The culture of the United States Marine Corps is widely varied but unique amongst the branches of the United States Armed Forces.[1] Because members of the United States Marine Corps are drawn from across the United States (and resident aliens from other nations),[2] it is as varied as each individual Marine but tied together with core values and traditions passed from generation to generation of Marines. As in any military organization, the official and unofficial traditions of the Marine Corps serve to reinforce camaraderie and set the service apart from others. The Corps' embracement of its rich culture and history is cited as a reason for its high esprit de corps.[3]
Official traditions and customs
Many traditions and customs of the Corps are officially recognized through orders, histories, and ceremonies; some are even embodied within the uniform itself.
Core values
Card given to recruits bearing the Core values
The Marine Corps Core Values of Honor, Courage, and Commitment have gained increased prominence in recent years.[4][5] As an emphasis on performing morally on and off duty, the concept of core values has infiltrated into many aspects of marine life, beginning in recruit training and continuing into combat.[6] This "warrior ethos" provides guidance to marines in difficult ethical situations and acts as a reminder to provide good order and discipline.[7]
Marines' Hymn
The Marines' Hymn dates back to 1919 and is the oldest official song in the U.S. Armed Forces.[8] It embraces some of the most important battles of the Corps at that time, including Chapultepec and Derna.[9] Subtle changes and unofficial verses have been added as the history of the Corps grew.[10]
Eagle, Globe, and Anchor
A rendition of the emblem on the flag of the U.S. Marine Corps
The official Marine Corps emblem is the Eagle, Globe, and Anchor, sometimes abbreviated "EGA". Adopted in its present form in 1868 by Commandant Jacob Zeilin, it derives partially from ornaments worn by the Continental Marines and the British Royal Marines and is usually topped with a ribbon reading "Semper Fidelis". The original eagle was a crested eagle found in the Americas, not the bald eagle that appears in the current emblem. The eagle stands on the Western Hemisphere and holds in its beak a scroll bearing the motto "Semper Fidelis", though the scroll is sometimes omitted from uniform insignia. An anchor fouled with rope stands behind the globe, and while it generally points to the viewer's left, it can be found reversed when paired so that the anchors continually face the other.[11] The eagle stands for a proud country, the globe signifies worldwide service, and the fouled anchor signifies naval tradition. The use of the emblem became official when the seal was adopted in 1955.[12]
Seal and colors
United States Marine Corps seal
On 22 June 1954, President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed an executive order which approved the design of an official seal for the United States Marine Corps. The seal had been designed by Felix de Weldon at the request, and with the assistance, of the Commandant Lemuel C. Shepherd, Jr.[13]
The seal consists of the traditional Marine Corps Eagle, Globe, and Anchor emblem in bronze; however, a bald eagle replaced the crested eagle depicted on the 1868 emblem and is depicted with wings displayed, standing upon the western hemisphere of the terrestrial globe and holding in his beak a scroll inscribed with the Marine Corps motto "Semper Fidelis" with the hemisphere superimposed on a fouled anchor. The seal is displayed on a scarlet background encircled with a navy blue band edged in a gold rope rim and inscribed "Department of the Navy, United States Marine Corps" in gold letters.[12]
Coincident with the approval of this seal by the president, the Eagle, Globe, and Anchor emblem centered on the seal was adopted in 1955 as the official Marine Corps Emblem. The blue signifies naval ties, while the scarlet and gold are the official Marine Corps colors.[14][15] They appear ubiquitously in the Marine Corps, particularly on signage. They also form the base colors of the flag of the United States Marine Corps.
Motto
Semper Fidelis March
4:16
John Philip Sousa's "Semper Fidelis March", performed by the U.S. Marine Band in June 1909.
Problems playing this file? See media help.
The Marine motto "Semper Fidelis" means "always faithful" in Latin.[15] This motto often appears in the shortened form "Semper Fi" /ˌsɛmpər ˈfaɪ/. It is also the name of the official march of the Corps, composed by John Philip Sousa. It was adopted in 1883 when Commandant Charles McCawley added it to the seal, before which the traditional mottos were "Fortitudine" (With Fortitude); "By Sea and by Land", a translation of the Royal Marines' "Per Mare, Per Terram"; and "To the Shores of Tripoli", which was later revised to "From the Halls of the Montezumas to the Shores of Tripoli" and formed the first lines of the Marines' Hymn.[16]
The recruiting slogan of "A Few Good Men" (as opposed to the play and film) derives from a Continental Marines recruiting poster:
The Continental ship Providence, now lying at Boston, is bound on a short cruise, immediately; a few good men are wanted to make up her complement." (Marine Captain William Jones, Providence Gazette, 20 March 1779.)[17]
The modern recruiting slogan is "the few, the proud, the Marines."[17] The Rifleman's Creed is a similar concept as the motto but offers a more modern look at doctrine. It explains to a recruit the importance of his or her weapon but also emphasizes the moral motivations behind using it.
Swords
Main article: United States Marine Corps noncommissioned officer's sword
Two styles of swords are worn by marines. The Marine Corps officers' sword is a Mameluke sword, similar to the Persian shamshir presented to Lt. Presley O'Bannon after the Battle of Derna during the First Barbary War.[9] After its adoption in 1825 and initial distribution in 1826, Mameluke swords have been worn by Marine officers ever since, except during the period 1859–1875, when they were required to wear the Army's Model 1850 Foot Officers' Sword. Upon returning to the traditional sword, many officers gave their Army swords to their senior non-commissioned officer (NCO), creating the basis for the NCO sword.[18] Generally, marines are the only branch where enlisted members regularly carry a sword (the Army authorizes platoon and first sergeants to carry a Model 1840 sword during some ceremonies,[19] while the Chief of Naval Operations authorized chief petty officers and above to carry an optional ceremonial cutlass with dress uniforms in 2010[20]).
Birthday
Main article: United States Marine Corps birthday ball
The Marine Corps birthday is celebrated every year on 10 November, when on this date in 1775, the Second Continental Congress raised two battalions of marines. Tun Tavern is regarded as the location of the first marines to enlist under Commandant Samuel Nicholas.[21] Prior to 1921, marines celebrated the 11 July 1798 recreation of the Corps (it having been disbanded following the end of the Revolutionary War) with little fanfare. Then, Marine Corps Order 47 was published by Commandant John A. Lejeune:[22]
MARINE CORPS ORDERS
No. 47 (Series 1921) HEADQUARTERS U.S. MARINE CORPS Washington, November 1, 1921
759. The following will be read to the command on the 10th of November, 1921, and hereafter on the 10th of November of every year. Should the order not be received by the 10th of November, 1921, it will be read upon receipt.
On November 10, 1775, a Corps of Marines was created by a resolution of Continental Congress. Since that date many thousand men have borne the name "marine". In memory of them it is fitting that we who are marines should commemorate the birthday of our corps by calling to mind the glories of its long and illustrious history.
The record of our corps is one which will bear comparison with that of the most famous military organizations in the world's history. During 90 of the 146 years of its existence the Marine Corps has been in action against the Nation's foes. From the Battle of Trenton to the Argonne, marines have won foremost honors in war, and in the long eras of tranquility at home, generation after generation of marines have grown gray in war in both hemispheres and in every corner of the seven seas, that our country and its citizens might enjoy peace and security.
In every battle and skirmish since the birth of our corps, marines have acquitted themselves with the greatest distinction, winning new honors on each occasion until the term "marine" has come to signify all that is highest in military efficiency and soldierly virtue.
This high name of distinction and soldierly repute we who are marines today have received from those who preceded us in the corps. With it we have also received from them the eternal spirit which has animated our corps from generation to generation and has been the distinguishing mark of the marines in every age. So long as that spirit continues to flourish marines will be found equal to every emergency in the future as they have been in the past, and the men of our Nation will regard us as worthy successors to the long line of illustrious men who have served as "soldiers of the Sea" since the founding of the Corps.
JOHN A. LEJEUNE, Major General Commandant
75705--21
The celebrations were formalized by Commandant Lemuel C. Shepherd, Jr. in 1952, outlining the cake cutting ceremony, which would enter the Marine Drill Manual in 1956. By tradition, the first slice of cake is given to the oldest marine present, who in turn hands it off to the youngest marine present, symbolizing the old and experienced marines passing their knowledge to the new generation of marines. Lejeune's message is also republished annually.
Drill and ceremonies
Close Order Drill is heavily emphasized early on in a marine's training. Formal ceremonies, such as the Marine Corps Birthday Ball, a change of command, or a retirement, will almost always incorporate some form of close order drill. The Marine Corps uses close order drill to teach discipline by instilling habits of precision and automatic response to orders, increase the confidence of junior officers and noncommissioned officers through the exercise of command and give marines an opportunity to handle individual weapons.[23]
The Mess Night is a borrowed tradition of ceremonial dining.[24] Originally a British Army tradition, it has become an honored tradition of enjoying drink, good food, and fellowship with a marine's comrades,[25] as well as honoring those who have perished in battle.[26]
Except for the annual celebration of the Marine Corps Birthday, no social function associated with the smaller of America's naval services is more enjoyed, admired and imitated than the mess night."[27]
History
Main article: History of the United States Marine Corps
Marine at the Vietnam Veterans Memorial
Marines have a high reverence for their history, indoctrinating recruits and continually expanding the topic in the professional education marines attend throughout their careers. The History Division, a subunit of the Training and Education Command, records, archives, researches, analyzes, and presents the history of the Corps.[28]
Several Marine Corps museums have been established, most notably the National Museum of the Marine Corps at Marine Corps Base Quantico, Virginia. Additional Marine history can be found at the Flying Leatherneck Aviation Museum, the MCRD San Diego Command Museum, the Marine Corps Air-Ground Museum, the Marine Corps Legacy Museum, the Parris Island Museum, the WWII/Korea LVT Museum, and the Waterhouse Museum.
Memorials also serve as a way to preserve history. One of the most iconic memorials is the Marine Corps War Memorial in Arlington National Cemetery, a statue recreated from the iconic photo Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima. Other memorials to marines (sometimes including other services) include the two of the many statues named Iron Mike (Belleau, France and Parris Island, South Carolina), the USS Arizona Memorial, Navy–Marine Corps Memorial Stadium at the United States Naval Academy, as well as many period specific military memorial around the country where marines participated in fighting, such as the National World War II Memorial and the Vietnam Veterans Memorial.
Unofficial traditions and customs
The Corps has many unofficial traditions, promulgated by many marines and some marine-based organizations (such as the Marine Corps League, Marine Corps Association, and Young Marines) or media (such as the Marine Corps Gazette, Leatherneck Magazine, or Marine Corps Times). Each service refers to their servicemembers differently (e.g., Army has soldiers, Navy has sailors, Air Force has airmen, Space Force has guardians). Although "soldiers" (and to a lesser extent, "sailors") are thought to be a catch-all for servicemembers, servicemembers in the Marine Corps are referred to as "marines".[29]
Nicknames
A recruiting poster makes use of the "Teufel Hunden" nickname.
Marines have been given many generic nicknames:
Devil Dog is an oft-disputed term. Most Marines learn that the term comes from "Teufel Hunden", a corrupted version of the German "Teufelshunde" awarded to Marines after the Battle of Belleau Wood. The German high command classified Marines as stormtrooper-quality elite troops.[30] The bulldog has also been closely associated with the Marine Corps as a result, and some units keep one as a mascot.[18] Despite the proud history of the nickname, internally it is often used in a dismissive manner from senior NCOs towards junior Marines during verbal reprimanding or assigning of menial tasks. Generally this takes place in the form of "Hey Devil Dog" followed by the reprimand or menial task. The practice has been so deeply established that the nickname is sometimes perceived as an insult when used within the organization.
Jarhead has several oft-disputed explanations, including how the "high and tight" haircut allows the head to resemble a jar lid, as well as pejoratives about empty heads. However, the term "jarhead" was well established in the 1950s, while the term "high and tight" did not yet exist; marines who chose to trim their hair closely on the sides were said to have "white sidewalls."
Gyrene has dropped out of popular use and is speculated to be a portmanteau of GI and marine.
Leatherneck refers to a stiff leather collar used to protect the neck from slashing blades that was formerly part of the Marine uniform during the Revolutionary War period.
A bulldog mascot
Mottos and battle cries
Oorah is a common battle cry among marines, being similar in function and purpose to the Army, Air Force, and Space Force's hooah and the Navy's hooyah cries (to include an affirmative, a display of enthusiasm, and a greeting). Many possible etymologies have been offered for the term.[31]
Semper Fi, Mac was a common form of greeting in times past.
Gung-ho became a common slogan; from Chinese gōnghé, "China Marines" took it to mean ‘work together’ and used it during World War II.
Improvise, Adapt and Overcome has become an adopted mantra in many units[32]
Semper Gumby is a play on semper flexibilis. Purported to mean "always flexible", the true Latin translation is semper flexibilis;[32] "gumby" is taken from the cartoon character Gumby. Semper Gumby is also popular among Navy personnel.
Veteran marines
The ethos that "Once a marine, Always a marine" has led to the objection to the use of the term "ex-marine", leading to a myriad of forms of address for those no longer on active duty:
"Veteran marine" or "Prior service Marine" can refer to anyone who has been discharged honorably from the Corps.
"Retired marine" refers to those who have completed 20 or more years of service and formally retired or have been medically retired after less than 20 years service.
"Sir" or "Ma'am" is appropriate out of respect.
According to one of the "Commandant's White letters" from General Alfred M. Gray, Jr., referring to a marine by their last earned rank is appropriate.[33]
Marines that have left service with a less than full honorable discharge might still be considered marines (depending on the view of the individual), however that title is also in keeping with a stigma, and many will avoid the issue altogether by addressing the individual by name with no other title.
Physical fitness and martial arts
A marine performs pull-ups
Main articles: United States Marine Corps Physical Fitness Test, Combat Fitness Test, and Marine Corps Martial Arts Program
The Marine Corps places a high institutional value on physical readiness, preparing the individual's body for the rigors of combat.[34] Mandatory participation in three hours weekly of physical exercise, termed "Physical Training" or PT, is considered a minimum starting point; further fitness is rewarded by better evaluation scores, which increase promotability, as well as benefits for winning athletic competitions. In addition, height and weight standards and body fat percentage ensure that marines are fit and present a good military appearance. Chronic lack of physical fitness can be grounds for administrative punishment and even discharge in extreme situations. The Physical Fitness Test is performed annually to assess a marine's fitness, and higher scores weigh in his or her favor for promotions.
To encourage physical training, Commandant James T. Conway authorized a new physical training uniform based on a tracksuit and the development of the Combat Fitness Test to better simulate the specific stressors of combat.[35][36]
For decades, marines learned a variety of martial arts and other methods of hand-to-hand combat, but these were irregular processes that varied greatly between units and eras. Eventually, the Corps solidified its various teachings into the LINE combat system, but its inherent inflexibility was evident. In 2001, the Marine Corps initiated a new program, called Marine Corps Martial Arts Program (MCMAP). Because of an expectation that urban and police-type peacekeeping missions would become more common in the 21st century, placing marines in even closer contact with unarmed civilians, MCMAP was implemented to provide marines with a larger and more versatile set of less-than-lethal options for controlling hostile but unarmed individuals. It is also a stated aim of the program to instill and maintain the "warrior ethos" within Marines.[7] The Marine Corps Martial Arts program is an eclectic mix of different styles of martial arts melded together and consists of boxing movements, joint locking techniques, opponent weight transfer, ground grappling, bayonet, knife and baton fighting, non-compliance joint manipulations, and blood restriction chokes. Marines begin MCMAP training in boot camp, earning the first of five belts.
Marines in the public eye
The Marine Corps, like any other branch of the military, is most visible by the public through public affairs organizations and several presentation units. Dedication to proficiency in drill is a hallmark of the Silent Drill Platoon, Marine Band, and the Drum and Bugle Corps. In addition, the Corps released periodic recruiting commercials, often about one annually. The traditional tagline for the commercials is "The Few, The Proud, The Marines." While Marines do not have installations across the United States (unlike the Army and Air Force, Marine installations are concentrated in California, North Carolina, and the national capitol region), the direct link for most Americans to the Corps is the Marine recruiter, often recognizable in the Dress Blue uniform.
Marines make popular subjects for works of fiction. The Marine Corps has been depicted on many films, television shows, innumerable books, and even video games. Much of the Marines image is the result of carefully crafted public relations; President Harry S. Truman said the Marines have "a propaganda machine that is almost equal to Stalin's."[37]
Since 2001, Gallup polls have asked "Which of the four major branches of the armed forces are the most prestigious?." Every year of the Gallup poll has shown that the American public regards the Corps as the most prestigious of the four branches of the armed forces of the Department of Defense.[38] However, when ranked by importance, it did not score well until it tied the Army and Air Force in 2004, with the increase being attributed to the Iraq War.[39]
The Battle of Iwo Jima (19 February – 26 March 1945) was a major battle in which the United States Marine Corps (USMC) and United States Navy (USN) landed on and eventually captured the island of Iwo Jima from the Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) during World War II. The American invasion, designated Operation Detachment, had the purpose of capturing the island with its two airfields: South Field and Central Field.
The Japanese Army positions on the island were heavily fortified, with a dense network of bunkers, hidden artillery positions, and 18 km (11 mi) of tunnels.[f] The American ground forces were supported by extensive naval artillery and had complete air supremacy provided by U.S. Navy and Marine Corps aviators throughout the battle.[15] The five-week battle saw some of the fiercest and bloodiest fighting of the Pacific War.
The Japanese combat deaths numbered three times the number of American deaths, but unique among Pacific War Marine battles, the American total casualties (dead and wounded) exceeded those of the Japanese.[16] Of the 21,000 Japanese soldiers on Iwo Jima at the beginning of the battle, only 216 were taken prisoner, some of whom were captured only because they had been knocked unconscious or otherwise disabled.[g] Most of the remainder were killed in action, but it has been estimated that as many as 3,000 continued to resist within the various cave systems for many days afterwards until they eventually succumbed to their injuries or surrendered weeks later.[2][13] Despite the fighting and severe casualties on both sides, the American victory was assured from the start. Overwhelming American superiority in numbers and arms, air supremacy, the impossibility of Japanese retreat or reinforcement, and sparse food and supplies for the Japanese, permitted no plausible circumstance in which the Japanese could have won the battle.[17]
The action was controversial, with retired Chief of Naval Operations William V. Pratt stating that the island was useless to the Army as a staging base and useless to the Navy as a fleet base.[18] The Japanese continued to have early-warning radar from Rota island, which was never invaded.[19] Experiences with previous Pacific island battles suggested that the island would be well-defended and thus casualties would be significant.
Joe Rosenthal's Associated Press photograph of the raising of the U.S. flag at the top of the 169 m (554 ft) Mount Suribachi by six U.S. Marines became a famous image of the battle and the American war effort in the Pacific.[20]
Background
Location of Iwo Jima
After the American capture of the Marshall Islands and the air attacks against the Japanese fortress island of Truk Atoll in the Carolines in January 1944, the Japanese military leaders reevaluated their situation. All indications pointed to an American drive toward the Mariana Islands and the Carolines. To counter such an offensive, the IJA and the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) established an inner line of defenses extending generally northward from the Carolines to the Marianas and then to Japan via the Volcano Islands and westward from the Marianas via the Carolines and the Palau Islands to the Philippines.
In March 1944, the Japanese 31st Army, commanded by General Hideyoshi Obata, was activated to garrison this inner line. (Note that a Japanese army was about the size of an American, British Army, or Canadian Army corps. The Japanese Army had many armies, but the U.S. Army had only ten at its peak, with the 4th Army, the 6th Army, the 8th Army, and the 10th Army being in the Pacific Theater. Also, the 10th Army fought on Okinawa only in the spring of 1945.)
The commander of the Japanese garrison on Chichi Jima was placed nominally in command of IJA and IJN units in the Volcano Islands.[21] After the American conquest of the Marianas, daily bomber raids from the Marianas hit the mainland as part of Operation Scavenger. Iwo Jima served as an early warning station that radioed reports of incoming bombers back to mainland Japan. That allowed Japanese air defenses to prepare for the arrival of the American bombers.[7][page needed]
After the U.S. seized bases in the Marshall Islands in the Battles of Kwajalein and Eniwetok in February 1944, Japanese reinforcements were sent to Iwo Jima: 500 men from the naval base at Yokosuka and 500 from Chichi Jima reached Iwo Jima during March and April 1944. At the same time, with reinforcements arriving from Chichi Jima and the Japanese home islands, the army garrison on Iwo Jima reached a strength of more than 5,000 men.[21] The loss of the Marianas during the summer of 1944 greatly increased the importance of the Volcano Islands for the Japanese, who were afraid that the loss of those islands would facilitate American air raids against the home islands, disrupt war manufacturing, and severely damage civilian morale.[7][page needed]
The final Japanese plans for the defense of the Volcano Islands were overshadowed by several factors:
The navy had already lost almost all of its power, and it could not prevent American landings.
Aircraft losses in 1944 had been so heavy that even if war production was not affected by American air attacks, the combined Japanese air strength was not expected to increase to 3,000 warplanes until March or April 1945.
Those aircraft could not be used from bases in the home islands against Iwo Jima because their range was not more than 900 km (560 mi).
The available warplanes had to be hoarded to defend Taiwan and the home islands from any attack.[7][page needed]
There was a serious shortage of properly trained and experienced Japanese pilots because such large numbers of pilots and crewmen had perished fighting over the Solomon Islands and during the Battle of the Philippine Sea in mid-1944.
In a postwar study, Japanese staff officers described the strategy used in the defense of Iwo Jima in the following terms:
In the light of the above situation, seeing that it was impossible to conduct our air, sea, and ground operations on Iwo Island [Jima] toward ultimate victory, it was decided that to gain time necessary for the preparation of the Homeland defense, our forces should rely solely upon the established defensive equipment in that area, checking the enemy by delaying tactics. Even the suicidal attacks by small groups of our Army and Navy airplanes, the surprise attacks by our submarines, and the actions of parachute units, although effective, could be regarded only as a strategical ruse on our part. It was a most depressing thought that we had no available means left for the exploitation of the strategical opportunities which might from time to time occur in the course of these operations.[22]
— Japanese Monograph No. 48
At the end of the Battle of Leyte in the Philippines, the Allies were left with a two-month lull in their offensive operations before the planned invasion of Okinawa. Iwo Jima was considered strategically important since it provided an air base for Japanese fighter planes to intercept long-range B-29 Superfortress bombers. In addition, it was used by the Japanese to stage nuisance air attacks on the Mariana Islands from November 1944 to January 1945. The capture of Iwo Jima would eliminate those problems. The base would be available for P-51 Mustang fighters to escort and protect the bombers.[7][page needed]
American intelligence sources were confident that Iwo Jima would fall in one week. In light of the optimistic intelligence reports, the decision was made to invade Iwo Jima, and the operation was codenamed Operation Detachment.[7][page needed] American forces failed to anticipate that the Japanese would prepare a complex and deep defense, much like on Peleliu in the fall of 1944.[citation needed] So successful was the Japanese preparation that it was discovered after the battle that the hundreds of tons of Allied bombs and thousands of rounds of heavy naval gunfire had left the Japanese defenders almost undamaged and ready to inflict losses on the U.S. Marines.[citation needed]
Planning and preparation
Main article: Planning for the Battle of Iwo Jima
Japanese preparations
Lieutenant General Tadamichi Kuribayashi
By June 1944, Lieutenant General Tadamichi Kuribayashi was assigned to command the defense of Iwo Jima. Kuribayashi knew that Japan could not win the battle, but he hoped to inflict massive casualties on the American forces so that the United States, and its Australian and British allies, would reconsider carrying out their invasion of the Japanese home islands.
While drawing inspiration from the defense in the Battle of Peleliu, Kuribayashi designed a defense that broke with Japanese military doctrine. Rather than establishing his defenses on the beach to face the landings directly, he created strong mutually-supporting defenses in depth by using static and heavy weapons such as heavy machine guns and artillery. Takeichi Nishi's armored tanks were to be used as camouflaged artillery positions. Because the tunnel linking the mountain to the main forces was never completed, Kuribayashi organized the southern area of the island in and around Mount Suribachi as a semi-independent sector, with his main defensive zone built up in the north. The expected American naval and air bombardment further prompted the creation of an extensive system of tunnels that connected the prepared positions so that a pillbox that had been cleared could be reoccupied. This network of bunkers and pillboxes favored the defense. For instance, the Nanpo Bunker (Southern Area Islands Naval Air HQ), which was east of Airfield Number 2, had enough food, water, and ammunition for the Japanese to hold out for three months. The bunker was 90 feet deep and had tunnels running in various directions. Approximately five hundred 55-gallon drums filled with water, kerosene, and fuel oil for generators were inside the complex. Gasoline-powered generators allowed for radios and lighting to be operated underground.[23]
By 19 February 1945 when the Americans invaded, 18 km (11 mi) of a planned 27 km (17 mi) of tunnel network had been dug. Besides the Nanpo Bunker, there were numerous command centers and barracks that were 75 feet deep. Tunnels allowed for troop movement to go undetected to various defense positions.[24] Hundreds of hidden artillery and mortar positions along with land mines were placed all over the island. Among the Japanese weapons were 320 mm spigot mortars and a variety of explosive rockets.[25] Nonetheless, the Japanese supply was inadequate. Troops were supplied 60% of the standard issue of ammunition sufficient for one engagement by one division and food and forage for four months.[26]
Numerous Japanese snipers and camouflaged machine gun positions were set up. Kuribayashi specially engineered the defenses so that every part of Iwo Jima was subject to Japanese defensive fire. He also received a handful of kamikaze pilots to use against the enemy fleet;[citation needed] their attacks during the battle killed 318 American sailors. However, against his wishes, Kuribayashi's superiors on Honshu ordered him to erect some beach defenses.[citation needed]
Starting on 15 June 1944, the U.S. Navy and the U.S. Army Air Forces began naval bombardments and air raids against Iwo Jima, which would become the longest and most intense in the Pacific Theater.[27] They would contain a combination of naval artillery shellings and aerial bombings that went on for nine months. Unaware of Kuribayashi's tunnel defense system, many of the Americans assumed that most of the Japanese garrison had been killed by the constant bombing raids.
On 17 February 1945 the destroyer escort USS Blessman sent Underwater Demolition Team 15 (UDT-15) toward Blue Beach for reconnaissance. The Japanese infantry fired on them, which killed one American diver. On the evening of 18 February, Blessman was hit by a bomb from a Japanese aircraft, killing 40 sailors, including 15 members of the UDT.
Pre-landing bombardment
The battleship USS New York firing its 14 in (360 mm) main guns on the island, 16 February 1945 (D minus 3)
Major General Harry Schmidt, commander of the Marine landing force, requested a 10-day heavy shelling of the island immediately preceding the mid-February amphibious assault. However, Rear Admiral William H. P. Blandy, commander of the Amphibious Support Force (Task Force 52), did not believe such a bombardment would allow him time to replenish his ships' ammunition before the landings; he thus refused Schmidt's request. Schmidt then asked for nine days of shelling; Blandy again refused and agreed to a three-day bombardment. This decision left much hard feeling among the Marines. After the war, Lieutenant General Holland M. "Howlin' Mad" Smith, commander Expeditionary Troops (Task Force 56, which consisted of Schmidt's Fifth Amphibious Corps), bitterly complained that the lack of naval gunfire had cost Marine lives during the entire Allied island campaign.[28]
Each heavy warship was given an area on which to fire that, combined with all the ships, covered the entire island. Each warship fired for approximately six hours before stopping for a certain amount of time. Poor weather on D minus 3 led to uncertain results for that day's bombardment. On D minus 2, the time and care that the Japanese had taken in preparing their artillery positions became clear. When heavy cruiser USS Pensacola got within range of shore batteries, the ship was quickly hit 6 times and suffered 17 crew deaths. Later, 12 small craft attempting to land a UDT were all struck by Japanese rounds and quickly retired. While aiding these vessels, the destroyer USS Leutze was also hit and suffered 7 crew deaths. On D minus 1, Blandy's gunners were once again hampered by rain and clouds. Schmidt summed up his feelings by saying, "We only got about 13 hours worth of fire support during the 34 hours of available daylight."[29]
The limited bombardment had a questionable impact on the enemy since the Japanese were heavily dug-in and fortified. The craters left behind by the barrage also provided additional cover for the defenders, while hampering the attackers' advance.[original research?] However, many bunkers and caves were destroyed during the bombing, giving it some limited success. The Japanese had been preparing for this battle since March 1944, which gave them a significant advantage.[30] By the time of the landing, about 450 American ships were located off Iwo Jima, and the battle was to involve about 60,000 U.S. Marines and several thousand U.S. Navy Seabees.[31]
Opposing forces
Further information: Battle of Iwo Jima order of battle
Naval commanders for Operation Detachment
Admiral Raymond A. Spruance
Vice Admiral Richmond Kelly Turner
Ground force commanders
Lieutenant General Holland M. Smith
Major General Harry Schmidt
Marine division commanders on Iwo Jima
Major General Keller Rockey
Major General Clifton Cates
Major General Graves Erskine
American
United States Fifth Fleet
Admiral Raymond A. Spruance in heavy cruiser Indianapolis
Joint Expeditionary Force (Task Force 51)
Vice Admiral Richmond Kelly Turner in amphibious command ship Eldorado
Expeditionary Troops (Task Force 56)
Lieutenant General Holland M. Smith, USMC
V Amphibious Corps
Major General Harry Schmidt, USMC
Southern sector (Green and Red beaches):
5th Marine Division (25,884 officers and enlisted)
Major General Keller E. Rockey
26th Marine Regiment (Colonel Chester B. Graham)
27th Marine Regiment (Colonel Thomas A. Wornham)
28th Marine Regiment (Colonel Harry B. Liversedge)
13th Marine Regiment (Artillery) (Colonel James D. Waller)
Northern sector (Yellow and Blue beaches):
4th Marine Division (24,452 officers and enlisted)
Major General Clifton B. Cates[h]
23rd Marine Regiment (Colonel Walter W. Wensinger)
24th Marine Regiment (Colonel Walter I. Jordan)
25th Marine Regiment (Colonel John R. Lanigan)
14th Marine Regiment (Artillery) (Colonel Louis G. DeHaven)
Floating reserve:
3rd Marine Division (19,597 officers and enlisted)
Major General Graves B. Erskine
3rd Marine Regiment[i] (Colonel James A. Stuart)
9th Marine Regiment (Colonel Howard N. Kenyon)
21st Marine Regiment (Colonel Hartnoll J. Withers)
12th Marine Regiment (Artillery) (Lieutenant Colonel Raymond F. Crist Jr.)
147th Infantry Regiment (Ohio Army National Guard) (2,952 officers and enlisted)
Japanese
21,060 total men under arms
Lieutenant General Tadamichi Kuribayashi, commanding
Colonel Tadashi Takaishi, chief of staff
Army
109th Division
Navy
4 anti-aircraft defense units
First day – 19 February 1945
LVTs approach Iwo Jima.
19 February 1945 air view of southern part of Iwo Jima
19 February 1945 air view of Marines landing on the beach
19 February 1945 air view of Marines landing on the beach
Marines landing on the beach
U.S. Army Soldiers engaging heavily fortified Japanese positions
U.S. Marines of the Second Battalion, Twenty-Seventh Regiment, wait to move inland on Iwo Jima, soon after going ashore on 19 February 1945. An LVT(A)-5 amphibious tractor is in the background. Red Beach One.
Members of the 1st Battalion 23rd Marines burrow in the volcanic sand on Yellow Beach 1. A beached LCI is visible upper left with Mount Suribachi upper right.
U.S. Marines pose with a captured Japanese flag on top of enemy pillbox.
Culvert serves as command post for 23rd Marine Regiment on Iwo Jima
Amphibious landing
During the night, Vice Admiral Marc Mitscher's large carrier force, Task Force 58, arrived off Iwo Jima. Also in this flotilla was Admiral Raymond A. Spruance, the overall commander for the invasion, in his flagship USS Indianapolis. "Howlin' Mad" Smith was once again deeply frustrated that Mitscher's powerful carrier group had been bombing the Japanese home islands instead of softening the defenses of Iwo Jima. Mitscher's fliers however, did assist the additional surface-ship bombardment that accompanied the formation of the amphibious craft.[32]
Unlike the days of the pre-landing bombardment, D-Day dawned clear and bright.[32] At 08:59, one minute ahead of schedule, the first wave of Marines landed on the beaches of the southeastern coast of Iwo Jima. Under Major Howard Connor, 5th Marine Division signal officer, six Navajo code talkers worked around the clock during the first two days of the battle. These six sent and received over 800 messages, all without error. Connor later stated, "Were it not for the Navajos, the Marines would never have taken Iwo Jima."[33]
Situation on the beaches
Unfortunately for the landing force, the planners at Pearl Harbor severely misjudged the situation that would face Schmidt's Marines. The beaches had been described as "excellent," and the thrust inland was expected to be "easy." The lack of a vigorous response had led the Navy to conclude that their bombardment had suppressed the Japanese defenses, and the Marines had initially begun deployment to the Iwo Jima beach in good order.[34] After allowing the Americans to concentrate men and machinery on the beach for just over an hour, Kuribayashi engaged his countermeasures. Shortly after 10:00, machine guns, mortars, and heavy artillery began to rain down on the crowded beach.[35]
At first it came as a ragged rattle of machine-gun bullets, growing gradually lower and fiercer until at last all the pent-up fury of a hundred hurricanes seemed to be breaking upon the heads of the Americans. Shells screeched and crashed, every hummock spat automatic fire and the very soft soil underfoot erupted underfoot with hundreds of exploding land mines ... Marines walking erect crumpled and fell. Concussion lifted them and slammed them down, or tore them apart ...[36]
Furthermore, after crossing the beach, the Marines were faced with 15 ft-high (4.6 m) slopes of soft black volcanic ash.[34] This ash allowed for neither secure footing nor the construction of foxholes to protect the Marines from hostile fire. However, the ash did help to absorb some of the fragments from Japanese artillery.[37]
Marines were trained to move rapidly forward; here they could only plod. The weight and amount of equipment was a terrific hindrance and various items were rapidly discarded. First to go was the gas mask ...[34]
The Japanese heavy artillery in Mount Suribachi opened their reinforced steel doors to fire and then closed them immediately to prevent counterfire from the Marines and naval gunners. This made it difficult for American units to destroy a Japanese artillery piece.[37] To make matters worse for the Americans, the bunkers were connected to the elaborate tunnel system so that bunkers that were cleared with flamethrowers and grenades were reoccupied shortly afterwards by Japanese troops moving through the tunnels. This tactic caused many casualties among the Marines, as they walked past the reoccupied bunkers without expecting to suddenly take fresh fire from them.[37]
Time-Life correspondent Robert Sherrod described the landing simply as "a nightmare in hell."[38]
Moving off the beaches
Amtracs, unable to gain traction in the black ash, made no progress up the slopes; their Marine passengers had to dismount and slog forward on foot.[39] Men of the Naval Construction Battalions 31 and 133, braving enemy fire, eventually were able to bulldoze roads off the beach. This allowed the Marines and equipment to finally make some progress inland and get off the jam-packed beaches. "Even so, in virtually every shell hole there lay at least one dead Marine ..."[40]
By 11:30, some Marines had managed to reach the southern tip of Airfield No. 1, whose possession had been one of the original American objectives for the first day. The Marines endured a fanatical 100-man charge by the Japanese but were able to keep their toehold on Airfield No. 1 as night fell.[40]
Crossing the island
In the left-most sector, the Americans did manage to achieve one of their objectives for the battle that day. Led by Colonel Harry B. "Harry the Horse" Liversedge, the 28th Marines drove across the island at its narrowest width, around 800 m (870 yd), thereby isolating the Japanese dug in on Mount Suribachi.
Action on the right flank
The rightmost landing area was dominated by Japanese positions at the Quarry. The 25th Marine Regiment undertook a two-pronged attack to silence these guns. 2nd Lieutenant Benjamin Roselle, part of a ground team directing naval gunfire, described the following experience:
Within a minute a mortar shell exploded among the group ... his left foot and ankle hung from his leg, held on by a ribbon of flesh ... Within minutes a second round landed near him and fragments tore into his other leg. For nearly an hour he wondered where the next shell would land. He was soon to find out as a shell burst almost on top of him, wounding him for the third time in the shoulder. Almost at once another explosion bounced him several feet into the air and hot shards ripped into both thighs ... as he lifted his arm to look at his watch a mortar shell exploded only feet away and blasted the watch from his wrist and tore a large jagged hole in his forearm: "I was beginning to know what it must be like to be crucified," he was later to say.[41]
The 25th Marines' 3rd Battalion had landed approximately 900 men in the morning. Japanese resistance at the Quarry was so fierce that by nightfall only 150 Marines were left in fighting condition, an 83.3% casualty rate.[42]
By the evening, 30,000 Marines had landed. About 40,000 more would follow.[37] Aboard the command ship Eldorado, "Howlin' Mad" Smith saw the lengthy casualty reports and heard of the slow progress of the ground forces. To the war correspondents covering the operation he confessed, "I don't know who he is, but the Japanese general running this show is one smart bastard."[43]
Subsequent combat
In the days after the landings, the Marines expected the usual Japanese banzai charge during the night. This had been the standard Japanese final defense strategy in previous battles against enemy ground forces in the Pacific, such as during the Battle of Saipan. In those attacks, for which the Marines were prepared, the majority of the Japanese attackers had been killed and the Japanese strength greatly reduced. However, General Kuribayashi had strictly forbidden these "human wave" attacks by the Japanese infantrymen because he considered them to be futile.[37]
The fighting on the beachhead was very fierce. The advance of the Marines was stalled by numerous defensive positions augmented by artillery pieces. There, the Marines were ambushed by Japanese troops who occasionally sprang out of tunnels. At night, the Japanese left their defenses under cover of darkness to attack American foxholes, but U.S. Navy ships fired star shells to deny them the cover of darkness. On Iwo Jima (and other Japanese held islands), Japanese soldiers who knew English were used to harass and or deceive Marines in order to kill them if they could; they would yell "corpsman" pretending to be a wounded Marine, in order to lure in U.S. Navy hospital corpsmen attached to Marine infantry companies.[37]
The Marines learned that firearms were relatively ineffective against the Japanese defenders and effectively used flamethrowers and grenades to flush out Japanese troops in the tunnels. One of the technological innovations of the battle, the eight Sherman M4A3R3 medium tanks equipped with a flamethrower ("Ronson" or "Zippo" tanks), proved very effective at clearing Japanese positions. The Shermans were difficult to disable, such that defenders were often compelled to assault them in the open, where they would fall victim to the superior numbers of Marines.[37]
Close air support was initially provided by fighters from escort carriers off the coast. This shifted over to the 15th Fighter Group, flying P-51 Mustangs, after they arrived on the island on 6 March. Similarly, illumination rounds (flares) which were used to light up the battlefield at night were initially provided by ships, shifting over later to landing force artillery. Navajo code talkers were part of the American ground communications, along with walkie-talkies and SCR-610 backpack radio sets.[37]
After running out of water, food and most supplies, the Japanese troops became desperate toward the end of the battle. Kuribayashi, who had argued against banzai attacks at the start of the battle, realized that defeat was imminent.
Marines began to face increasing numbers of nighttime attacks; these were only repelled by a combination of machine-gun defensive positions and artillery support. At times, the Marines engaged in hand-to-hand fighting to repel the Japanese attacks.[37] With the landing area secure, more troops and heavy equipment came ashore, and the invasion proceeded north to capture the airfields and the remainder of the island. Most Japanese soldiers fought to the death.[37]
Raising the flag on Mount Suribachi
U.S. flag over Mount Suribachi
U.S. postage stamp, 1945 issue, commemorating the Battle of Iwo Jima
Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima is a black and white photograph taken by Joe Rosenthal depicting six Marines from E Company, 2nd Battalion, 28th Marines, raising a U.S. flag atop Mount Suribachi on 23 February 1945,[20] which was the second of two flag-raisings on the site that day. The photograph was extremely popular, being reprinted in thousands of publications. Later, it became the only photograph to win the Pulitzer Prize for Photography in the same year as its publication, and ultimately came to be regarded as one of the most significant and recognizable images of the war, and possibly the most reproduced photograph of all time.[20] The flag raising picture was later used by Felix de Weldon to sculpt the Marine Corps War Memorial which is located adjacent to Arlington National Cemetery since 1954.[20]
Three of the six Marines depicted in the photograph, Sergeant Michael Strank, Corporal Harlon Block, and Private First Class Franklin Sousley, were killed in action days after the flag-raising. Surviving flag-raiser Private First Class Ira Hayes, together with Private First Class Rene Gagnon and Navy hospital corpsman Pharmacist's Mate Second Class John Bradley, became celebrities upon their participation in a war bond selling tour after the battle. Three subsequent Marine Corps investigations into the identities of the six men in the photograph determined: in 1946 and 1947, that Harlon Block was incorrectly identified as Henry Hansen (both were killed six days after the photo was taken); in May and June 2016, that John Bradley was not in the photograph and Private First Class Harold Schultz was;[44] and in 2019, that Rene Gagnon was not in the photograph and Private First Class Harold Keller was.[45]
By the morning of 23 February, Mount Suribachi was effectively cut off above ground from the rest of the island. The Marines knew there was an extensive network of below-ground defenses, and that in spite of its isolation above ground, the volcano was still connected via the tunnel network. They expected a fierce fight for the summit. Two small patrols from two rifle companies from the 2/28 Marines were sent up the volcano to reconnoiter routes on the mountain's north face. The recon patrols made it to the summit and scrambled down again, reporting any contact to the 2/28 Marines commander, Lieutenant Colonel Chandler W. Johnson.[37]
Popular accounts embroidered by the press in the aftermath of the release of the photo of the flag raising, had the Marines fighting all the way up to the summit. Although the Marine riflemen expected an ambush, the larger patrol going up afterwards encountered a few defenders once on top and after the flag was raised. The majority of the Japanese troops stayed in the tunnel network during shelling, only occasionally attacking in small groups, and were generally all killed.
Johnson called for a reinforced platoon size patrol from E Company to climb Suribachi and seize and occupy the crest. The patrol commander, First Lieutenant Harold Schrier, was handed the battalion's American flag to be raised on top to signal Suribachi's capture, if they reached the summit. Johnson and the Marines anticipated heavy fighting, but the patrol encountered only a small amount of sniper fire on the way up the mountain. Once the top was secured by Schrier and his men, a length of Japanese water pipe was found there among the wreckage, and the American flag was attached to the pipe and then raised and planted on top of Mount Suribachi which became the first foreign flag to fly on Japanese soil.[46] Photographs of the flag and some of the patrol members around it were taken by Marine photographer Louis R. Lowery, the only photographer who had accompanied Schrier's patrol up the mountain.
As the flag went up, Secretary of the Navy James Forrestal had just landed on the beach at the foot of Mount Suribachi and decided that he wanted the flag as a souvenir. Johnson believed that the flag belonged to the 2nd Battalion, 28th Marines, who had captured that section of the island. In the early afternoon, Johnson sent Gagnon, a runner (messenger) from his battalion for E Company, to take a larger flag up the volcano to replace the smaller and less visible flag. The replacement flag was attached to a heavier section of water pipe, and six Marines proceeded to raise it into place as the smaller flag was taken down and delivered to the battalion's headquarters down below. It was during this second flag-raising that Rosenthal took the renowned photograph "Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima". The second flag flew on Mount Suribachi until it was taken down on 14 March, when at the same time an American flag was officially raised during a ceremony at the V Amphibious Corps command post near Mount Suribachi. The official flag raising was ordered by Holland Smith and attended by Erskine and some members of the 3rd Marine Division.
Northern Iwo Jima
Sketch of Hill 362A, made by the 31st U.S. Naval Construction Battalion. Dotted lines show the Japanese tunnel system.
Despite Japan's loss of Mount Suribachi on the south end of the island, the Japanese still held strong positions on the north end. The rocky terrain vastly favored defense, even more so than Mount Suribachi, which was much easier to hit with naval artillery fire. Coupled with this, the fortifications constructed by Kuribayashi were more impressive than at the southern end of the island.[47] Remaining under the command of Kuribayashi was the equivalent of eight infantry battalions, a tank regiment, and two artillery and three heavy mortar battalions. There were also about 5,000 gunners and naval infantry. The most arduous task left to the Marines was the taking of the Motoyama Plateau with its distinctive Hill 382 and Turkey knob and the area in between referred to as the Amphitheater. This formed the basis of what came to be known as the "meatgrinder". While this was being achieved on the right flank, the left was clearing out Hill 362 with just as much difficulty.
The overall objective at this point was to take control of Airfield No. 2 in the center of the island. However, every "penetration seemed to become a disaster" as "units were raked from the flanks, chewed up, and sometimes wiped out. Tanks were destroyed by interlocking fire or were hoisted into the air on the spouting fireballs of buried mines".[48] As a result, the fighting bogged down, with American casualties piling up. Even capturing these points was not a solution to the problem since a previously secured position could be attacked from the rear by the use of the tunnels and hidden pillboxes. As such, it was said that "they could take these heights at will, and then regret it".[49]
A U.S. Marine firing his Browning M1917 machine gun at the Japanese
Two Marines using a "Hotch Kiss" from the Japanese, 1945
The Marines nevertheless found ways to prevail under the circumstances. It was observed that during bombardments, the Japanese would hide their guns and themselves in the caves only to reappear when the troops would advance and lay devastating fire on them. The Japanese had over time learned basic American tactics, which was to lay heavy bombardment before an infantry attack. Consequently, Erskine ordered the 9th Marine Regiment to attack under the cover of darkness with no preliminary barrage. This came to be a resounding success with many Japanese soldiers killed while still asleep. This was a key moment in the capture of Hill 362.[50] It held such importance that the Japanese organized a counterattack the following night. Although Kuribayashi had forbidden the suicide charges familiar with other battles in the Pacific, the commander of the area decided on a banzai charge with the optimistic goal of recapturing Mount Suribachi.
On the evening of 8 March, Captain Samaji Inouye and his 1,000 men charged the American lines, inflicting 347 casualties (90 deaths). The Marines counted 784 dead Japanese soldiers the next day.[47] The same day, elements of the 3rd Marine Division reached the northern coast of the island, splitting Kuribayashi's defenses in two.[51] There was also a kamikaze air attack (the only one of the battle) on the ships anchored at sea on 21 February, which resulted in the sinking of the escort carrier USS Bismarck Sea, severe damage to USS Saratoga, and slight damage to the escort carrier USS Lunga Point, an LST, and a transport.[50]
Although the island was declared secure at 18:00 on 16 March (25 days after the landings), the 5th Marine Division still faced Kuribayashi's stronghold in a gorge 640 m (700 yd) long at the northwestern end of the island. On 21 March, the Marines destroyed the command post in the gorge with four tons of explosives, and on 24 March Marines sealed the remaining caves at the northern tip of the island.[52] However, on the night of 25 March, a 300-man Japanese force launched a final counterattack in the vicinity of Airfield No. 2. Army pilots, Seabees, and Marines of the 5th Pioneer Battalion and 28th Marines fought the Japanese force for up to 90 minutes, suffering heavy casualties (53 killed, 120 wounded).[citation needed] Although still a matter of speculation because of conflicting accounts from surviving Japanese veterans, it has been said that Kuribayashi led this final assault,[j] which unlike the loud banzai charge of previous battles, was characterized as a silent attack. If ever proven true, Kuribayashi would have been the highest ranking Japanese officer to have personally led an attack during World War II.[citation needed] Additionally, this would also be Kuribayashi's final act, a departure from the normal practice of the commanding Japanese officers committing seppuku behind the lines while the rest perished in the banzai charge, as happened during the battles of Saipan and Okinawa. The island was officially declared secure at 09:00 on 26 March.[citation needed]
Once the island was officially declared secure, the Army's 147th Infantry Regiment was ostensibly there to act as a garrison force, but they soon found themselves locked in a bitter struggle against thousands of stalwart defenders engaging in a last-ditch guerrilla campaign to harass the Americans.[53][54] Using well-supplied caves and tunnel systems, the Japanese resisted American advances. For three months, the 147th slogged across the island, using flamethrowers, grenades, and satchel charges to dig out the enemy, killing some 1,602 Japanese soldiers in small unit actions (along with many others who died in sealed caves) while suffering fifteen men killed in action and another 144 wounded. The Ohioans were also credited with capturing 867 Japanese; combined with the number of enemy soldiers killed, this casualty figure represented over 10% of the original Japanese garrison.[55]
Aftermath
Japanese holdouts on the island, including two of Lieutenant Toshihiko Ohno's men, Yamakage Kufuku (山蔭光福, Yamakage Koufuku) and Matsudo Linsoki (松戸利喜夫, Matsudo Rikio), lasted four years without being caught, and finally surrendered on 6 January 1949.[62][63][64]
Iwo Jima cemetery entrances built by the 133rd Seabees, with the 3rd Marine Division foreward and the 4th Marine Division opposite.
Iwo Jima cemetery entrances built by the 133rd Seabees, with the 3rd Marine Division foreward and the 4th Marine Division opposite.
Interments of the 4th Marine Division.
Interments of the 4th Marine Division.
4th USMC Division Cemetery Iwo Jima
4th USMC Division Cemetery Iwo Jima
5th USMC Division Cemetery entrance built by the 31st CB with Mt. Suribachi center.
5th USMC Division Cemetery entrance built by the 31st CB with Mt. Suribachi center.
Strategic importance
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Lieutenant Wade discusses the overall importance of the target at a pre-invasion briefing.
American supplies being landed at Iwo Jima
In hindsight, given the number of casualties, the necessity and long-term significance of the island's capture to the outcome of the war became a contentious issue and remains disputed.[67] The Marines, who suffered the actual casualties, were not consulted in the planning of the operation.[68] As early as April 1945, retired Chief of Naval Operations William V. Pratt stated in Newsweek magazine that considering the "expenditure of manpower to acquire a small, God-forsaken island, useless to the Army as a staging base and useless to the Navy as a fleet base ... [one] wonders if the same sort of airbase could not have been reached by acquiring other strategic localities at lower cost."[18]
The lessons learned on Iwo Jima served as guidelines for the following Battle of Okinawa and the planned invasion of the Japanese homeland. For example, "because of the casualties taken at Iwo Jima on the first day, it was decided to make the preparatory bombardment the heaviest yet delivered on to a Pacific island".[69] Also, in the planning for a potential attack on the Japanese home islands, it was taken into account that around a third of the troops committed to Iwo Jima and again at Okinawa had been killed or wounded.[70]
The justification for Iwo Jima's strategic importance to the United States' war effort has been that it provided a landing and refueling site for long-range fighter escorts. These escorts proved both impractical and unnecessary, and only ten such missions were flown from Iwo Jima.[71] By the time Iwo Jima had been captured, the bombing campaign against Japan had switched from daylight precision bombing to nighttime incendiary attacks, so fighter escorts were of limited utility.[72]
Japanese fighter aircraft based on Iwo Jima sometimes attacked AAF planes, which were vulnerable on their way to Japan because they were heavily laden with bombs and fuel. However, although some Japanese interceptors were based on Iwo Jima, their impact on the American bombing effort was marginal; in the three months before the invasion 11 B-29s had been lost as a result.[73] The Superfortresses found it unnecessary to make any major detour around the island.[74] Capturing the island neutralized Japanese air attacks based from it on the Marianas, but they were too small to ever launch significant attacks.[72]
Marines from the 24th Marine Regiment during the Battle of Iwo Jima
The Japanese on Iwo Jima had radar[75] and were thus able to notify their comrades at home of incoming B-29 Superfortresses flying from the Mariana Islands. However, the capture of Iwo Jima did not affect the Japanese early-warning radar system, which continued to receive information on incoming B-29s from the island of Rota (which was never invaded).[19]
As early as 4 March 1945, while fighting was still taking place, the B-29 Dinah Might of the USAAF 9th Bomb Group reported it was low on fuel near the island and requested an emergency landing. Despite enemy fire, the airplane landed on the Allied-controlled section of the island (South Field) without incident and was serviced, refueled and departed.
In all, 2,251 B-29 landings on Iwo Jima were recorded during the war.[76] Author J. Robert Moskin records that 1,191 fighter escorts and 3,081 strike sorties were flown from Iwo Jima against Japan.[77] A more recent Air Force study found the contribution of VII Fighter Command superfluous. Another rationale for capturing the island was to serve as a base for shorter-range B-24 Liberator bombers against Japan, but no significant B-24 bombing campaign ever materialized.[72]
Some downed B-29 crewmen were saved by air-sea rescue aircraft and vessels operating from the island, but Iwo Jima was one of many islands that could have been used for such a purpose. As for the importance of the island as a landing and refueling site for bombers, Marine Captain Robert Burrell, then a history instructor at the United States Naval Academy, suggested that only a small proportion of the 2,251 landings were for genuine emergencies, the great majority possibly being for minor technical checkups, training, or refueling. According to Burrell,
This justification became prominent only after the Marines seized the island and incurred high casualties. The tragic cost of Operation Detachment pressured veterans, journalists, and commanders to fixate on the most visible rationalization for the battle. The sight of the enormous, costly, and technologically sophisticated B-29 landing on the island's small airfield most clearly linked Iwo Jima to the strategic bombing campaign. As the myths about the flag raisings on Mount Suribachi reached legendary proportions, so did the emergency landing theory in order to justify the need to raise that flag.[68]
Medal of Honor recipients
Main article: List of Medal of Honor recipients for the Battle of Iwo Jima
Harry Truman congratulates Marine Corporal Hershel Williams of the Third Marine Division on being awarded the Medal of Honor, 5 October 1945.
The Medal of Honor is the highest military decoration awarded by the United States government. It is bestowed on a member of the United States Armed Forces who distinguishes himself by "... conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty while engaged in an action against an enemy of the United States ..." Because of its nature, the medal is commonly awarded posthumously.
The Medal of Honor was awarded to 22 Marines (12 posthumously), and 5 were presented to sailors, 4 of whom were hospital corpsmen (2 posthumously) attached to Marine infantry units. The medals awarded for the battle accounted for 28% of the 82 awarded to Marines in World War II.[80]
At the time of his death on 29 June 2022, Marine Hershel W. Williams was the last living Medal of Honor recipient from World War II.[81] He received his medal for actions in the Battle of Iwo Jima.
Legacy
The U.S. Marine Corps War Memorial in Arlington with the Washington Monument and the United States Capitol in the distance.
The Marine Corps Iwo Jima Memorial was dedicated on 10 November 1954 at Arlington National Cemetery.
The United States Navy has commissioned two ships with the name USS Iwo Jima (LPH-2) (1961–1993) and USS Iwo Jima (LHD-7) (2001–present).
On 19 February 1985, the 40th anniversary of the landings on Iwo Jima, an event called the "Reunion of Honor" was held (the event has been held annually since 2002).[82] Veterans of both sides who fought in the battle attended the event. The place was the invasion beach where U.S. forces landed. A memorial on which inscriptions were engraved by both sides was built at the center of the meeting place. Japanese attended at the mountain side, where the Japanese inscription was carved, and Americans attended at the shore side, where the English inscription was carved.[83] After unveiling and offering of flowers were made, the representatives of both countries approached the memorial; upon meeting, they shook hands. The combined Japan-U.S. memorial service of the 50th anniversary of the battle was held in front of the monument in February 1995.[84] Further memorial services have been held on later anniversaries.[85]
The importance of the battle to Marines today is demonstrated in pilgrimages made to the island, and specifically the summit of Suribachi.[86] Marines will often leave dog tags, rank insignia, or other tokens at the monuments in homage.[87] Iwo Jima Day is observed annually on 19 February in the Commonwealth of Massachusetts[88] with a ceremony at the State House.
The Japanese government continues to search for and retrieve the remains of Japanese military personnel who were killed during the battle.[89]
The memorial on top of Suribachi
The memorial on top of Suribachi
The 60th anniversary reunion at the Japanese part of the memorial
The 60th anniversary reunion at the Japanese part of the memorial
The 67th anniversary ceremony sponsored by the U.S. Marine Corps, the government of Japan, and the Iwo Jima Associations of America and Japan
The 67th anniversary ceremony sponsored by the U.S. Marine Corps, the government of Japan, and the Iwo Jima Associations of America and Japan
Commencement of the 71st commemoration of the anniversary
Commencement of the 71st commemoration of the anniversary
U.S. and Japanese color guard teams stand at attention during the 72nd Reunion of Honor ceremony.
U.S. and Japanese color guard teams stand at attention during the 72nd Reunion of Honor ceremony.
Depiction in media
The Battle of Iwo Jima has been featured in numerous films and documentaries. The U.S. military produced the 1945 documentaries To the Shores of Iwo Jima[90] and Glamour Gal,[91] a film about a Marine artillery piece and its crew. John Wayne stars in the 1949 feature film Sands of Iwo Jima.
"Iwo Jima", part eight of the 2010 HBO miniseries The Pacific produced by Tom Hanks and Steven Spielberg, includes part of the Battle of Iwo Jima from the point of view of John Basilone, from the beginning of the invasion until his death later in the day. Basilone was the only enlisted Marine to receive both the Medal of Honor and the Navy Cross in World War II.
Ira Hayes, one of the Marines who appeared in Joe Rosenthal's Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima photograph, was the subject of the 1961 film The Outsider, starring Tony Curtis as the conflicted flag raiser. Hayes, Gagnon, Bradley were depicted in the 2006 film Flags of Our Fathers, directed by Clint Eastwood. Flags of Our Fathers is filmed from the American perspective and is based on the 2000 book by James Bradley and Ron Powers, Flags of Our Fathers.[92] The 2006 film Letters from Iwo Jima, also directed by Clint Eastwood, depicts the battle from the Japanese perspective.
Joseph John Rosenthal (October 9, 1911 – August 20, 2006) was an American photographer who received the Pulitzer Prize for his iconic World War II photograph Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima, taken during the 1945 Battle of Iwo Jima.[1] His picture became one of the best-known photographs of the war, and was replicated as the United States Marine Corps War Memorial in Arlington, Virginia.
Early life
Joseph Rosenthal was born on October 9, 1911, in Washington, D.C. His parents were Russian-Jewish immigrants; he converted to Catholicism during his youth.[2] He had four brothers. His interest in photography started as a hobby during the Great Depression. He graduated from McKinley High School in 1929, and after working as an office boy, he moved to San Francisco where he became a reporter-photographer for The San Francisco News in 1932.
World War II
Rosenthal was rejected by the U.S. Army as a photographer because of poor eyesight.[3] In 1941, he attended the University of San Francisco and joined the staff of the Associated Press (AP). In 1943, he joined the United States Maritime Service as a photographer and served as a warrant officer documenting life aboard ship in the British Isles and North Africa. In 1944, he rejoined the Associated Press and followed the United States Army and U.S. Marine Corps in the Pacific Theater of Operations as a war correspondent at Hollandia, New Guinea, Guam, Peleliu, Angaur, and Iwo Jima.
Flag-raising photo
Main article: Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima
Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima
On Friday morning, February 19, 1945, four days after the Marines landed at Iwo Jima, Rosenthal was making his daily visit to the island on a Marine landing craft when he heard that an American flag was being raised atop Mount Suribachi, a volcano at the southern tip of the island. Upon landing, Rosenthal hurried toward Suribachi, lugging along his bulky Speed Graphic camera, the standard for press photographers at the time. Together with Marine combat still photographer Pvt. Bob Campbell and Marine color movie photographer Sgt. Bill Genaust, he began the climb up to the summit of Mount Suribachi. When they got about halfway up, they met Staff Sgt. Louis Lowery, a photographer with the Marine publication Leatherneck who was coming down the volcano after an enemy grenade explosion on top had knocked him off his feet and broke his camera. Lowery told them that the flag had already been raised at 10:40 am, and he had gotten photos of the flag on the summit. Lowery told them the view was good from the summit, and Rosenthal convinced Genaust and Campbell to continue to take him to the top with them since they were armed.[4]
Mount Suribachi on Iwo Jima
On the high and windy summit of Mount Suribachi, Rosenthal discovered a group of Marines attaching a large flag to a length of steel pipe. Nearby, he saw the smaller flag flying and managed to get himself photoed by Campbell under the flag with Sgt. Genaust and Army Pfc. George Burn, a photographer for Yank, the Army Weekly. Another group of Marines was getting ready to lower the smaller flag at the same instant the larger flag was raised under an officer's orders. Rosenthal briefly contemplated attempting to photograph both of the flags at once, but was not in a position to get both flags in the photograph (Pvt. Campbell did capture an image of the first flag coming down while the second flag was going up), so he focused his attention on the group of men preparing to raise the second flag.[4]
Rosenthal piled stones and a sandbag so he had something on which to stand, as he was only 5 feet and 5 inches (1.65 m) tall. He set his camera for a lens setting between f/8 and f/11 and the shutter speed at 1/400th second. Then, out of the corner of his eye, he saw six Marines start to raise the second flag.[5] He swung his camera around toward the action and pushed the shutter. Three feet to his right, Sgt. Genaust captured the flag-raising from nearly the same angle using color motion picture film.[4] To make sure he had a worthwhile photo to send to the AP, Rosenthal took another black and white photograph showing four of the second flag-raisers steadying the flagstaff and waiting for the bottom of the pipe to be more secured with rocks; and afterwards a rope. When that was done, Rosenthal gathered a group of sixteen Marines and two Navy corpsmen around the base of the flagstaff for a posed shot (called the "Gung Ho" photo) which included First Lieutenant Harold Schrier, the only officer on the summit, who had volunteered to take the 40-man patrol up Mount Suribachi that morning to seize and occupy the crest and raise the battalion's flag.[6]
Impact of flag-raising photo
The U.S. Marine Corps War Memorial in Arlington, Virginia
The American people saw Rosenthal's photo as a potent symbol of victory.[7] Wire services flashed what would become a Pulitzer Prize–winning photograph around the world in time to appear in the Sunday newspapers on February 25, 1945 (Lowery's photos weren't released until late 1947). Many magazines ran the photo on their covers. After the battle for Iwo Jima was over and won, the photo was used for posters in war bond drives through over 30 cities from May 11 through July 4, 1945, which raised $26.3 billion.[3]
Rosenthal's photograph became an enduring icon. Artists used the photo as a model for the United States Marine Corps War Memorial (1954) — commonly referred to as "The Iwo Jima Memorial" — at Arlington, Virginia, and the U.S. Postal Service commemorated the photo on a U.S. postage stamp.[citation needed] A version of the Marine Corps memorial also stands on the parade ground at Marine Corps Recruit Depot Parris Island, South Carolina.[citation needed]
The International Museum of Photography and Film in Rochester, New York, displays the camera used by Rosenthal to take the photograph.[citation needed]
Later years and death
In later years, when asked about the photo, he would say "I took the picture; the Marines took Iwo Jima."[3] Rosenthal left the AP later in 1945 and became the chief photographer and manager of Times Wide World Photos. He later joined the San Francisco Chronicle. He worked there as a photographer for 35 years, before retiring in 1981.[3] His name was inscribed (across from the memorial sculptor Felix de Weldon's name) on the bottom right side of the front (west side) of the Marine Corps War Memorial in 1982. On April 13, 1996, Rosenthal was named an honorary Marine by then Commandant of the Marine Corps General Charles C. Krulak.[8]
On August 20, 2006, at age 94, Rosenthal died of natural causes in his sleep at a center for assisted living in Novato, California, located in the North Bay region of the San Francisco Bay Area, in northern Marin County.[9][10] Rosenthal was cremated. A Marine Corps ceremony that was open to the public was held for him at the Marines' Memorial Club on September 15 and a Catholic funeral mass was held for him on September 16, 2006, at St. Emydius Catholic Church, both located in San Francisco, California.[11]
Awards and honors
Pulitzer Prize – Rosenthal received the Pulitzer Prize in 1945 for the iconic photo. The committee noted that photo as "depicting one of the war's great moments," a "frozen flash of history."[3]
International Photography Hall of Fame,[12] St. Louis, Missouri
Navy Distinguished Public Service Award – The United States Marine Corps posthumously awarded Rosenthal the Distinguished Public Service Award (medal) on September 15, 2006:[8]
Citation:[8]
For exceptionally distinguished public service in support of the United States Navy and Marine Corps. On February 23, 1945, a bespectacled Mr. Rosenthal made a picture of five U.S. Marines and one U.S. Navy corpsman that immortalized the American Fighting spirit during World War II and became an everlasting symbol of service and sacrifice, transcending art and the ages. Mr. Rosenthal's poor eyesight prohibited him from serving in the armed services, so, he instead went to war summoning the craft he had practiced since the Great Depression. He bravely accompanied island-hopping forces in the Pacific as a civilian news photographer. On Iwo Jima, Japan, short of breath from climbing the 546-foot volcano, Mr. Rosenthal, in haste, stood on top of shaky rocks in search of the best graphic composition. As the six men hoisted an iron pole and the American flag unfurled in a smart breeze for all to see, Mr. Rosenthal captured the precise moment, unaware, until much later, of its significance. Since that very day, his iconic photo has stood as a testament to the perseverance, esprit and dedication of American Marines. In recognition of his own service and dedication, Mr. Rosenthal is posthumously awarded the Department of the Navy Distinguished Public Service Award. /S/ U.S. Secretary of the Navy, Donald C. Winter
Legacy
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The 2006 Hollywood film Flags of Our Fathers, directed by Clint Eastwood, tells the stories of the American flag raisers who raised the famous flag on Mount Suribachi and depicts Rosenthal's involvement in the events that led up to his taking the iconic flag raising photograph. Rosenthal was portrayed by actor Ned Eisenberg in the film.[13]