.3.1 Background 558


20.3.2 Multimethodology 559


20.3.3 Case Study 562


20.3.4 Critique 565


20.4 Critical Realism and Multimethodology 568


20.4.1 Background 568


20.4.2 Multimethodology 570


20.4.3 Case Study 572


20.4.4 Critique 572


20.5 Conclusion 576


21 Critical Systems Practice 577


21.1 Prologue 577


21.2 Description of Critical Systems Practice 579


21.2.1 Historical Development 579


21.2.2 Philosophy and Theory 581


21.2.3 Multimethodology 593


21.2.4 Methodologies 601


21.2.5 Methods 604


21.3 Critical Systems Practice in Action 607


21.3.1 North Yorkshire Police 607


21.3.2 Kingston Gas Turbines 617


21.3.3 Hull University Business School 621


21.4 Critique of Critical Systems Practice 632


21.5 Comments 637


21.6 The Value of Critical Systems Practice to Managers 638


21.7 Conclusion 638


Conclusion 641


References 645


Index 679

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