The History of Model Airplanes

Assembling model airplanes takes patience and skill. Some model sets are easy to put together, but most are complex, and some modelers even prefer to assemble an airplane by hand with self-acquired parts. The ideas behind model airplanes are simple: Start with some parts and glue and create a miniature version of a modern-day form of transport, a military air vehicle, or a spaceship to rival any sci-fi fan's greatest dream. What might seem odd is the history of model airplanes. Putting together model airplanes actually dates back to ancient civilizations, when modeling kits and glue weren't invented yet.

Ancient History

The first model aircraft found to date was unearthed during an Egyptian excavation in 1898. While excavating the Saqqara burial grounds, archaeologists found a model aircraft that is dated back to around 200 BCE. It's hard to imagine people back then thinking about air travel, but this model airplane measures 6 inches long and has wings and what is considered today to be the fuselage. The Egyptians are already believed to be one of the most advanced ancient civilizations in history, and this model airplane confirms they were engineers beyond the pyramids.

Archytas was an ancient Greek philosopher, statesman, strategist, mathematician, and astronomer. It was the last two skills he possessed -- mathematician and astronomer -- that most likely "propelled" his desire for flight. Archytas built "the pigeon," as he dubbed it, which is recorded to have actually flown approximately 200 meters, or about 219 yards. Archytas' model airplane was appropriately shaped like a bird and fueled by steam.

Michigan State University: The Saqqara Bird

Ancient Airplane Debate

Renaissance History

Leonardo da Vinci was more than a painter and sculptor. Da Vinci was also an established scientist, mathematician, engineer, and inventor. Da Vinci dreamed of air flight, too, and often scribbled those visions into notebooks. Da Vinci designed one of the earliest blueprints of a helicopter. Called the "Aerial Screw," engineers today marvel at how much this da Vinci incarnation looks like a modern-day helicopter.

Leonardo da Vinci Inventions: Aerial Screw

U.S. Centennial of Flight Commission: Early Helicopter Technology

The Wright Brothers

Flight finally came into fruition with Orville and Wilbur Wright. This first flight fueled the passion for model airplanes many have today. Once the Wright brothers took flight, many dreamed of doing the same thing -- only on a smaller scale. Children put together model airplanes in droves, flying them and imagining they were either Orville or Wilbur. The U.S. military used models of the Wright brothers' success to engineer aircraft for battle. Model airplanes were also used in war movies recreating the legend of the Red Baron.

Guilford School District: The Wright Brothers

Marlington Local Schools: Wright Brothers

Model Airplanes and Military Engineering

As discussed above, military engineers discovered the benefits of using model airplanes when initially designing aircraft for battle. As the United States fought in both World Wars, the need for reconnaissance and air bombers increased. Engineers used models to design advancements to aircraft that included larger planes with multiple propellers and increased speed. The Stealth was born from a model . but you never saw it! Models of the new military airplanes hit toy and hobby stores and were snatched up by airplane enthusiasts looking to "build" the next great military aircraft.

The Smithsonian Institute: Military Use of the Airplane

Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University: Kalusa Miniature Airplane Collection

Today's Model Airplanes

As air flight became a common form of travel in the United States, commercial airliners used model airplanes as a marketing tool. Many major airliners gave toy model airplanes of their jets to children who flew the carriers. This was a classic play on a very well-known marketing strategy: Get the kids to want something and the parents will buy it. Kids wanted those model airplane toys, so parents flew those carriers.

As America entered into the space program, models of NASA aircraft became the next popular craft piece. Who didn't want to add the Apollo rocket ships and space shuttles to their model airplane collection? Models of space stations have also been built and sci-fi enthusiasts have an unlimited selection of models of their favorite space ships from their favorite science fiction series. Whether actual or imagined, space aircraft takes airplane modeling to the next level.

No model airplane collection is complete without a remote-controlled aircraft. This new way of building model airplanes allows users to fly the craft more realistically than just tossing it into the air and hoping the wings catch some drag. Remote-controlled model airplanes come in all shapes and sizes and are even flown in competitions.

A model aircraft is a small unmanned aircraft and may be a replica of an existing or imaginary aircraft. Model aircraft are divided into two basic groups: flying and non-flying. Non-flying models are also termed static, display, or shelf models.

Aircraft manufacturers and researchers make wind tunnel models for testing aerodynamic properties, for basic research, or for the development of new designs. Sometimes only part of the aircraft is modelled.

Static models range from mass-produced toys in white metal or plastic to highly accurate and detailed models produced for museum display and requiring thousands of hours of work. Many are available in kits, typically made of injection-moulded polystyrene or resin.

Flying models range from simple toy gliders made of sheets of paper, balsa, card stock or foam polystyrene to powered scale models built up from balsa, bamboo sticks, plastic, (including both moulded or sheet polystyrene, and styrofoam), metal, synthetic resin, either alone or with carbon fibre or fibreglass, and skinned with either tissue paper, mylar and other materials. Some can be very large, especially when used to research the flight properties of a proposed full scale aircraft.

Models are made for wind tunnel and free-flight research tests and may have components that can be swapped to compare various fittings and configurations, or have features such as controls that can be repositioned to reflect various in flight configurations. They are also often fitted with sensors for spot measurements and are usually mounted on a structure that ensures the correct alignment with the airflow, and which provides additional measurements. For wind tunnel research, it is sometimes only necessary to make part of the proposed aircraft.

Full-scale static engineering models are also constructed for production development, often made of different materials from the proposed design. Again, often only part of the aircraft is modelled.

Static display models

Lufthansa Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor model on display

Static model aircraft cannot fly, and are used for display, education and are used in wind tunnels to collect data for the design of full scale aircraft. They may be built using any suitable material, which often includes plastic, wood, metal, paper and fiberglass and may be built to a specific scale, so that the size of the original may be compared to that of other aircraft. Models may come finished, or may require painting or assembly, with glue, screws, or by clipping together, or both.

Many of the world's airlines allow their aircraft to be modelled for publicity. Airlines used to order large scale models of their aircraft to supply them to travel agencies as a promotional item. Desktop model airplanes may be given to airport, airline and government officials to promote an airline or celebrate a new route or an achievement..[1]

Scale

See also: List of scale model sizes

Static model aircraft are primarily available commercially in a variety of scales from as large as 1:18 scale to as small as 1:1250 scale. Plastic model kits requiring assembly and painting are primarily available in 1:144, 1:72, 1:48, 1:32, and 1:24 scale. Die-cast metal models (pre-assembled and factory painted) are available in scales ranging from 1:48th to 1:600th.

Scales are not random, but are generally based on divisions of either the Imperial system, or the Metric system. For example, 1:48 scale is 1/4" to 1-foot (or 1" to 4 feet) and 1:72 is 1" to 6 feet, while in metric scales such as 1:100th, 1 centimetre equals 1 metre. 1:72 scale was introduced with Skybirds wood and metal model aircraft kits in 1932 and were followed closely by Frog which used the same scale from 1936 with their "Frog Penguin" brand. 1:72 was popularized in the US during the Second World War by the US War Department after it requested models of commonly encountered single engine aircraft at that scale, and multi-engine aircraft in 1:144th scale. They hoped to improve aircraft recognition skills and these scales compromised between size and detail. After WWII, manufacturers continued with these scales, however kits are also added in other divisions of the imperial system. 1:50th and 1:100th are common in Japan and France which both use Metric. Promotional models for airlines are produced in scales ranging from 1:200 to 1:1200.

Some manufacturers made 1:18th scale aircraft to go with cars of the same scale. Aircraft models, military vehicles, figures, cars, and trains all have different common scales but there is some crossover. There is a substantial amount of duplication of more famous subjects in different scales, which can be useful for forced perspective box dioramas.

Older models often did not conform to an established scale as they were sized to fit the box, and are referred to as being to "Box Scale".

Materials

Parts for a plastic model airplane still on their injection molding tree

Paper model of Dornier X flying boat

The most common form of manufacture for kits is injection moulded polystyrene plastic, formed in steel forms. Plastic pellets are heated into a liquid and forced into the mould under high pressure through trees which will hold all the parts, and ensure plastic flows to every part of the mould. This allows a greater degree of automation than other manufacturing processes but moulds require large production runs to cover the cost of making them. Today, this takes place mostly in Asia and Eastern Europe. Smaller runs are possible with copper moulds, and some companies use resin or rubber moulds, but while the cost is lower for the mould, the durability is also lower and labour costs can be much higher.

Resin kits are made in forms similar to those used for limited run plastic kits, but these moulds are usually not as durable, which limits them to smaller production runs, and prices for the finished product are higher.

Vacuum forming is another common alternative but requires more skill, and details must be supplied by the modeller. There is a handful of photo etched metal kits which allow a high level of detail and they are unable to replicate compound curves.

Scale models can also be made from paper or card stock. Commercial models are mainly printed by publishers in Germany or Eastern Europe but can be distributed through the internet, some of which are offered this way for free.

From World War I through the 1950s, static model airplanes were also built from light weight bamboo or balsa wood and covered with tissue paper in the same manner as with flying models. This was a time consuming process that mirrored the actual construction of airplanes through the beginning of World War II. Many model makers would create models from drawings of the actual aircraft.[2]

Ready-made desk-top models include those produced in fiberglass for travel agents and aircraft manufacturers, as well as collectors models made from die-cast metal, mahogany, resin and plastic.

Flying models

A free-flight hand-launched glider

Generally known collectively as aeromodelling, some flying models resemble scaled down versions of full scale aircraft, while others are built with no intention of looking like real aircraft. There are also models of birds, bats and pterosaurs (usually ornithopters). The reduced size affects the model's Reynolds number which determines how the air reacts when flowing past the model, and compared to a full sized aircraft the size of control surfaces needed, the stability and the effectiveness of specific airfoil sections may differ considerably requiring changes to the design.

Control

Flying model aircraft are generally controlled through one of three methods

Free flight (F/F) model aircraft are uncontrolled other than by control surfaces that must be preset before flight, and must have a high degree of natural stability. Most free flying models are either unpowered gliders or rubber powered. These pre-date manned flight.[3]

Control line (C/L) model aircraft use strings or wires to tether the model to a central pivot, either held by hand or to a pole. The aircraft then flies in circles around that point, secured by one cable, while a second provides pitch control through a connection to the elevator. Some use a third cable to control a throttle. There are many competition categories. Speed flying is divided into classes based on engine displacement. Class 'D' 60 size speed planes can easily reach speeds well in excess of 150 mph (240 km/h).

Radio-controlled aircraft have a controller who operates a transmitter which sends signals to a receiver in the model to actuate servos which adjust the model's flight controls similarly to a full sized aircraft. Traditionally, the radio signal directly controlled servos, however, modern examples often use flight control computers to stabilize the model or even to fly it autonomously. This is particularly the case with quadcopters.

Construction

Extremely light model with microfilm covering

Flying model of a WW1 Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.5a with foam flying surfaces, from a kit.

Flying models construction may differ from that of static models as both weight and strength are major considerations.

Flying models borrow construction techniques from full-sized aircraft although the use of metal is limited. These might consist of forming a frame using thin planks of a light wood such as balsa to duplicate the formers, longerons, spars, and ribs of a vintage full-size aircraft, or, on larger (usually powered) models where weight is less of a factor, sheets of wood, expanded polystyrene, and wood veneers may be employed. It is then given a smooth sealed surface, usually with aircraft dope. For light models, tissue paper is used. For larger models (usually powered and radio controlled) heat-curing or heat shrink covering plastic films or heat-shrinkable synthetic fabrics are applied to the model. Microfilm covering is used for the very lightest models and is made by spreading few drops of lacquer out over several square feet of water, and lifting a wire loop through it, which creates a thin plastic film. Flying models can be assembled from kits, built from plans, or made completely from scratch. A kit contains the necessary raw material, typically die- or laser-cut wood parts, some moulded parts, plans, assembly instructions and may have been flight tested. Plans are intended for the more experienced modeller, since the builder must make or find the materials themselves. Scratch builders may draw their own plans, and source all the materials themselves. Any method may be labour-intensive, depending on the model in question.

To increase the hobby's accessibility, some vendors offer Almost Ready to Fly (ARF) models which minimize the skills required, and reduce build time to under 4 hours, versus 10–40 or more for a traditional kit. Ready To Fly (RTF) radio control aircraft are also available, however model building remains integral to the hobby for many. For a more mass market approach, foamies, injection-molded from lightweight foam (sometimes reinforced) have made indoor flight more accessible and many require little more than attaching the wing and landing gear.

Gliders

model glider showing typical internal structure

Gliders do not have an attached powerplant. Larger outdoor model gliders are usually radio-controlled gliders and hand-winched against the wind by a line attached to a hook under the fuselage with a ring, so that the line will drop when the model is overhead. Other methods include catapult-launching, using an elastic bungee cord. The newer "discus" style of wingtip hand-launching has largely supplanted the earlier "javelin" type of launch. Also using ground-based power winches, hand-towing, and towing aloft using a second powered aircraft.

Gliders sustain flight through exploitation of the wind in the environment. A hill or slope will often produce updrafts of air which will sustain the flight of a glider. This is called slope soaring, and radio controlled gliders can remain airborne for as long as the updraft remains. Another means of attaining height in a glider is exploitation of thermals, which are columns of warm rising air created by differences of temperature on the ground such as between an asphalt parking lot and a lake. Heated air rises, carrying the glider with it. As with a powered aircraft, lift is obtained by the action of the wings as the aircraft moves through the air, but in a glider, height is gained by flying through air that is rising faster than the aircraft is sinking.

Walkalong gliders are lightweight model airplanes flown in the ridge lift produced by the pilot following in close proximity. In other words, the glider is slope soaring in the updraft of the moving pilot (see also Controllable slope soaring).

Power sources

Typical rubber powered model having the rubber band (hidden in the fuselage) tightened by turning the propeller backwards, here being done with a handcrank

Powered models contain an onboard powerplant, a mechanism powering propulsion of the aircraft through the air. Electric motors and internal combustion engines are the most common propulsion systems, but other types include rocket, small turbine, pulsejet, compressed gas, and tension-loaded (twisted) rubber band devices.

Rubber

The oldest method of powering free flight models is Alphonse Pénaud's elastic motor (or extensible motor) of 1871, essentially a long rubber band that is twisted to add tension, prior to flight. It is the most widely used powerplant, found on everything from children's toys to competition models. The elastic offers simplicity and durability, but has a short running time, and the initial high torque of a fully wound motor drops sharply before plateauing to a steady output, until the final turns unwind and power drops off completely. Using it efficiently is one of the challenges of competitive free-flight rubber flying, and variable-pitch propellers, differential wing and tailplane incidence and rudder settings, controlled by timers, have been help manage the torque. There are also usually motor weight restrictions in contest classes. Even so, models have achieved flights of nearly 1 hour.[4][5]

Compressed Gases

Stored compressed gas, typically carbon dioxide (CO2), can power simple models in a manner similar to filling a balloon and then releasing it. Compressed CO2 may also be used to power an expansion engine to turn a propeller. These engines can incorporate speed controls and multiple cylinders, and are capable of powering lightweight scale radio-controlled aircraft. Gasparin and Modela are two recent makers of CO2 engines. CO2, like rubber, is known as "cold" power because it generates no heat.

Steam is even older than rubber power, and like rubber, contributed much to aviation history, is now rarely used. In 1848, John Stringfellow flew a steam-powered model, in Chard, Somerset, England. Samuel Pierpont Langley built steam powered and internal combustion powered models that made long flights.

Baronet Sir George Cayley built, and flew, internal and external combustion gunpowder-fueled model aircraft engines in 1807, 1819, and 1850. These had no crank, working ornithopter-like flappers instead of a propeller. He speculated that the fuel might be too dangerous for manned aircraft.

Internal combustion

"Giant scale" 18 feet 6 inches (5.64 m) wingspan Lockheed C-130 Hercules radio control flying model powered with four internal combustions engines. A crew of five fly and maintain it.

Main article: Model engine

For larger and heavier models, the most popular powerplant is the glow plug engine. Glow engines are fueled by a mixture of slow burning methanol, nitromethane, and lubricant (castor oil or synthetic oil), which is sold pre-mixed as glow-fuel. Glow-engines require an external starting mechanism; the glow plug must be heated until it is hot enough to ignite fuel to start. Reciprocating cylinders apply torque to a rotating crankshaft, which is the engine's primary power-output. Some power is lost from converting linear motion to rotary and in lost heat and unburned fuel, so efficiency is low.

Model Aircraft Engines

These are rated by engine displacement and range from 0.01 cu in (0.16 cc) to over 1.0 cu in (16 cc). The smallest engines can spin a 3.5 inches (8.9 cm) propeller to over 30,000 rpm, while the larger engines turn at 10–14,000 rpm.

The simplest glow-engines use the two-stroke cycle. These engines are inexpensive, and offer the highest power-to-weight ratio of all glow-engines, but are noisy and require substantial expansion chamber mufflers, which may be tuned. four-stroke cycle glow engines, whether using poppet valves or more rarely rotary valves are more fuel-efficient, but deliver less power than similar two-stroke engines. The power they deliver is more suited to turning larger diameter propellers for lighter weight, higher drag airframes such as with in biplanes. Four-stroke engines are now popular as they are quieter than two-stroke engines, and are available in horizontally opposed twins and radial engine configurations. Variations include engines with multiple-cylinders, spark-ignition gasoline operation, carbureted diesel operation and variable compression-ratio engines. Diesels are preferred for endurance and have higher torque, and for a given capacity, can "swing" a larger propeller than a glow engine. Home manufacture of model aircraft engines is a hobby in its own right.

Jets and rockets

Miniature jet turbine

Early "jet" style model aircraft used a multi-blade propeller ducted fan, inside ductwork, usually in the fuselage. The fans were generally powered by 2 stroke engines at high RPM. They generally had 0.40 to 0.90 cu in (6.6 to 14.7 cc) displacements, but some were as small as 0.049 cu in (0.80 cc). This fan-in-tube design has been adopted successfully for electric-powered jets while glow engine powered ducted-fan aircraft are now rare. Small jet turbine engines are now used in hobbyist models that resemble simplified versions of the turbojet engines found on commercial aircraft, but are not scaled-down as Renold's numbers come into play. The first hobbyist-developed turbine was developed and flown in the 1980s but only recently have commercial examples become readily available. Turbines require specialized design and precision-manufacturing, and some have been built from car engine turbocharger units. Owning or operating a turbine-powered aircraft is prohibitively expensive and many national aeromodelling clubs (as with the USA's Academy of Model Aeronautics) require members to be certified to safely use them.[6] V-1 flying bomb type Pulsejet engines have also been used as they offer more thrust in a smaller package than a traditional glow-engine, but are not widely used due to the extremely high noise levels they produce, and are illegal in some countries.

Rocket engines are sometimes used to boost gliders and sailplanes and the earliest purpose-built rocket motor dates back to the 1950s. This uses solid fuel pellets, ignited by a wick fuse with a reusable casing. Flyers can now also use single-use model rocket engines to provide a short, under 10 second burst of power. Government restrictions in some countries made rocket-propulsion rare but these were being eased in many places and their use was expanding, however a reclassification from "smoke producing devices" to "fireworks" has made them difficult to obtain again.

Electric power

Small electric powered model of a pre-WW1 era Bleriot XI

Electric-powered models use an electric motor powered by a source of electricity - usually a battery. Electrical power began being used on models in the 1970s, but the cost delayed widespread use until the early 1990s, when more efficient battery technologies, and brushless motors became available, while the costs of motors, batteries and control systems dropped dramatically. Electric power now predominated with park-flyer and 3D-flyer models, both of which are small and light, where electric-power offers greater efficiency and reliability, less maintenance and mess, quieter flight and near-instantaneous throttle response compared to gas engines.

The first electric models used brushed DC motors and nickel cadmium (NiCad) rechargeable cells which gave flight times of 5 to 10 minutes, while a comparable glow-engine provided double the flight-time. Later electric systems used more-efficient brushless DC motors and higher-capacity nickel metal hydride (NiMh) batteries, yielding considerably improved flight times. Cobalt and lithium polymer batteries (LiPoly or LiPo) permit electric flight-times to surpass those of glow-engines, while the more rugged and durable, cobalt-free lithium iron phosphate batteries are also becoming popular. Solar power has also become practical for R/C hobbyists, and in June 2005 a record flight of 48 hours and 16 minutes was set in California. It is now possible to power most models under 20 lb (9.1 kg) with electric power for a cost equivalent to or lower than traditional power sources.

Propulsion types

Most powered model-aircraft, including electric, internal-combustion, and rubber-band powered models, generate thrust by spinning an airscrew. The propeller is the most commonly used device. Propellers generate thrust due to lift generated by the wing-like sections of the blades, which forces air backwards.

Propellers

A large diameter and low-pitch propeller offers greater thrust and acceleration at low airspeed, while a small diameter and higher-pitch propeller sacrifices acceleration for higher maximum speeds. The builder can choose from a selection of propellers to match the model but a mismatched propeller can compromise performance, and if too heavy, cause undue wear on the powerplant. Model aircraft propellers are usually specified as diameter × pitch, in inches. For example, a 5 x 3 propeller has a diameter of 5 inches (130 mm), and a pitch of 3 inches (76 mm). The pitch is the distance that the propeller would advance if turned through one revolution in a solid medium. Two and three bladed propellers are the most common.

Three methods are used to transfer energy to the propeller:

Direct-drive systems have the propeller attached directly to the engine's crankshaft or driveshaft. This arrangement is preferred when the propeller and powerplant both operate near peak efficiency at similar rpms. Direct-drive is most common with fuel-powered engines. Very rarely, some electric motors are designed with a sufficiently high torque and low enough speed and can utilize direct-drive as well. These motors are typically called outrunners.

Reduction drive uses gears to reduce shaft rpm, so the motor can spin much faster. The higher the gear ratio, the slower the prop will rotate, which also increases torque by roughly the same ratio. This is common on larger models and on those with unusually large propellers. The reduction drive matches the powerplant and propeller to their respective optimum operating speeds. Geared propellers are rare on internal combustion engines, but are common on electric motors because most electric motors spin extremely fast, but lack torque.

A built-in 2:1 gear reduction ratio can be obtained by attaching the propeller to the camshaft rather than the crankshaft of a four stroke engine, which runs at half the speed of the crankshaft.[7]

Ducted fans

Ducted fans are multi-blade propellers encased in a cylindrical duct or tube that may look like and fit in the same space as jet engine. They are available for both electric and liquid-fuelled engines, although they have only become common with recent improvements in electric-flight technology. A model aircraft can now be fitted with four electric ducted fans for less than the cost of a single jet turbine, enabling affordable modelling of multi-engine aeroplanes. Compared to an unducted propeller, a ducted fan generates more thrust for the same area and speeds of up to 200 mph (320 km/h) have been recorded with electric-powered ducted fan airplanes, largely due to the higher RPMs possible with ducted fan propellers. Ducted fans are popular with scale models of jet aircraft, where they mimic the appearance of jet engines but they are also found on non-scale and sport models, and even lightweight 3D-flyers.

The McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet is a twin-engine, supersonic, all-weather, carrier-capable, multirole combat jet, designed as both a fighter and attack aircraft (hence the F/A designation). Designed by McDonnell Douglas (now part of Boeing) and Northrop (now part of Northrop Grumman), the F/A-18 was derived from the latter's YF-17 in the 1970s for use by the United States Navy and Marine Corps. The Hornet is also used by the air forces of several other nations, and formerly, by the U.S. Navy's Flight Demonstration Squadron, the Blue Angels.

The F/A-18 was designed to be a highly versatile aircraft due to its avionics, cockpit displays, and excellent aerodynamic characteristics, with the ability to carry a wide variety of weapons. The aircraft can perform fighter escort, fleet air defense, suppression of enemy air defenses, air interdiction, close air support, and aerial reconnaissance. Its versatility and reliability have proven it to be a valuable carrier asset, though it has been criticized for its lack of range and payload compared to its earlier contemporaries, such as the Grumman F-14 Tomcat in the fighter and strike fighter role, and the Grumman A-6 Intruder and LTV A-7 Corsair II in the attack role.

The Hornet first saw combat action during the 1986 United States bombing of Libya and subsequently participated in the 1991 Gulf War and 2003 Iraq War. The F/A-18 Hornet served as the baseline for the Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet, its larger, evolutionary redesign.

Contents

1 Development

1.1 Origins

1.2 Redesigning the YF-17

1.3 Northrop's F-18L

1.4 Into production

1.5 Improvements and design changes

2 Design

2.1 Armament

3 Operational history

3.1 United States

3.1.1 Entry into service

3.1.2 Combat operations

3.2 Non-U.S. service

3.2.1 Australia

3.2.2 Canada

3.2.3 Finland

3.2.4 Kuwait

3.2.5 Malaysia

3.2.6 Spain

3.2.7 Switzerland

3.3 Potential operators

4 Variants

4.1 A/B

4.2 C/D

4.3 E/F Super Hornet

4.4 G Growler

4.5 Other US variants

4.6 Export variants

5 Operators

6 Aircraft on display

7 Notable accidents

8 Specifications (F/A-18C/D)

9 See also

10 References

10.1 Citations

10.2 Sources

11 External links

Development

Origins

YF-16 and YF-17 prototypes being tested by the U.S. Air Force

The U.S. Navy started the Naval Fighter-Attack, Experimental (VFAX) program to procure a multirole aircraft to replace the Douglas A-4 Skyhawk, the A-7 Corsair II, and the remaining McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom IIs, and to complement the F-14 Tomcat. Vice Admiral Kent Lee, then head of Naval Air Systems Command, was the lead advocate for the VFAX against strong opposition from many Navy officers, including Vice Admiral William D. Houser, deputy chief of naval operations for air warfare – the highest-ranking naval aviator.[2]

In August 1973, Congress mandated that the Navy pursue a lower-cost alternative to the F-14. Grumman proposed a stripped F-14 designated the F-14X, while McDonnell Douglas proposed a naval variant of the F-15, but both were nearly as expensive as the F-14.[3] That summer, Secretary of Defense James R. Schlesinger ordered the Navy to evaluate the competitors in the Air Force's Lightweight Fighter (LWF) program, the General Dynamics YF-16 and Northrop YF-17.[4] The Air Force competition specified a day fighter with no strike capability. In May 1974, the House Armed Services Committee redirected $34 million from the VFAX to a new program, the Navy Air Combat Fighter (NACF),[4] intended to make maximum use of the technology developed for the LWF program.[3]

Redesigning the YF-17

Though the YF-16 won the LWF competition, the Navy was skeptical that an aircraft with one engine and narrow landing gear could be easily or economically adapted to carrier service, and refused to adopt an F-16 derivative. On 2 May 1975, the Navy announced its selection of the YF-17.[5] Since the LWF did not share the design requirements of the VFAX, the Navy asked McDonnell Douglas and Northrop to develop a new aircraft from the design and principles of the YF-17. On 1 March 1977, Secretary of the Navy W. Graham Claytor announced that the F-18 would be named "Hornet".[3]

The Northrop YF-17 Cobra was developed into the carrier-capable F/A-18.

Northrop had partnered with McDonnell Douglas as a secondary contractor on NACF to capitalize on the latter's experience in building carrier aircraft, including the widely used F-4 Phantom II. On the F-18, the two companies agreed to evenly split component manufacturing, with McDonnell Douglas conducting the final assembly. McDonnell Douglas would build the wings, stabilators, and forward fuselage; while Northrop would build the center and aft fuselage and vertical stabilizers. McDonnell Douglas was the prime contractor for the naval versions, and Northrop would be the prime contractor for the F-18L land-based version which Northrop hoped to sell on the export market.[3][4]

The F-18, initially known as McDonnell Douglas Model 267, was drastically modified from the YF-17. For carrier operations, the airframe, undercarriage, and tailhook were strengthened, folding wings and catapult attachments were added, and the landing gear was widened.[6] To meet Navy range and reserves requirements, McDonnell increased fuel capacity by 4,460 pounds (2,020 kg), by enlarging the dorsal spine and adding a 96-gallon fuel tank to each wing. A "snag" was added to the wing's leading edge and stabilators to prevent an aeroelastic flutter discovered in the F-15 stabilator. The wings and stabilators were enlarged, the aft fuselage widened by 4 inches (102 mm), and the engines canted outward at the front. These changes added 10,000 lb (4,540 kg) to the gross weight, bringing it to 37,000 lb (16,800 kg). The YF-17's control system was replaced with a fully digital fly-by-wire system with quadruple redundancy, the first to be installed in a production fighter.[6]

First preproduction F-18A in October 1978

Originally, plans were to acquire a total of 780 aircraft of three variants: the single-seat F-18A fighter and A-18A attack aircraft, differing only in avionics, and the dual-seat TF-18A, which retained full mission capability of the F-18 with a reduced fuel load.[7] Following improvements in avionics and multifunction displays, and a redesign of external stores stations, the A-18A and F-18A were able to be combined into one aircraft.[3] Starting in 1980, the aircraft began to be referred to as the F/A-18A, and the designation was officially announced on 1 April 1984. The TF-18A was redesignated F/A-18B.[3]

Northrop's F-18L

Northrop developed the F-18L as a potential export aircraft. Since it was not strengthened for carrier service, it was expected to be lighter and better performing, and a strong competitor to the F-16 Fighting Falcon then being offered to American allies. The F-18L's normal gross weight was lighter than the F/A-18A by 7,700 pounds (3,490 kg), via lighter landing gear, lack of wing folding mechanism, reduced part thickness in areas, and lower fuel-carrying capacity. Though the aircraft retained a lightened tailhook, the most obvious external difference was removed "snags" on the leading edge of the wings and stabilators. It still retained 71% commonality with the F/A-18 by parts weight, and 90% of the high-value systems, including the avionics, radar, and electronic countermeasure suite, though alternatives were offered. Unlike the F/A-18, the F-18L carried no fuel in its wings and lacked weapons stations on the intakes. It had three underwing pylons on each side, instead.[8]

The F/A-18L version followed to coincide with the US Navy's F/A-18A as a land-based export alternative. This was essentially an F/A-18A lightened by about 2,500 to 3,000 pounds (1,130 to 1,360 kg); weight was reduced by removing the folding wing and associated actuators, implementing a simpler landing gear (single wheel nose gear and cantilever oleo main gear), and changing to a land-based tail hook. The revised F/A-18L included wing fuel tanks and fuselage stations of the F/A-18A. Its weapons capacity would increase from 13,700 to 20,000 pounds (6,210 to 9,070 kg), largely due to the addition of a third underwing pylon and strengthened wingtips (11 stations in total vs 9 stations of the F/A-18A). Compared to the F-18L, the outboard weapons pylons are closer to the wingtip missile rails. Because of the strengthened nonfolding wing, the wingtip missile rails were designed to carry either the AIM-7 Sparrow or Skyflash medium-range air-to-air missiles, in addition to the AIM-9 Sidewinder as found on the F/A-18A. The F/A-18L was strengthened for a 9 g design load factor compared to the F/A-18A's 7.5 g factor.[9]

The partnership between McDonnell Douglas and Northrop soured over competition for foreign sales for the two models. Northrop felt that McDonnell Douglas would put the F/A-18 in direct competition with the F-18L. In October 1979, Northrop filed a series of lawsuits charging that McDonnell was using Northrop technology developed for the F-18L for foreign sales of the F/A-18 in violation of their agreement, and asked for a moratorium on foreign sales of the Hornet. McDonnell Douglas countersued, alleging Northrop illegally used F/A-18 technology in its F-20 Tigershark. A settlement was announced 8 April 1985 for all of the lawsuits.[10][11][12][13] McDonnell Douglas paid Northrop $50 million for "rights to sell the F/A-18 wherever it could".[13] Additionally, the companies agreed on McDonnell Douglas as the prime contractor with Northrop as the principal subcontractor.[10][11][12][13] As principal subcontractor, Northrop will produce the rear section for the F/A-18 (A/B/C/D/E/F), while McDonnell Douglas will produce the rest with final assembly to be performed by McDonnell Douglas.[14] At the time of the settlement, Northrop had ceased work on the F-18L. Most export orders for the F-18L were captured by the F-16 or the F/A-18.[8] The F-20 Tigershark did not enter production, and although the program was not officially terminated until 17 November 1986, it was dead by mid-1985.[15]

Into production

Overall-gray jet fighter, with red, blue and white-tipped nose, is overflying sea and scattered white clouds down below. The aircraft is carrying streamlined external fuel tanks and missiles under its wings, and is heading right.

US Navy F/A-18C during Operation Enduring Freedom in 2002

During flight testing, the snag on the leading edge of the stabilators was filled in, and the gap between the leading-edge extensions (LEX) and the fuselage was mostly filled in. The gaps, called the boundary layer air discharge slots, controlled the vortices generated by the LEX and presented clean air to the vertical stabilizers at high angles of attack, but they also generated a great deal of parasitic drag, worsening the problem of the F/A-18's inadequate range. McDonnell filled in 80% of the gap, leaving a small slot to bleed air from the engine intake. This may have contributed to early problems with fatigue cracks appearing on the vertical stabilizers due to extreme structural loads, resulting in a short grounding in 1984 until the stabilizers were strengthened. Starting in May 1988, a small vertical fence was added to the top of each LEX to broaden the vortices and direct them away from the vertical stabilizers. This also provided a minor increase in controllability as a side effect.[16] F/A-18s of early versions had a problem with insufficient rate of roll, exacerbated by the insufficient wing stiffness, especially with heavy underwing ordnance loads. The first production F/A-18A flew on 12 April 1980. After a production run of 380 F/A-18As[17] (including the nine assigned to flight systems development), manufacture shifted to the F/A-18C in September 1987.[7]

Improvements and design changes

In the 1990s, the U.S. Navy faced the need to replace its aging A-6 Intruders and A-7 Corsair IIs with no replacement in development.[18] To answer this deficiency, the Navy commissioned development of the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet. Despite its designation, it is not just an upgrade of the F/A-18 Hornet, but rather, a new, larger airframe using the design concepts of the Hornet.

Hornets and Super Hornets will serve complementary roles in the U.S. Navy carrier fleet until the Hornet A-D models are completely replaced by the F-35C Lightning II. The Marines have chosen to extend the use of certain F/A-18s up to 10,000 flight hours, due to delays in the F-35B variant.[19]

Design

Jet fighter aircraft is seen against blue sky executing a pull-up, making it nearly vertical with contrail formed aft of the canopy

F/A-18C Hornet performing a high-g pull-up. The high angle of attack causes powerful vortices to form at the leading edge extensions.

The F/A-18 is a twin engine, midwing, multimission tactical aircraft. It is highly maneuverable, due to its good thrust-to-weight ratio, digital fly-by-wire control system, and leading-edge extensions, which allow the Hornet to remain controllable at high angles of attack. The trapezoidal wing has a 20-degree sweepback on the leading edge and a straight trailing edge. The wing has full-span, leading-edge flaps and the trailing edge has single-slotted flaps and ailerons over the entire span.[20]

Canted vertical stabilizers are another distinguishing design element, one among several other such elements that enable the Hornet's excellent high angle of attack ability, including oversized horizontal stabilators, oversized trailing-edge flaps that operate as flaperons, large full-length leading-edge slats, and flight control computer programming that multiplies the movement of each control surface at low speeds and moves the vertical rudders inboard instead of simply left and right. The Hornet's normally high angle of attack performance envelope was put to rigorous testing and enhanced in the NASA F-18 High Alpha Research Vehicle (HARV). NASA used the F-18 HARV to demonstrate flight handling characteristics at high angle-of-attack (alpha) of 65–70 degrees using thrust vectoring vanes.[21] F/A-18 stabilators were also used as canards on NASA's F-15S/MTD.

F/A-18C Hornet in transonic flight producing flow-induced vapor cone

The Hornet was among the first aircraft to heavily use multifunction displays, which at the switch of a button allow a pilot to perform either fighter or attack roles or both. This "force multiplier" ability gives the operational commander more flexibility to employ tactical aircraft in a fast-changing battle scenario. It was the first Navy aircraft to incorporate a digital multiplexing avionics bus, enabling easy upgrades.[7]

Exhaust nozzles of an RAAF F/A-18

The Hornet was designed to reduce maintenance, and as a result, has required far less downtime than its heavier counterparts, the F-14 Tomcat and the A-6 Intruder. Its mean time between failures is three times greater than any other Navy strike aircraft, and requires half the maintenance time.[7] Its General Electric F404 engines were also innovative in that they were designed with operability, reliability, and maintainability first. The engine, while unexceptional in rated performance, demonstrates exceptional robustness under various conditions and is resistant to stall and flameout.[22] The F404 engine connects to the airframe at only 10 points and can be replaced without special equipment; a four-person team can remove the engine within 20 minutes. The aircraft has a top speed of Mach 1.8 at 40,000 ft.[23]

The engine air inlets of the Hornet, like that of the F-16, are of a simpler "fixed" design, while those of the F-4, F-14, and F-15 have variable geometry or variable intake ramp air inlets.

A 1989 USMC study found that single-seat fighters were well suited to air-to-air combat missions, while dual-seat fighters were favored for complex strike missions against heavy air and ground defenses in adverse weather—the question being not so much as to whether a second pair of eyes would be useful, but as to having the second crewman sit in the same fighter or in a second fighter. Single-seat fighters that lacked wingmen were shown to be especially vulnerable.[24]

Armament

F/A-18A/B Hornet F/A-18C/D Hornet

Hardpoint → 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

AIM-9 Sidewinder • •• •• •• •• • • •• •• •• •• •

AIM-7 Sparrow • • • • • • • • • • • •

AIM-120 AMRAAM •• •• • • •• ••

AGM-65 Maverick • • • •

AGM-84 Harpoon • • • •

AGM-84H SLAM-ER • •

AGM-88 HARM • • • • • • • •

AGM-154 JSOW • • • •

Mark 82/83 •• •• • •• •• •• •• • •• ••

Mark 84 • • • • • • • • • •

GBU-10/12/16 •• •• •• ••

GBU-24 • •

GBU-31/32/38 JDAM • • • •

Drop tank • • • • • •

Operational history

United States

Entry into service

Three gray F/A-18 Hornet strike fighter aircraft line up across the frame for catapult launches from an aircraft carrier's deck. Support staff is seen on the deck throughout, while exhaust can be seen from the engines of the aircraft on the right.

F/A-18 Hornets on USS Harry S. Truman

McDonnell Douglas rolled out the first F/A-18A on 13 September 1978,[17] in blue-on-white colors marked with "Navy" on the left and "Marines" on the right. Its first flight was on 18 November.[17] In a break with tradition, the Navy pioneered the "principal site concept"[4] with the F/A-18, where almost all testing was done at Naval Air Station Patuxent River,[7] instead of near the site of manufacture, and using Navy and Marine Corps test pilots instead of civilians early in development. In March 1979, Lt. Cdr. John Padgett became the first Navy pilot to fly the F/A-18.[25]

Following trials and operational testing by VX-4 and VX-5, Hornets began to fill the Fleet Replacement Squadrons VFA-125, VFA-106, and VMFAT-101, where pilots are introduced to the F/A-18. The Hornet entered operational service with Marine Corps squadron VMFA-314 at MCAS El Toro on 7 January 1983,[17] and with Navy squadron VFA-25 on 1 July 1984, replacing F-4s and A-7Es, respectively.[7]

Navy strike-fighter squadrons VFA-25 and VFA-113 (assigned to CVW-14) deployed aboard USS Constellation from February to August 1985, marking the first deployment for the F/A-18.[26]

The initial fleet reports were complimentary, indicating that the Hornet was extraordinarily reliable, a major change from its predecessor, the F-4J.[27] Other squadrons that switched to F/A-18 are VFA-146 "Blue Diamonds", and VFA-147 "Argonauts". In January 1985, the VFA-131 "Wildcats" and the VFA-132 "Privateers" moved from Naval Air Station Lemoore, California to Naval Air Station Cecil Field, Florida to become the Atlantic Fleet's first F/A-18 squadrons.

Blue Angels' No. 6 F/A-18A

The U.S. Navy's Blue Angels Flight Demonstration Squadron switched to the F/A-18 Hornet in 1986,[17][28] replacing the A-4 Skyhawk. The Blue Angels performed in F/A-18A, B, C, and D models at air shows and other special events across the US and worldwide before transitioning[29] to the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet in late 2020.[29] Blue Angels pilots must have 1,400 hours and an aircraft-carrier certification. The two-seat B and D models were typically used to give rides to VIPs, but also filled in for other aircraft, if such a need arose.[30]

NASA operates several F/A-18 aircraft for research purposes and also as chase aircraft; these F/A-18s are based at the Armstrong Flight Research Center (formerly the Dryden Flight Research Center) in California.[31] On 21 September 2012, two NASA F/A-18s escorted a NASA Boeing 747 Shuttle Carrier Aircraft carrying the Space Shuttle Endeavour over portions of California to Los Angeles International Airport before being delivered to the California Science Center museum in Los Angeles.[32]

Combat operations

F/A-18C Hornet lands on USS George H.W. Bush

The F/A-18 first saw combat action in April 1986, when VFA-131, VFA-132, VMFA-314, and VMFA-323 Hornets from USS Coral Sea flew Suppression of Enemy Air Defense (SEAD) missions against Libyan air defenses during Operation Prairie Fire and an attack on Benghazi as part of Operation El Dorado Canyon.[33] During the Gulf War of 1991, the Navy deployed 106 F/A-18A/C Hornets and Marine Corps deployed 84 F/A-18A/C/D Hornets.[34] F/A-18 pilots were credited with two kills during the Gulf War, both MiG-21s.[35] On 17 January, the first day of the war, U.S. Navy pilots Lieutenant Commander Mark I. Fox and, Lieutenant Nick Mongilio were in a flight of four Hornets[36][37] when they were sent from USS Saratoga in the Red Sea to bomb airfield H-3 in southwestern Iraq.[38] While en route, they were warned by an E-2C of approaching "Bandits" or Iranian MiG-21 aircraft. The Hornets shot down the two MiGs with AIM-7 and AIM-9 missiles in a brief dogfight. It took 40 seconds from when the bandits appeared on the radar of the E-2 until both aircraft were shot down.[37] The F/A-18s, each carrying four 2,000 lb (910 kg) bombs, then resumed their bombing run before returning to Saratoga.[17][39]

The Hornet's survivability was demonstrated when a Hornet took hits in both engines and flew 125 mi (201 km) back to base. It was repaired and flying within a few days. F/A-18s flew 4,551 sorties with 10 Hornets damaged including three losses, one confirmed lost to enemy fire.[40] All three losses were U.S. Navy F/A-18s, with two of their pilots lost. On 17 January 1991, Lieutenant Commander Scott Speicher of VFA-81 was shot down and killed in the crash of his aircraft.[41] An unclassified summary of a 2001 CIA report suggests that Speicher's aircraft was shot down by a missile fired from an Iraqi Air Force aircraft,[42][43] most likely a MiG-25.[44]

On 24 January 1991, F/A-18A bureau number 163121, from USS Theodore Roosevelt, piloted by Lt H.E. Overs, was lost due to an engine failure or loss of control over the Persian Gulf. The pilot ejected and was recovered by USS Wisconsin.[45] On 5 February 1991, F/A-18A bureau number 163096, piloted by Lieutenant Robert Dwyer was lost over the North Persian Gulf after a successful mission to Iraq; he was officially listed as killed in action, body not recovered.

F/A-18 Hornet fighter departing aircraft carrier. A gray aircraft, with blue and yellow fins, has just left the edge of carrier's deck, as evident through the extended landing gear.

F/A-18C taking off from USS Kitty Hawk in 2005

As the A-6 Intruder was retired in the 1990s, its role was filled by the F/A-18. The F/A-18 demonstrated its versatility and reliability during Operation Desert Storm, shooting down enemy fighters and subsequently bombing enemy targets with the same aircraft on the same mission. It broke records for tactical aircraft in availability, reliability, and maintainability.

Both U.S. Navy F/A-18A/C models and Marine F/A-18A/C/D models were used continuously in Operation Southern Watch and over Bosnia and Kosovo in the 1990s. U.S. Navy Hornets flew during Operation Enduring Freedom in 2001 from carriers operating in the North Arabian Sea. Both the F/A-18A/C and newer F/A-18E/F variants were used during Operation Iraqi Freedom in 2003, operating from aircraft carriers as well from an air base in Kuwait. Later in the conflict USMC A+, C, and primarily D models operated from bases within Iraq.

An F/A-18C was accidentally downed in a friendly fire incident by a Patriot missile when a pilot tried to evade two missiles fired at his plane and crashed.[46] Two others collided over Iraq in May 2005.

The USMC plans to use the F/A-18 until the early 2030s.[47][48]

The last operational deployment of the F/A-18C Hornet in U.S. Navy service was aboard the USS Carl Vinson and ended on 12 March 2018.[49] The aircraft briefly went back to sea for routine carrier qualifications in October, but it was retired from active Navy service on 1 February 2019. The type continued to be used by reserve units, primarily for adversary training,[50] but the final Navy F/A-18C operational flight occurred on 2 October 2019.[51]

Non-U.S. service

The F/A-18 has been purchased and is in operation with several foreign air services. Export Hornets are typically similar to U.S. models of a similar manufacture date. Since none of the customers operate aircraft carriers, all export models have been sold without the automatic carrier landing system, and the Royal Australian Air Force further removed the catapult attachment on the nose gear.[27] Except for Canada, all export customers purchased their Hornets through the U.S. Navy, via the U.S. Foreign Military Sales program, where the Navy acts as the purchasing manager, but incurs no financial gain or loss. Canada is the largest Hornet operator outside of the U.S.

Australia

Main article: McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet in Australian service

Three RAAF F/A-18As in 2013

The Royal Australian Air Force purchased 57 F/A-18A fighters and 18 F/A-18B two-seat trainers to replace its Dassault Mirage IIIOs.[52][53] Numerous options were considered for the replacement, notably the F-15A Eagle, the F-16 Falcon, and the then new F/A-18 Hornet.[54] The F-15 was discounted because the version offered had no ground-attack capability. The F-16 was considered unsuitable largely due to having only one engine.[55] Australia selected the F/A-18 in October 1981.[53] Original differences between the Australian and US Navy's standard F/A-18 were the removed nose-wheel tie bar for catapult launch (later re-fitted with a dummy version to remove nose wheel shimmy), addition of a high frequency radio, an Australian fatigue data analysis system, an improved video and voice recorder, and the use of instrument landing system/VHF omnidirectional range instead of the carrier landing system.[55]

The first two aircraft were produced in the US, with the remainder assembled in Australia at Government Aircraft Factories. F/A-18 deliveries to the RAAF began on 29 October 1984, and continued until May 1990.[56] In 2001, Australia deployed four aircraft to Diego Garcia, in an air-defense role, during coalition operations against the Taliban in Afghanistan. In 2003, 75 Squadron deployed 14 F/A-18s to Qatar as part of Operation Falconer and these aircraft saw action during the invasion of Iraq.[57] Australia had 71 Hornets in service in 2006, after four were lost to crashes.[52]

The fleet was upgraded beginning in the late 1990s to extend their service lives to 2015.[58] They were expected to be retired then and replaced by the F-35 Lightning II.[59][60] Several of the Australian Hornets have had refits applied to extend their service lives until the planned retirement date of 2020.[61] Australia has also purchased 24 F/A-18F Super Hornets, with deliveries beginning in 2010.[62]

In March 2015, six F/A-18As from No. 75 Squadron were deployed to the Middle East as part of Operation Okra, replacing a detachment of Super Hornets.[63]

Australia has sold 25 F/A-18A/Bs to Canada with first two delivered to RCAF in February 2019.[64]

Canada

Main article: McDonnell Douglas CF-18 Hornet

Canadian CF-188A Hornet off Hawaii. Note the "false cockpit" on the underside of the aircraft for confusing enemy pilots during dogfights.

Canada was the first export customer for the Hornet, replacing the CF-104 Starfighter (air reconnaissance and strike), the McDonnell CF-101 Voodoo (air interception) and the CF-116 Freedom Fighter (ground attack). The Canadian Forces Air Command ordered 98 A models (Canadian designation CF-188A/CF-18A) and 40 B models (designation CF-188B/CF-18B). The original CF-18 as delivered was nearly identical to the F/A-18A and B models.[65][66] Many features that made the F/A-18 suitable for naval carrier operations were retained by the Canadian Forces, such as the robust landing gear, the arrestor hook, and wing folding mechanisms.[67]

In 1991, Canada committed 26 CF-18s to the Gulf War, based in Qatar. These aircraft primarily provided Combat Air Patrol duties, although, late in the air war, began to perform air strikes on Iraqi ground targets. On 30 January 1991, two CF-18s on CAP detected and attacked an Iraqi TNC-45 patrol boat. The vessel was repeatedly strafed and damaged by 20mm cannon fire, but an attempt to sink the ship with an air-to-air missile failed. The ship was subsequently sunk by American aircraft, but the Canadian CF-18s received partial credit for its destruction.[68] In June 1999, 18 CF-18s were deployed to Aviano AB, Italy, where they participated in both the air-to-ground and air-to-air roles in the former Yugoslavia.

62 CF-18A and 18 CF-18B aircraft took part in the Incremental Modernization Project which was completed in two phases. The program was launched in 2001 and the last updated aircraft was delivered in March 2010. The aims were to improve air-to-air and air-to-ground combat abilities, upgrade sensors and the defensive suite, and replace the datalinks and communications systems on board the CF-18 from the F/A-18A and F/A-18B standard to the current F/A-18C and F/A-18D standard.[65][69]

In July 2010 the Canadian government announced plans to replace the remaining CF-18 fleet with 65 F-35 Lightning IIs, with deliveries scheduled to start in 2016.[70] In November 2016, Canada announced plans to buy 18 Super Hornets as an interim solution while reviewing its F-35 order.[71] The plan for Super Hornets was later, in October 2017, put on hold due to a trade conflict with the United States over the Bombardier C-Series. Instead, Canada was seeking to purchase surplus Hornets from Australia or Kuwait.[72][73][74] Canada has since acquired 25 ex-Australian F/A-18A/Bs, the first two of which were delivered in February 2019.[75] 18 of these airframes will be introduced into active service with the remaining 7 to be used for spare parts and testing.[76]

Finland

A Finnish Air Force F-18C at RIAT 2005

The Finnish Air Force ordered 64 F-18C/Ds (57 C models, seven D models) in 1992. All F-18D were built at St. Louis, and then all F-18C were assembled in Finland. Delivery of the aircraft started in November 1995 and ended in August 2000.[77] The Hornet replaced the MiG-21bis and Saab 35 Draken in Finnish service. The Finnish Hornets were initially to be used only for air defense, hence the F-18 designation. The F-18C includes the ASPJ (Airborne Self-Protection Jammer) jamming pod ALQ-165.[78] The US Navy later included the ALQ-165 on their F/A-18E/F Super Hornet procurement.

One Hornet was destroyed in a mid-air collision in 2001. A damaged F-18C, nicknamed "Frankenhornet", was rebuilt into a F-18D using the forward section of a Canadian CF-18B that was purchased.[79][80] The modified fighter crashed during a test flight in January 2010,[80][81] due to a faulty tailplane servo cylinder.[82]

Finland completed a Mid-Life Upgrade (MLU) to its fleet of F-18s in December 2016 with an estimated cost between €1–1.6 billion. The upgrade includes new avionics, including helmet mounted sights (HMS), new cockpit displays, sensors and a standard NATO data link. Several of the remaining Hornets were fitted to carry air-to-ground ordnance such as the AGM-158 JASSM, in effect returning to the original F/A-18 multirole configuration. The upgrade also includes the procurement and integration of new AIM-9X Sidewinder and AIM-120C-7 AMRAAM air-to-air missiles.

With a service life of 30 years, the Hornets are to remain in active service until 2025–2030.[83] In October 2014, the Finnish national broadcaster Yle announced that consideration was being given to the replacement of the Hornet.[84] In 2015, Finland started the HX Fighter Program that aims to acquire new multirole fighters to replace the current Hornet fleet. The government is expected to decide on the procurement by the end of 2021. According to the project schedule, the new aircraft would arrive in Finland around 2025–2030.[85]

Kuwait

An F/A-18 of the Kuwaiti Air Force

The Kuwait Air Force (Al Quwwat Aj Jawwaiya Al Kuwaitiya) ordered 32 F/A-18C and eight F/A-18D Hornets in 1988. Delivery started in October 1991 until August 1993.[86][87] The F/A-18C/Ds replaced A-4KU Skyhawk. Kuwait Air Force Hornets have flown missions over Iraq during Operation Southern Watch in the 1990s. They have also participated in military exercises with the air forces of other Gulf nations.[88] Kuwait had 39 F/A-18C/D Hornets in service in 2008.[89] Kuwait also participated in the Yemeni Civil War (2015–present). In February 2017, the Commander of the Kuwait Air Force revealed that the F/A-18s based at King Khalid Air Base had performed approximately 3,000 sorties over Yemen.[90][91]

Malaysia

RMAF F/A-18D returning to base after a national day flypast

The Royal Malaysian Air Force (Tentera Udara Diraja Malaysia) has eight F/A-18Ds.[92] Delivery of the aircraft spanned from March 1997 to August 1997.[77]

Three Hornets together with five UK-made BAE Hawk 208 were deployed in a bombing airstrike on the "Royal Security Forces of the Sultanate of Sulu and North Borneo" terrorists on 5 March 2013, just before the joint forces of the Royal Malaysian Army and Royal Malaysia Police commandos launched an all-out assault during Operation Daulat.[93] The Hornets were tasked with close air support to the no-fly zone in Lahad Datu, Sabah.[94]

Spain

Spanish Air Force's EF-18

The Spanish Air Force (Ejército del Aire) ordered 60 EF-18A model and 12 EF-18B model Hornets (the "E" standing for "España", Spain), named respectively as C.15 and CE.15 by Spanish AF.[95] The Spanish version was delivered from 22 November 1985 to July 1990.[17][96] These fighters were upgraded to F-18A+/B+ standard, close to F/A-18C/D (plus version includes later mission and armament computers, databuses, data-storage set, new wiring, pylon modifications and software, new abilities as AN/AAS-38B NITE Hawk targeting FLIR pods).

In 1995 Spain obtained 24 ex-USN F/A-18A Hornets, with six more on option. These were delivered from December 1995 until December 1998.[97] Before delivery, they were modified to EF-18A+ standard.[98] This was the first sale of USN surplus Hornets.

Spanish Hornets operate as an all-weather interceptor 60% of the time and as an all-weather day/night attack aircraft for the remainder. In case of war, each of the front-line squadrons would take a primary role: 121 is tasked with tactical air support and maritime operations; 151 and 122 are assigned to all-weather interception and air combat roles; and 152 is assigned the SEAD mission. Air refueling is provided by KC-130Hs and Boeing 707TTs. Pilot conversion to EF-18 is centralized in 153 Squadron (Ala 15). Squadron 462's role is air defense of the Canary Islands, being responsible for fighter and attack missions from Gando AB.

Spanish Air Force EF-18 Hornets have flown Ground Attack, SEAD, combat air patrol (CAP) combat missions in Bosnia and Kosovo, under NATO command, in Aviano detachment (Italy). They shared the base with Canadian and USMC F/A-18s. Six Spanish Hornets had been lost in accidents by 2003.[95]

Over Yugoslavia, eight EF-18s, based at Aviano AB, participated in bombing raids in Operation Allied Force in 1999. Over Bosnia, they also performed missions for air-to-air combat air patrol, close air support air-to-ground, photo reconnaissance, forward air controller-airborne, and tactical air controller-airborne. Over Libya, four Spanish Hornets participated in enforcing a no-fly zone.[99]

Switzerland

Hugo Wolf F/A-18C full-scale training simulator, X-5099

The Swiss Air Force purchased 26 C models and eight D models.[95] Aircraft were delivered from January 1996 to December 1999.[100][17] Three D models and one C model[101] had been lost in crashes as of 2016.[102][103] On 14 October 2015, an F/A-18D crashed in France during training with two Swiss Air Force Northrop F-5s in the Swiss/French training area EURAC25; the pilot ejected safely.[104]

In late 2007, Switzerland requested to be included in the F/A-18C/D Upgrade 25 Program, to extend the useful life of its F/A-18C/Ds. The program includes significant upgrades to the avionics and mission computer, 12 ATFLIR surveillance and targeting pods, and 44 sets of AN/ALR-67v3 ECM equipment. In October 2008, the Swiss Hornet fleet reached the 50,000 flight hour milestone.[105]

The Swiss Air Force has also taken delivery of two F/A-18C full-scale mock-ups for use as ground crew interactive training simulators. Locally built by Hugo Wolf AG, they are externally accurate copies and have been registered as Boeing F/A-18C (Hugo Wolf) aircraft with tail numbers X-5098 and X-5099.[106] These include a complex equipment fit, including many original cockpit components and instruments, allowing the simulation of fires, fuel leaks, nosewheel collapse and other emergency scenarios. X-5098 is permanently stationed at Payerne Air Base while X-5099, the first one built, is moved between air bases according to training demands.[107][108]

Potential operators

The F/A-18C and F/A-18D were considered by the French Navy (Marine Nationale) during the 1980s for deployment on their aircraft carriers Clemenceau and Foch[109] and again in the 1990s for the later nuclear-powered Charles de Gaulle,[110] in the event that the Dassault Rafale M was not brought into service when originally planned.

Austria,[111] Chile,[27] Czech Republic,[111] Hungary,[111] Philippines,[111] Poland,[111] and Singapore[27] evaluated the Hornet but did not purchase it. Thailand ordered four C and four D model Hornets but the Asian financial crisis in the late 1990s resulted in the order being canceled. The Hornets were completed as F/A-18Ds for the U.S. Marine Corps.[27]

The F/A-18A and F-18L land-based version competed for a fighter contract from Greece in the 1980s.[112] The Greek government chose F-16 and Mirage 2000 instead.

In 2021, the U.S. offered the F-18 to the Argentine Air Force.[113][unreliable source?]

Variants

A/B

An F/A-18B Hornet assigned to the U.S. Naval Test Pilot School

The F/A-18A is the single-seat variant and the F/A-18B is the two-seat variant. The space for the two-seat cockpit is provided by a relocation of avionics equipment and a 6% reduction in internal fuel; two-seat Hornets are otherwise fully combat-capable. The B-model is used primarily for training.

In 1992, the original Hughes AN/APG-65 radar was replaced with the Hughes (now Raytheon) AN/APG-73, a faster and more capable radar. A-model Hornets that have been upgraded to the AN/APG-73 and are capable of carrying the AIM-120 AMRAAM are designated F/A-18A+.

C/D

A Marine F/A-18D of VMFAT-101 prepares for takeoff

The F/A-18C is the single-seat variant and the F/A-18D is the two-seat variant. The D-model can be configured for training or as an all-weather strike craft. The "missionized" D model's rear seat is configured for a Marine Corps Naval Flight Officer who functions as a Weapons and Sensors Officer to assist in operating the weapons systems. The F/A-18D is primarily operated by the U.S. Marine Corps in the night attack and Forward Air Controller (Airborne) (FAC(A)) roles.[114]

The F/A-18C and D models are the result of a block upgrade in 1987[17] incorporating upgraded radar, avionics, and the capacity to carry new missiles such as the AIM-120 AMRAAM air-to-air missile and AGM-65 Maverick[7] and AGM-84 Harpoon air-to-surface missiles. Other upgrades include the Martin-Baker NACES (Navy Aircrew Common ejection seat), and a self-protection jammer. A synthetic aperture ground mapping radar enables the pilot to locate targets in poor visibility conditions. C and D models delivered since 1989 also have improved night attack abilities, consisting of the Hughes AN/AAR-50 thermal navigation pod, the Loral AN/AAS-38 NITE Hawk FLIR (forward looking infrared array) targeting pod, night vision goggles, and two full-color (formerly monochrome) multi-function display (MFDs) and a color moving map.[7]

In addition, 60 D-model Hornets are configured as the night attack F/A-18D (RC) with ability for reconnaissance.[114] These could be outfitted with the ATARS electro-optical sensor package that includes a sensor pod and equipment mounted in the place of the M61 cannon.[115]

Beginning in 1992, the F404-GE-402 enhanced performance engine, providing approximately 10% more maximum static thrust became the standard Hornet engine.[116] Since 1993, the AAS-38A NITE Hawk added a designator/ranger laser, allowing it to self-mark targets. The later AAS-38B added the ability to strike targets designated by lasers from other aircraft.[117]

Production of the C- and D- models ended in 2000. The last F/A-18C was assembled in Finland and delivered to the Finnish Air Force in August 2000.[77] The last F/A-18D was delivered to the U.S. Marine Corps in August 2000.[100]

In April 2018, the US Navy announced the retirement of the F/A-18C from combat roles after a final deployment that had ended the month prior.[118]

E/F Super Hornet

Main article: Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet

A VFA-11 F/A-18F Super Hornet performing evasive maneuvers during an air power demonstration above USS Harry S. Truman (CVN-75)

The single-seat F/A-18E and two-seat F/A-18F, both officially named Super Hornet, carry over the name and design concept of the original F/A-18 but have been extensively redesigned by McDonnell Douglas. The Super Hornet has a new, 25% larger airframe, larger rectangular air intakes, more powerful GE F414 engines based on F/A-18's F404, and an upgraded avionics suite. Like the Marine Corps' F/A-18D, the Navy's F/A-18F carries a naval flight officer as a second crew member in a weapon systems officer (WSO) role. The Super Hornet is unofficially known as "Rhino" in operational use. This name was chosen to distinguish the newer variants from the legacy F-18A/B/C/D Hornet and avoid confusion during carrier deck operations.[119][120][121] The Super Hornet is also operated by Australia.

G Growler

Main article: Boeing EA-18G Growler

The EA-18G Growler is an electronic warfare version of the two-seat F/A-18F, which entered production in 2007. The Growler has replaced the Navy's EA-6B Prowler and carries a Naval Flight Officer as a second crewman in an Electronic Warfare Officer (EWO) role.

Other US variants

F-18(R)

This was a proposed reconnaissance version of the F/A-18A. It included a sensor package that replaced the 20 mm cannon. The first of two prototypes flew in August 1984. Small numbers were produced.[115]

RF-18D

Proposed two-seat reconnaissance version for the US Marine Corps in the mid-1980s. It was to carry a radar reconnaissance pod. The system was canceled after it was unfunded in 1988. This ability was later realized on the F/A-18D(RC).[115]

TF-18A

Two-seat training version of the F/A-18A fighter, later redesignated F/A-18B.[3]

X-53, NASA's modified F/A-18

F-18 HARV

Single-seat High Alpha Research Vehicle for NASA.[122] High angles of attack using thrust vectoring, modifications to the flight controls, and forebody strakes

X-53 Active Aeroelastic Wing

A NASA F/A-18 has been modified to demonstrate the Active Aeroelastic Wing technology, and was designated X-53 in December 2006.

Export variants

These designations are not part of 1962 United States Tri-Service aircraft designation system.

F-18L

A proposed land-based export version of the single-seat F-18A with air-superiority and attack capabilities. This variant was to be lightened by the removal of carrier landing capability and assembled by Northrop. Customers preferred the standard Hornet and the F-18L never entered mass production.[27]

(A)F/A-18A/B

(A)F/A-18A: Single-seat fighter/attack version for the Royal Australian Air Force.

(A)F/A-18B: Two-seat training version for the Royal Australian Air Force.

"F/A-18A" was the original company designation, designations of "AF-18A" & "ATF-18A" have also been applied. Assembled in Australia (excluding the first two (A)F/A-18Bs) by Aero-Space Technologies of Australia (ASTA) from 1985 through to 1990, from kits produced by McDonnell Douglas with increasing local content in the later aircraft. Originally the most notable differences between an Australian (A)F/A-18A/B and a US F/A-18A/B were the lack of a catapult attachment, replacing the carrier tailhook with a lighter land arresting hook, and the automatic carrier landing system with an Instrument Landing System. Australian Hornets have been involved in several major upgrade programs. This program called HUG (Hornet Upgrade) has had a few evolutions over the years. The first was to give Australian Hornets F/A-18C model avionics. The second and current upgrade program (HUG 2.2) updates the fleet's avionics even further. Since 2019 9 AF-18A have been delivered to Canada to be converted as CF-18A.

CF-18 Hornet

CF-18A: Single-seat fighter/attack version for the Royal Canadian Air Force. The official Canadian designation is CF-188A Hornet.

CF-18B: Two-seat training and combat version for the Royal Canadian Air Force. The official Canadian designation is CF-188B Hornet.

EF-18 Hornet

EF-18A: Single-seat fighter/attack version for the Spanish Air Force. The Spanish Air Force designation is C.15. They were first upgraded to the EF-18A+ version in 1992 and from 2003 to 2004 to 2013 they were locally upgraded by EADS CASA and Indra Sistemas with better avionics, TPAC, data presentation, navigation, software and ECM suit. The AN/APG-65 radar was upgraded to the V3 version and the aircraft also received the AL-400 Radar Warning Receiver and the ASQ-600 emission detector and were certified to operate with Iris-T, Meteor, GBU-48 and Taurus . This version is locally known as EF-18M/C.15M.

EF-18B: Two-seat training version for the Spanish Air Force. The Spanish Air Force designation is CE.15. They were first upgraded to the EF-18B+ version in 1992.

KAF-18 Hornet

KAF-18C: Single-seat fighter/attack version for the Kuwait Air Force[86]

KAF-18D: Two-seat training version for the Kuwait Air Force[86]

F/A-18C of the Swiss Air Force taxis for takeoff

F-18C/D Hornet

The Finnish Air Force uses F/A-18C/D Hornets, with a Finland-specific mid-life update. The first seven Hornets (D models) were produced by McDonnell Douglas.[78] The 57 single-seat F-18C model units were assembled by Patria in Finland.[123] These variants were delivered without air-to-ground capability so the letter A was dropped from the name. They were later upgraded to carry air-to-ground weaponry.

F-18C/D Hornet

Switzerland uses F-18C/D,[124] later Swiss specific mid-life update. The Swiss F-18s had no ground attack capability originally, until hardware was retrofitted.

Operators

For operators of F/A-18E and F Super Hornets and its export variants, see Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet § Operators.

F/A-18 operators are in blue

 Australia

Royal Australian Air Force - 55 F/A-18A and 16 F/A-18Bs in operation as of 2008[125] This was reduced to 53 F/A-18A and 16 F/A-18Bs in 2019 with transfer of two aircraft to Canada.[75]

No. 3 Squadron RAAF 1985–2017 (converted to F-35A)

No. 75 Squadron RAAF

No. 77 Squadron RAAF 1985-2020 (converted to F-35A)

No. 2 Operational Conversion Unit RAAF 1985-2019 (converted to F-35A)

Aircraft Research and Development Unit

 Canada

Royal Canadian Air Force (see McDonnell Douglas CF-18 Hornet)

 Finland

Finnish Air Force - 55 F-18Cs and 7 F-18Ds in use as of 2015[126]

Karelian Air Command (No. 31 Squadron)

Lapland Air Command (No. 11 Squadron)

Satakunta Air Command (No. 21 Squadron, defunct 6/2014[127])

 Kuwait

Kuwait Air Force - 31 F/A-18Cs and 8 F/A-18Ds in service as of November 2008[125]

9th Fighter and Attack Squadron[128]

25th Fighter and Attack Squadron[128]

Royal Malaysian Air Force Boeing F/A-18 Hornet during Cope Taufan 2012

 Malaysia

Royal Malaysian Air Force - 8 F/A-18Ds in operation as of November 2008[125]

No. 18 Squadron, RMAF Butterworth air base.[129]

 Spain

Spanish Air Force - 85 F/A-18A+/B+ in service.[citation needed]

Ala de Caza 15 (15th Fighter Wing) Zaragoza AB, (151, 152 and 153 Squadrons)

Ala de Caza 12, Torrejón AB (121 and 122 Squadrons)

Ala 46, Gando AB (Canary islands), with Squadron 462 operating 20 ex-US Navy F/A-18s.[130]

  Switzerland

Swiss Air Force - 25 F/A-18Cs and 5 F/A-18Ds in service as of October 2017.[131][132]

Fliegerstaffel 11[133]

Fliegerstaffel 17[133]

Fliegerstaffel 18[133]

U.S. Navy F/A-18C from VFA-131 launches from French aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle off the Virginia Capes.

F/A-18A Hornets in various color schemes

F/A-18B Hornets in various color schemes

 United States

United States Navy (former operator)[51]

VFC-12 1990–present (Naval Air Reserve Force)

VFA-15 1986–2017 (disestablished)

VFA-22 1990–2004 (initially converted to F/A-18E Super Hornet, 2004–2007; subsequently converted to F/A-18F Super Hornet, 2007–present)

VFA-25 1984–2013 (converted to F/A-18E Super Hornet)

VFA-27 1991–2004 (converted to F/A-18E Super Hornet)

VFA-34 1996–2019 (converted to F/A-18E Super Hornet)[134]

VFA-37 1990–2018 (converted to F/A-18E Super Hornet)

VFA-81 1988–2008 (converted to F/A-18E Super Hornet)

VFA-82 1987–2005 (disestablished)

VFA-83 1988–2018 (converted to F/A-18E Super Hornet)

VFA-86 1987–2012 (converted to F/A-18E Super Hornet)

VFA-87 1986–2015 (converted to F/A-18E Super Hornet)

VFA-94 1990–2016 (converted to F/A-18F Super Hornet)

VFA-97 1991–2015 (converted to F/A-18E Super Hornet)

VFA-105 1990–2006 (converted to F/A-18E Super Hornet)

VFA-106 1984–2018 (fleet replacement squadron for USN and USMC; operates F/A-18A/A+/B/C/D/E/F)

VFA-113 1984–2016 (converted to F/A-18E Super Hornet)

VFA-115 1996–2001 (converted to F/A-18E Super Hornet)

VFA-122 2010-2013 (fleet replacement squadron for F/A-18E/F; legacy F/A-18A/A+/B/C/D Hornets phased out in 2013)

VFA-125 1980–2010 (disestablished, former fleet replacement squadron for USN and USMC; aircraft transferred to VFA-122 and legacy F/A-18A/A+/B/C/D Hornets phased out in 2013)

VFA-127 1989–1996 (disestablished)

VFA-131 1984–2018 (converted to F/A-18E Super Hornet)

VFA-132 1984–1992 (disestablished)

VFA-136 1985–2008 (converted to F/A-18E Super Hornet)

VFA-137 1985–2003 (converted to F/A-18E Super Hornet)

VFA-146 1989–2015 (converted to F/A-18E Super Hornet)

VFA-147 1989–2007 (converted to F/A-18E Super Hornet, but currently operating the F-35C Lightning II)

VFA-151 1986–2013 (converted to F/A-18E Super Hornet)

VFA-161 1986–1988 (disestablished)

VFA-192 1986–2014 (converted to F/A-18E Super Hornet)

VFA-195 1985–2011 (converted to the F/A-18E Super Hornet)

VFA-201 1999–2007 (Naval Air Reserve Force; disestablished)

VFA-203 1990–2004 (Naval Air Reserve Force; disestablished)

VFA-204 1990–present (Naval Air Reserve Force)

VFA-303 1990–1994 (Naval Air Reserve Force; disestablished)

VFA-305 1990–1994 (Naval Air Reserve Force; disestablished)

VX-4 1982-1994 (merged with VX-5 in 1994 to form VX-9)

VX-5 1983-1994 (merged with VX-4 in 1994 to form VX-9)

VX-9 1994–present

VX-23

VX-31

Naval Strike and Air Warfare Center / Naval Aviation Warfighting Development Center

File:FA-18 Automated Aerial Refueling.ogv

NASA video of an F/A-18A aerial refueling operation, documenting behavior of the drogue basket, 2002.

United States Marine Corps Aviation[135] 273 F/A-18A/B/C/D Hornets in operation as of 2015

VMFA-112 1992–present (Marine Air Reserve)

VMFA-115 1985–present

VMFA-122 1986–2017(converted to F-35B)

VMFA-134 1989–2007 (Marine Corps Reserve; placed in cadre status)

VMFA-142 1990–2008 (Marine Corps Reserve; placed in cadre status)

VMFA-212 1988–2008

VMFA-232 1989–present

VMFA-235 1989–1996 (disestablished)

VMFA-251 1987–2020[136]

VMFA-312 1987–present

VMFA-314 1982–2019 (converted to F-35C)

VMFA-321 1991–2004 (Marine Corps Reserve; disestablished)

VMFA-323 1982–present

VMFA-333 1987–1992 (disestablished)

VMFA-451 1987-1997 (re-designated to VMFAT-501 April 2010, converted to F-35)

VMFA-531 1984–1992 (disestablished)

VMFA(AW)-121 1989–2012 (converted to F-35B)

VMFA(AW)-224 1993–present

VMFA(AW)-225 1991–2020 (to convert to F-35B)

VMFA(AW)-242 1991–present

VMFA(AW)-332 1993–2007 (disestablished)

VMFA(AW)-533 1992–present

VMFAT-101 1987–present (fleet replacement squadron for USMC and USN; operates F/A-18A/A+/B/C/D)

MAWTS-1 1990–present

NASA's Armstrong Flight Research Center (formerly Dryden Flight Research Center) - 4 F/A-18s in use[137]

Aircraft on display

YF-18A

160775 - U.S. Naval Museum of Armament & Technology, NAWS China Lake, California.[138] This is the first F/A-18A built in 1978. Aircraft was recently restored in the same livery after being built. Aircraft was moved off base for better public viewing.[139]

160780 - Virginia Air and Space Center, Hampton, Virginia.[140]

F/A-18A

An F/A-18A Hornet on display at the Patuxent River Naval Air Museum.

F/A-18A on display at the Air Zoo

161353 - Patuxent River Naval Air Museum, NAS Patuxent River, Lexington Park, Maryland.[141]

161366 - Naval Air Station Lemoore, California main gate.[142]

161367 - Naval Air Systems Command Headquarters Building, NAS Patuxent River, Lexington Park, Maryland.[143]

161712 - Naval Air Station Joint Reserve Base Fort Worth, Fort Worth, Texas in VMFA-112 markings.[144]

161725 - California Science Center museum, Los Angeles, California.

161726 - In Blue Angels markings, main gate, NAS JRB New Orleans, New Orleans, Louisiana.[145]

161749 - Flying Leatherneck Aviation Museum, MCAS Miramar, California.[146]

161941 - In Blue Angels #1 markings, main gate, NAS Jacksonville Heritage Park, Jacksonville, Florida.[147]

161942 - In Blue Angels #1 markings, USS Lexington Museum, Corpus Christi, Texas. On loan from the National Naval Aviation Museum at NAS Pensacola, Florida.[148]

161957 - Naval Air Warfare Center Training Systems Division (NAWCTSD), Naval Support Activity Orlando, Florida.[149] This aircraft was relocated from NAS Atlanta, Georgia following that installation's BRAC-directed closure.

161961 - Naval Air Station Pensacola, Florida main gate in Blue Angels #1 markings.[150]

161982 - Navy Inventory Control Point Philadelphia (NAVINCP-P), Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.[151]

161983 - In Blue Angels #5 markings, Navy–Marine Corps Memorial Stadium, Annapolis, Maryland.[152]

162430 - Palm Springs Air Museum, Palm Springs, California.[153]

162435 - Patriots Point Naval & Maritime Museum, Mount Pleasant, South Carolina.[154]

162448 - Naval Air Facility El Centro, California main gate.[155]

162454 - NAS Oceana Air Park, Naval Air Station Oceana, Virginia.[156]

162826 - In Blue Angels #3 markings, Fort Worth Aviation Museum, Fort Worth, Texas.[157]

162901 - USS Midway (CV-41), San Diego Aircraft Carrier Museum, San Diego, California.[158]

163119 - Defense Supply Center Richmond, Richmond, Virginia.[159]

163152 - Flying Leatherneck Aviation Museum, MCAS Miramar, California.[146]

163157 - MCAS Beaufort, South Carolina.[160]

Unknown - The Hangar (Lancaster JetHawks stadium), Lancaster, California. Painted as NASA No. 842.[161]

162436 - on display at the Wings of Freedom Aviation Museum, Horsham, Pennsylvania.

161521 - In Blue Angels #3 markings. Third Hornet received by Blue Angels (1987). Under restoration and display at Moffett Historical Museum, Moffett Federal Airfield, California.

162411 - In Blue Angel #5 markings with the names Lt. Cmdr. Dick Oliver and Lt. Cmdr Stuart Powrie. Oliver died when flying a F-11A in 1966 for the Blues and Powrie passed away in an A-4 Skyhawk. Located at then Hickory Aviation Museum, Hickory, North Carolina.[162]

F/A-18B

161746 - In Blue Angels #7 markings at Saint Louis Science Center, Saint Louis, Missouri.[163]

161943 - In Blue Angels #7 markings at Yanks Air Museum, Chino, California.[164]

F/A-18C

163106 - In Blue Angels #2 markings, Museum of Flight, Seattle, Washington.[165]

163437 - In front of Headquarters, Naval Air Force Atlantic, Naval Station Norfolk, Norfolk, Virginia.[166]

163439 - In Blue Angel #1 markings at the Smithsonian Air And Space Museum, Washington, DC[167]

F/A-18D

163486 - MCAS Beaufort (East Side), Beaufort, South Carolina. Painted as VMFA(AW)-533 CO bird, aircraft 01 at the officer's club.[168]

Notable accidents

On 8 December 2008, an F/A-18D crashed in a populated area of San Diego, while on approach to Marine Corps Air Station Miramar, killing four people on the ground.[169] The pilot ejected safely; there was no weapon systems officer (WSO) on board the aircraft.[170]

On 6 April 2012, a USN F/A-18D from VFA-106[171] crashed into apartment buildings in Virginia Beach, Virginia. Both crew members ejected.[172] Seven people were injured including the two pilots, who were taken to the hospital; all survived. The crew performed a last-second fuel dump, and thus may have prevented a large explosion and fire after the crash.[173]

Specifications (F/A-18C/D)

3-view drawing of the F/A-18 Hornet

VX-4 F/A-18 with ten AIM-120 AMRAAMs and two AIM-9 Sidewinders

M61 Vulcan on display at Miramar Airshow

Data from U.S. Navy fact file,[174] Frawley Directory,[175] Great Book[176]

General characteristics

Crew: 1 (C)/2 (D - pilot and weapon systems officer)

Length: 56 ft 1 in (17.1 m)

Wingspan: 40 ft 4 in (12.3 m) with AIM-9 Sidewinders on wingtip LAU-7 launchers

Width: 32 ft 7 in (9.94 m) wing folded

Height: 15 ft 5 in (4.7 m)

Wing area: 410 sq ft (38 m2)

Aspect ratio: 4

Airfoil: root:NACA 65A005 mod.; tip:NACA 65A003.5 mod.

Empty weight: 23,000 lb (10,433 kg)

Gross weight: 36,970 lb (16,769 kg)

Max takeoff weight: 51,900 lb (23,541 kg)

Fuel capacity: 10,860 pounds (4,930 kg) internally

Powerplant: 2 × General Electric F404-GE-402 afterburning turbofan engines, 11,000 lbf (49 kN) thrust each dry, 17,750 lbf (79.0 kN) with afterburner

Performance

Maximum speed: 1,034 kn (1,190 mph, 1,915 km/h) at 40,000 ft (12,000 m)

Maximum speed: Mach 1.8

Cruise speed: 570 kn (660 mph, 1,060 km/h)

Range: 1,089 nmi (1,253 mi, 2,017 km)

Combat range: 400 nmi (460 mi, 740 km) air-air mission

Ferry range: 1,800 nmi (2,100 mi, 3,300 km)

Service ceiling: 50,000 ft (15,000 m)

Rate of climb: 50,000 ft/min (250 m/s)

Wing loading: 93 lb/sq ft (450 kg/m2)

Thrust/weight: 0.96 (1.13 with loaded weight at 50% internal fuel)

Armament

Guns: 1× 20 mm (0.787 in) M61A1 Vulcan nose mounted 6-barrel rotary cannon, 578 rounds

Hardpoints: 9 total: 2× wingtips missile launch rail, 4× under-wing, and 3× under-fuselage with a capacity of 13,700 lb (6,200 kg) external fuel and ordnance,with provisions to carry combinations of:

Rockets: *** 2.75 in (70 mm) Hydra 70 rockets

5 in (127.0 mm) Zuni rockets

Missiles: *** Air-to-air missiles:

2× AIM-9 Sidewinder on wingtips and

8× AIM-9 Sidewinder (with double-racks) or 4× AIM-132 ASRAAM or 4× IRIS-T or 8× AIM-120 AMRAAM (with double-racks) and

2× AIM-7 Sparrow or 2× AIM-120 AMRAAM

Air-to-surface missiles:

4x AGM-65 Maverick

AGM-84H/K Standoff Land Attack Missile Expanded Range (SLAM-ER)

AGM-88 HARM Anti-radiation missile (ARM)

4x AGM-154 Joint Standoff Weapon (JSOW)

AGM-158 Joint Air-to-Surface Standoff Missile (JASSM)

Taurus Cruise missile

Anti-ship missile:

AGM-84 Harpoon

Bombs: *** B83 nuclear bomb

B61 nuclear bomb[177]

Joint Direct Attack Munition JDAM precision-guided munition (PGMs)

Paveway series of laser-guided bombs

Mk 80 series of unguided iron bombs

CBU-78 Gator

CBU-87 Combined Effects Munition

CBU-97 Sensor Fuzed Weapon

Mk 20 Rockeye II

MK-77 Incendiary Bomb

Other: *** ADM-141 TALD

SUU-42A/A Flares/Infrared decoys dispenser pod and chaff pod or

Electronic countermeasures (ECM) pod or

AN/AAS-38 Nite Hawk Targeting pods (US Navy only), now being replaced by AN/ASQ-228 ATFLIR or

LITENING targeting pod (USMC, Royal Australian Air Force, Spanish Air Force, and Finnish Air Force only) or

up to 3× 330 US gallons (1,200 l; 270 imp gal) Sargent Fletcher FPU-8/A drop tanks for ferry flight or extended range/loitering time.