They bid on aletter from 1709 out of Stuttgart.
With military content (quartering one of the Duke's regiments); from the Time of the War of Spanish Succession!
Duke Eberhard Ludwig of Württemberg (1676-1733),Field Marshal of the Swabian Imperial District and general of the cavalry, addresses the bailiffs, mayor and court Dornstetten.
Dated Stuttgart, the 8th April 1709.
Abstract:"Although we welcome you under the 7th. Martii recently, gracious. You have given orders that when the team quartered with you comes from our Hermann. Reg. In the month of April you should remain with you, as well as the officers and the commons, until the day of your departure, exclusively the orderly port. bread and forage with Haussmann's food in kind, but you shouldn't have anything paid in advance; So now that we have already ordered the regiments to set off, we will go further there. resolve this with the company quartered with you. From Our Lord. Because of the enjoyment received so far, the regiment should be "exclusively settled and settled" with those above and below officers and commons until the day of the march.
With two signatures (including not the Duke's).
The first signature may have come from a representative of the noble familyfrom Medem.
The second signature ("H. Bakmeister) comes from the family Bacmeister; probably by war councilor Heinrich Bacmeister the Younger (1653-1719). It could also be called "J. Bacmeister", then it would be the real Privy Regimental Councilor Johann von Bacmeister (1657-1711).
Scope: two pages of text (the second only written on a few lines), a blank page and an address page (33.7 x 20.5 cm). With paper covered seal.
Format (folded): 8.8 x 15.2 cm.
Condition: Paper slightly stained, heavily at the top edge. bplease note the pictures too!
Internal note: Ostbhf Vorphila 23-10-08 (3)
OverDuke Eberhard Ludwig (source: wikipedia):
Duke Eberhard Ludwig (*18. September 1676 in Stuttgart; † 31. October 1733 in Ludwigsburg) was the tenth Duke of Württemberg (reigning from 1693) from 1677 to 1733. He founded absolutism in the Duchy of Württemberg, but was never able to fully implement it due to the resistance of the Württemberg estates. On the one hand, he reformed the tax system, promoted manufactories and mining, introduced new industries by welcoming the Huguenots, and established a standing army. On the other hand, with his courtly need for representation, which was typical of the Baroque period, he left behind a large mountain of debt.
Eberhard Ludwig provoked a state affair with his extramarital relationship with his mistress Wilhelmine von Grävenitz. As an experienced general, he rose to become Field Marshal of the Holy Roman Empire. Since he remained without a male descendant, after his death the regency in Lutheran Württemberg fell to the Catholic Württemberg-Winnental branch. The baroque founding of the residential palace and city of Ludwigsburg goes back to Eberhard Ludwig.
Life until the accession to power (1676–1693)
Origin:Duke Eberhard Ludwig was born on the 18th. Born September 1676 in Stuttgart. He was the third child of Duke Wilhelm Ludwig of Württemberg and his wife Magdalena Sibylla of Hesse-Darmstadt. As the first-born son, he was destined from the start to be the heir to the throne of the Duchy of Württemberg. When his father on the 23rd When he died in June 1677, the 9-month-old Eberhard Ludwig became Duke of Württemberg. Since he was not yet able to rule himself, the head of the Holy Roman Empire, Emperor Leopold I, decided on the 27th. November 1677 Friedrich Karl von Württemberg-Winnental was appointed senior guardian of the young Eberhard Ludwig. Friedrich Karl was the brother of the late Duke Wilhelm Ludwig, five years younger. The emperor appointed Eberhard Ludwig's mother as co-guardian. Although she had a say in Eberhard Ludwig's upbringing, she was subordinate to the senior guardian Friedrich Karl. De facto he took the position of a ruling imperial prince.
Education: The senior guardian consolidated Eberhard Ludwig's absolutist class consciousness with his court keeping, which was based on the French model. A self-confident appearance and elegant manners were important in the 17th century. and 18. Century essential in courtly society to reflect one's own rank. But piety was also expected of a future imperial prince. Eberhard Ludwig's mother Sibylla of Hesse-Darmstadt enforced a strict religious upbringing. A theological textbook by the Duke has been preserved to this day, the so-called Theologia Ihro Hochfürstliche Durlaucht Eberhardi Ludovici Dukes of Württemberg and Teck. In this textbook, the Duke was asked questions that required detailed knowledge of the Bible. Eberhard Ludwig received four educators who taught him Latin, French and Italian, but also religion, geography, history, military science and constitutional law. Eberhard Ludwig learned the art of riding, fencing and dancing from court master Johann Friedrich von Staffhorst. The future duke was to maintain a close, trusting relationship with him throughout his life. Staffhorst was even to become head of the Privy Government Council, the highest legislative state institution.
War of the Palatinate Succession (1688–1697):Eberhard Ludwig's childhood was overshadowed by the so-called War of the Palatinate Succession (1688–1697). Already before in the 70s and 80s of the 17th century. In the middle of the 19th century, in the midst of peace, the French King Louis XIV. Territories belonging to the Holy Roman Empire in Alsace and north of Lorraine to the Eifel were incorporated into the French Kingdom. In the Regensburg Armistice of 1684, Emperor Leopold I recognized the French conquests for 20 years. With the new war, the War of the Palatinate Succession, Louis XIV wanted to force the emperor to permanently recognize his conquests. Citing the alleged inheritance claims of his sister-in-law Liselotte of the Palatinate, Louis XIV undertook. a campaign against the Holy Roman Empire.
After French troops took the Philippsburg fortress, Eberhard Ludwig fled from the advancing troops first to the imperial city of Nuremberg and then on to Regensburg, the seat of the Perpetual Reichstag. The humiliating escape contributed to his interest as duke in maintaining a standing army despite considerable political opposition. However, the 16-year-old Duke was not yet able to assert his own political will, as according to existing law he could only take over the reins of government at the age of 18. By mid-December 1688, the French had brought the north of the Duchy of Württemberg under their control and even captured the ducal capital Stuttgart. However, Eberhard Ludwig's guardian, Friedrich Karl, managed in Regensburg to have Emperor Leopold I send 3,000 soldiers who had previously fought against the Ottomans in Hungary towards Stuttgart. The French troops did not risk a battle and instead withdrew from Stuttgart.
Premature maturity (1693): The War of the Palatinate Succession had other consequences for the Duchy of Württemberg in that it accelerated Eberhard Ludwig's accession to power. On the 27th. In September 1692, Friedrich Karl was taken prisoner by the French. Although it was possible to push the French army back from Württemberg to the left bank of the Rhine, Frederick Charles remained an important bargaining chip for Louis XIV. The French king offered the senior guardian release as long as he guaranteed Württemberg's foreign policy neutralization. Württemberg's military defection from Emperor Leopold I would have opened the way to Bavaria and Austria for the French army.
The Württemberg estates, representatives of the middle class and the Protestant clergy, now recognized the opportunity to depose the hated senior guardian. Friedrich Karl had repeatedly emphasized the primacy of ducal power to the estates and had not agreed to disband the standing army. For this reason, the estates now asked Eberhard Ludwig's mother Magdalena Sibylla of Hesse-Darmstadt to ask the emperor to declare her son of age. This amounted to a coup. However, Magdalena Sibylla was also interested in getting rid of her most important political rival. In Friedrich Karl's absence, she was able to pursue a policy of reconciliation with the estates. A return of the chief guardian to power would have ended her political influence. Magdalena Sibylla wrote a letter informing Emperor Leopold I about Frederick Charles' neutrality negotiations with France. The emperor then informed her on the 10th. January 1693 announced that he had declared Eberhard Ludwig to be of age. A copy of the certificate of maturity was attached to the letter. With this document, Eberhard Ludwig was able to officially take over the reins of government as Duke of Württemberg.
Eberhard Ludwig as reigning duke (1693–1733)
Early years of reign (1693–1700)
Framework conditions:When he took over government, Eberhard Ludwig faced immense foreign and domestic policy challenges. Although the counts and dukes of Württemberg had made their country the most important small state in the southwest of the Holy Roman Empire through a clever marriage policy, Württemberg was geopolitically located between Habsburg territories such as Freiburg im Breisgau and the Kingdom of France. Its location between the two major European powers Austria and France repeatedly made Württemberg a theater of war.[12] Due to the consequences of the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648), the War of the Palatinate Succession (1688–1697) and later the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714), the duchy was characterized by severe destruction and depopulation, which set the state back in its economic development. In 1693, Württemberg towns such as Marbach, Backnang, Großbottwar and Beilstein were burned down by French soldiers. The looting, contribution payments and pillaging encouraged the spread of epidemics and food shortages. The 340,000 inhabitants of Württemberg were mostly poor farmers who still practiced the medieval three-field economy and were regularly affected by famine. Only a few cities such as Stuttgart and Tübingen belonged to Württemberg; Esslingen and Heilbronn were imperial cities.
The domestic political problems also included the fact that the country was a dualistic corporate state. Dualistic here means that two independent forces (the Duke on the one hand and the Württemberg estates on the other) shared power in the state and pursued opposing political goals. Since the Tübingen Treaty of 1514, the estates, as representatives of the Protestant clergy and middle class, had the right to tax approval.[ With this means of pressure, they were often able to exercise significant influence on the politics of the Württemberg dukes.
Government practice: The young duke was unprepared for the immense political challenges that awaited him as duke. Although he had received a good education, he had not been introduced to the actual business of government by either his guardian or his mother. The 16-year-old Duke lacked the discipline to work through files or delegate reforms. This circumstance favored the establishment of capable favorites of the Duke in the Privy Council, the highest legislative body. The court master Johann Friedrich von Staffhorst became a particularly important source of support. Initially, Magdalena Sibylla of Hesse-Darmstadt tried to exert influence on the Privy Council, but Eberhard Ludwig ultimately pushed her to the political fringes. Eberhard Ludwig only reliably fulfilled his representative duties. The generous support of music and theater served to demonstrate his political affiliation with the civilized circle of the nobility. Since, on the one hand, the Duke left the administration of his country almost entirely to the Privy Council and, on the other hand, court culture was so promoted, the French envoy named Eberhard Ludwig's first character trait as superficiality.
Marriage (1697): The marriage of the already 21-year-old Eberhard Ludwig was planned by the Duchess Mother Magdalena Sibylla of Hesse-Darmstadt. Normally, princes were married at the age of 16 or 17. From the perspective of contemporaries, Eberhard Ludwig's marriage happened unusually late, but was unavoidable for political reasons. Magdalena Sibylla chose 16-year-old Johanna Elisabeth von Baden-Durlach, the sister of the future ruler Charles III. Wilhelm of Baden-Durlach: Geographically, the Duchy of Württemberg bordered the Margraviate of Baden-Durlach. A marriage could thus strengthen the territorial position of the Duke of Württemberg in the south of the Holy Roman Empire. Both the House of Württemberg and the House of Baden-Durlach were among the oldest dynasties in Europe, maintaining the high reputation of both families. Both dynasties were also closely linked to each other through a marriage policy that went back several centuries. The marriage was also intended to maintain the traditional alliance between Baden-Durlach and Württemberg, but above all to enable another heir to the throne who would guarantee the continued existence of Württemberg. In April 1697 the engagement was celebrated in Basel, the war-related exile of the Margraves of Baden-Durlach. During the celebrations, the Basel City Council organized a meal in honor of Eberhard Ludwig, and the bride and groom were presented with congratulations and gifts by the dignitaries. The wedding itself took place on the 6th. May 1697 at 8:00 p.m. in a small group. Only the parents and siblings, four heads of the city of Basel, a nobleman from the French Auvergne and a few cavaliers were present. After the banquet, the company danced the courtly minuet, to which four treble violins played.[ Eberhard Ludwig had meticulously organized his bride's entry into Stuttgart weeks in advance. To receive her, he set up a bodyguard on horseback, who were positioned in the palace gardens. After entering the Hauptstätter Tor, 40 to 50 men greeted the Duchess. Since the wife was too exhausted from the long carriage ride, the state estates and city delegates were not allowed to pay their respects until the next day. The arrival of Johanna Elisabeth was to be announced from Allen pulpits in the duchy. On the 15th In May 1697 she entered Stuttgart in splendor with 44 horses. However The relationship between Eberhard Ludwig and Johanna Elisabeth von Baden-Durlach deteriorated more and more.
Peace of Rijswijk (1697): The War of the Palatinate Succession continued until October 1697. Württemberg itself had been protected by the Epping Lines since 1695. The misery of the war was only put to rest by the Peace of Rijswijk on January 30th. October 1697 an end. Eberhard Ludwig sent the privy councilors Johann Georg von Kulpis and Anton Günther von Heespen to the negotiations. On behalf of the Duke of Württemberg, who did not personally take part in the negotiations, they were supposed to demand the return of the city of Strasbourg to the Holy Roman Empire and a French compensation payment of 8 million guilders. However, the emperor and the Catholic imperial estates rejected this out of consideration for peace being concluded as quickly as possible. After all, Eberhard Ludwig received back the county of Mömpelgard, a Württemberg exclave that was completely surrounded by French territory.
State parliament building of the Württemberg state estates in Stuttgart, built before 1900 by August Federer
First state parliament and conflict with the estates (1698–1699):In the second half of the 1690s, Eberhard Ludwig became more aware of his responsibilities as duke.[20] Especially with regard to the War of the Palatinate Succession, he wanted to ensure a more efficient defense of the country. Since the French conquest of Strasbourg and Alsace, Württemberg has lacked a significant buffer zone. A well-trained standing army was therefore essential for the duke, but the Württemberg estates urged him to forego additional levies in times of peace. At the time of the War of the Palatinate Succession, the chief guardian Friedrich Karl had already passed the levy of the 30th to finance a standing army. Partly required from grain and wine yields.[20] Now, however, there was peace and the estates not only demanded the dissolution of the levy, but also of the entire army. They threatened the Duke that they no longer wanted to cover the costs of the Württemberg army. This meant that there was a need for a state parliament, i.e. a joint meeting of the duke and the estates.
On the 29th. In September 1698, Eberhard Ludwig convened the state parliament. On this occasion, the Duke wanted to show the estates that he did not recognize them as equal political partners. For this purpose he used courtly pomp that was typical of him. In the courtyard of the Old Palace, Stuttgart's main residence, bodyguards dressed in elegant uniforms received the representatives of the estates. The Duke awaited them from a raised dais covered with expensive carpets. His chair was covered in red velvet. At the common table, Eberhard Ludwig also symbolically expressed that he claimed a higher rank than the state estates. The Duke dined - something that had never happened before - at his own table exclusively with his family members. Shortly afterwards he, not the estates, gave the signal for the table to be suddenly dissolved.[20] At 13th. In October 1698, the estates rejected the Duke's demand to retain the standing army, citing the still unpaid war debts. Johann Heinrich Sturm, the senior advisor to the estates, also criticized the fact that the Privy Council was now only subject to the Duke's orders. In fact, Eberhard Ludwig was the first Duke of Württemberg to fill positions on the Privy Council exclusively with favorites he liked, thereby depriving the estates of an important opportunity for influence. Since Eberhard Ludwig could not reach an agreement, he dissolved the state parliament on December 31st. January 1699. It was to remain the only state parliament of his reign. Eberhard Ludwig now levied a military tax without the consent of the estates. When some representatives of the estates then turned to the emperor to have the military tax withdrawn, Eberhard Ludwig managed to intimidate the estates by threatening to make arrests. At the same time, in his role as summus episcopus (head of the church) of Württemberg, he passed a law according to which Württemberg clergy had to take an oath upon their appointment not to appeal to authorities outside the duchy. In this way, Eberhard Ludwig was able to prematurely block complaints from the estates to the emperor. The standing army was not disbanded either.
One of the greatest achievements of Eberhard Ludwig's politics was the acceptance of reformed or Calvinist religious refugees from the Kingdom of France and the Duchy of Savoy. As a Catholic monarch, Louis XIV aspired to of France, in addition to political unity, also the religious unity of the state. A gradual disenfranchisement of the French Protestants, the so-called Huguenots, was followed by open persecution from 1679 onwards. The French king's dragoons occupied the houses of the Huguenots in order to force them to convert to Catholicism. On the 18th In October 1685, Louis XIV announced the Edict of Fontainebleau. In twelve short paragraphs, the edict decided on the destruction of Protestant churches, the ban on private church services, as well as the galley punishment for men and fortress imprisonment for women who refused to change their denomination. Faced with the loss of their civil rights, many Huguenots tried to flee. Under the pressure of Louis XIV. In 1686, the Duke of Savoy, Victor Amadeus II, also banned the Reformed confession in the Waldensian valleys in Piedmont. The so-called Waldensians were expelled from the duchy in 1687 unless they converted to Catholicism.
The reception of the Huguenots and Waldensians in Württemberg had long been hampered by the strict Evangelical Lutheran attitude of the estates, the church, the Privy Council and the senior guardian Friedrich Karl. Internally, Eberhard Ludwig did not tolerate the Calvinism of the religious refugees either. However, in order to ensure the rapid reconstruction of his country, which had been destroyed by the Thirty Years' War and the War of the Palatinate Succession, he considered toleration for reasons of state. Such a population policy or Princely controlled settlement policy was in the 17th century. Century quite typical. In order to lure Waldensians and Huguenots into his duchy, Eberhard Ludwig resorted to privileges. In a privilege from the 4th In September 1699 he promised religious freedom, the public use of the French language and the establishment of independent communities governed by the religious refugees themselves. Mayors and local councilors were allowed to be elected by the Waldensians themselves. According to the Duke's orders, they did not initially have to organize themselves into guilds, which amounted to temporary freedom of trade. 2,000 religious refugees were admitted in this way in 1699.[23] The refugees introduced the potato to Württemberg. New professions emerged such as watchmakers, silk weavers, wigmakers, hatters and perfumery dealers. These luxury goods found rich buyers, especially at the Stuttgart and later Ludwigsburg courts. For further support, Eberhard Ludwig issued an edict in 1720 that provided for a Waldensian deputation. Through this organization, the Waldensians were able to regulate their religious and cultural affairs until 1823.
Although there was no significant economic upswing outside of Stuttgart and Ludwigsburg, ie without direct support from the ducal court, due to the limited technical and financial conditions, the admission of the Huguenots and Waldensians was a significant long-term gain for the duchy. In the area of textile processing, the Huguenots built knitting machines for the first time, and the Waldensians ran stocking weaving workshops. Silk production failed due to the climate. The production of fine wool, also known as the “Golden Fleece”, was later achieved using breeding sheep purchased from the Waldensian Josef Clapier.
Introduction of the Gregorian calendar (1700): From 1582 to 1699, two ways of counting time side by side were common in the Holy Roman Empire; the Julian and Gregorian calendars. Since the reform of the faulty Julian calendar by Pope Gregory XIII. The Lutheran Duchy of Württemberg had stuck to the Julian calendar, while in Catholic Upper Austria, which bordered Württemberg in the south, the Gregorian calendar was introduced as early as 1582. This resulted in a difference of ten calendar days between the two territories around the year 1700. In order to end the temporal confusion, Eberhard Ludwig issued a decree on the 14th. November 1699 a general rescript according to which the counting of time should be adapted to the current state of science. In 1700 he recognized the decision of the Perpetual Reichstag in Regensburg and officially introduced the Gregorian calendar in Württemberg. On the 18th February immediately followed the 1st. March 1700. A uniform calendar now applied throughout the Holy Roman Empire.
Period of the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714):During his military career, Eberhard Ludwig was drawn into a conflict between the major European powers at the turn of the century, the so-called War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714). On the 1st In November 1700, the Spanish King Charles II, who came from the Habsburg dynasty, died. He had named Philip V of Anjou, the grandson of his brother-in-law Louis XIV, in his will. of France, appointed as successor. Dynastically, however, the Austrian Habsburgs under Emperor Leopold I saw themselves as the only legitimate successors to the Spanish throne. After Louis XIV. After Philip V was installed as Spanish king and took possession of the Spanish possession of Milan, Leopold I sent an army to northern Italy with which he began the War of the Spanish Succession. In the Hague Grand Alliance of 7. September 1701, with the support of Wilhelm III, Austria secured itself. of Orange the military support of the Netherlands and England. Eberhard Ludwig, like the Franconian and Swabian imperial circles, initially wanted to remain neutral in this conflict between the great powers; they had had too bad experiences with the emperor in the Peace of Rijswijk.[29] Eberhard Ludwig was still angry that his essential demands had not been addressed in the peace treaty. However, when he heard about negotiations with the Bavarian Elector Maximilian II. Emmanuel with Louis XIV. heard, he feared another French march through his duchy. In order to bind the duke to himself, Emperor Leopold I appointed him imperial lieutenant general field marshal in May 1702. At this point, however, Eberhard Ludwig had not yet played an important military role. In order to gain military prestige, Eberhard Ludwig transferred government affairs in Stuttgart to the Privy Council in June 1702 so that he could devote himself entirely to the campaign. A few days after the successful conquest of the Landau Fortress by Margrave Ludwig Wilhelm of Baden-Baden, the war situation in Württemberg changed: Since the Bavarian Elector Maximilian II. Emmanuel on the 10th September 1702, as feared, an alliance with Louis XIV. Württemberg found itself in a strategically difficult position between Bavaria and France. If the French troops reached Bavaria, they could have used it as a staging area towards Vienna. At this point it could be decisive for the war To prevent the unification of the Bavarian and French armies. To protect his country, Eberhard Ludwig increased his armed forces with a one-thousand-strong rural militia made up of volunteers. In order to be able to maintain an even larger army in view of the constant threat to Württemberg, he concluded a subsidy treaty with the States General of the United Provinces of the Netherlands.[30] The States General covered the 15,000 thaler costs for 4,000 men, a grenadier regiment, two infantry regiments and a dragoon regiment. This temporarily eased the Duke's precarious financial situation. The turning point in the war was on the 13th. June 1704 in Großheppach. The three most important military leaders (the Duke of Marlborough, Prince Eugene of Savoy and Margrave Ludwig Wilhelm) met there to discuss their next steps. Eberhard Ludwig was also present, but was not included in the discussions. In the Second Battle of Höchstädt, Eberhard Ludwig led August 1704, part of the cavalry on the right wing. There he contributed to the decisive victory over the Bavarian and French troops. The Bavarian Elector had to flee to France and the threat to Württemberg was averted. Eberhard Ludwig also personally took part in several battles on the Upper Rhine. After the death of Margrave Ludwig Wilhelm of Baden-Baden, the emperor appointed the duke on January 4th. In June 1707 he was appointed field marshal of the Swabian Imperial District. Eberhard Ludwig did not take part in the major battles of the next few years in northern Italy and the Netherlands. He had the thankless task of keeping watch on the southwestern border of the empire, which was not always possible given the weakness of the units available. In the following years, Eberhard Ludwig completed a brilliant military career, which led to his appointment as commander-in-chief of the Army of the Rhine.
Change to the coat of arms (1705): In order to underline his claims to an increase in rank to elector, Eberhard Ludwig had changes made to the Württemberg coat of arms in 1705. The reason for this was the dispute with the Electorate of Hanover over the leadership of the Reich Storm Flag.[32] This high military badge of the Holy Roman Empire was originally worn in war by a mounted knight, most recently by the Counts of Markgröningen. In 1336 the county of Markgröningen became a fiefdom of the Counts of Württemberg, and the Reichssturmfahne became their property. At the Reichstag in Worms in 1495, this office was permanently confirmed to the Dukes of Württemberg. The Dukes of Württemberg carried the Imperial Storm Flag relatively indistinctly in their coat of arms until 1705 (see Figure Coat of Arms 1; black imperial eagle on a white background). Only since Hanover's newly created electorate in 1692 was traditionally tied to the assumption of an arch office, a purely symbolic court office with the emperor, did Ernst August of Hanover demand the imperial storm flag for himself.[32] However, Eberhard Ludwig managed to maintain this dignity against Hanover. So that no one would question his claim to the title, which brought him very close to becoming an elector, the Württemberg coat of arms was renewed (see figure coat of arms 2).[33] The four large fields of the coat of arms, each representing a territory of the Duchy of Württemberg, were moved up, although the substantive motifs were not changed. The only exception was the red-clad “Heidenkopf” (bottom right), which stood for the town of Heidenheim an der Brenz, which had belonged to Württemberg since 1448. The city's heraldry did not appear in the previous coat of arms. The barbs (bottom left) stood for the county of Mömpelgard, which was ruled by a dynastic branch of the duke until 1723.[33] The eagle (top right) served as a symbol for the Reich Storm Flag or Rule over the county of Markgröningen. The yellow and black diamond pattern (top left) stood for the Duchy of Teck, which fell to Württemberg in 1495. The family coat of arms of the dynasty was arranged between the four large fields, symbolically binding the various territories of the duchy together.
Beginning of the relationship with Wilhelmine von Grävenitz (1706): In his marriage to Johanna Elisabeth von Baden-Durlach, which was concluded for reasons of state, Eberhard Ludwig did not find the happiness in love that he had hoped for. Johanna Elisabeth did not correspond to the ideal of beauty of the time, was often ill and adhered to a strict Christian view of life. Hardly after the heir to the throne, Friedrich Ludwig, was conceived in 1698, he neglected his self-confident wife in favor of changing love affairs. These relationships with his mistresses generally did not last long. Only Wilhelmine von Grävenitz managed, after a short interruption, to bind the duke to her for 25 years. The 20-year-old Grävenitz came from a noble family in Altmark. Her grandfather and initially also her father had held high court and state offices in the service of the Mecklenburg dukes in Schwerin before the family entered the Württemberg service in 1706. The most powerful man in Württemberg after the Duke, Court Marshal Johann Friedrich von Staffhorst, immediately recognized the beautiful and intellectually gifted Wilhelmine von Grävenitz as a tool with which he could distract the Duke from his government business.[36] The Duke, who was employed by his mistress, would then have given him, Staffhorst, a free hand in politics. In order to arouse the Duke's interest in Grävenitz as quickly as possible, Staffhorst ordered his wife to equip Grävenitz with the necessary wardrobe and to prepare her for the manners in Stuttgart's Old Palace. Eberhard Ludwig was quickly impressed by the tall woman with her gallant French, her singing skills and her high level of education.[36] The Duke was also impressed by how diplomatically clever Wilhelmine stayed out of the tensions of the competing courtiers and was able to bind groups of people to her. Above all, however, she consistently worked her way into files that concerned Eberhard Ludwig's administrative and governmental affairs. With this knowledge, she was able to serve as a close political advisor to the Duke. Staffhorst now even had to fear for his dominant position at court because of his ambitious mistress. Instead of a short-lived sexual relationship, he had unintentionally created a real love affair, which now largely determined the Duke's political decisions until 1731.
Grävenitz state affair (1707–1710):In order to assure his mistress of his lasting recognition, Eberhard Ludwig planned a double upgrade of his lover in the summer of 1707; once through marriage and once through an increase in rank to Imperial Countess. The Duke initially kept the church marriage secret, which is why the date of the wedding is unknown. Pastor Johann Jakob Pfähler, who at least had a dubious second marriage or After giving his blessing to bigamy, Eberhard Ludwig was promoted to a better-paid church office. Eberhard Ludwig was aware that if his second marriage became known, it would be met with outrage by the population, which was firmly anchored in the Lutheran-Evangelical faith. But even worse would have been the protest of the Württemberg estates and the emperor in Vienna, who together were able to force the duke to abdicate in favor of the dynastic branch. In the perception of the time, the marriage to Wilhelmine von Grävenitz was not the Duke's private affair, but could provoke a national crisis and permanently damage the reputation of the dynasty. Because of his services in the War of the Spanish Succession, which lasted until 1714, Eberhard Ludwig could initially still hope for the emperor's goodwill. Eberhard Ludwig had written to the Emperor asking him to elevate Grävenitz to Imperial Countess, a dignity that he himself could not bestow. At 13th. In November 1707, Eberhard Ludwig gave up the secrecy of his marriage. He wanted to emphasize the full legality of his marriage; After all, Landgrave Philip I of Hesse and Elector Karl Ludwig of the Palatinate had already lived in bigamy. Both cases were tolerated by the emperor. In addition, constitutional lawyers at the University of Halle had claimed that the prince's position above the law was automatically transferred to his mistresses (in Württemberg, bigamy was punishable by death for ordinary people). From Eberhard Ludwig's point of view, his second marriage was legally inviolable. First, an imperial diploma arrived in Stuttgart at the end of December 1707, upgrading Grävenitz's rank in accordance with the ducal request.[38] Since he believed that he would also receive support from the emperor on the marriage issue, the duke had his court marshal Johann Friedrich von Staffhorst dismissed from all his offices. Due to public protests throughout the duchy, Staffhorst had demanded that the duke revise his marriage to Grävenitz.
Johanna Elisabeth von Baden-Durlach, the humiliated wife of Eberhard Ludwig, turned to both her father and the ruling Margrave Friedrich VII. Magnus of Baden-Durlach and the Emperor Joseph I.[38] He also gained the support of Landgrave Karl of Hesse-Kassel and Duke Anton Ulrich of Braunschweig-Wolfenbüttel in the matter. Eberhard Ludwig was unable to cope with the pressure from the imperial princes and the emperor, who asked him to annul his marriage to Grävenitz. If there was further resistance, the emperor could legally have declared imperial ban and deposition over him, which Eberhard Ludwig did not want to risk. On the 18th In June 1708, the second marriage was declared invalid by a specially appointed marriage court. On the 28th. In December 1708, Countess Grävenitz finally left Württemberg to travel into exile in Switzerland. When Eberhard Ludwig and Johanna Elisabeth met in March 1710, the marital conflict was initially resolved.[38]
Founding of the Council of Commerce (1709): Like most princes of the 17th century, Eberhard Ludwig followed his economic policy. Century based on the French model. With a state-controlled economic policy, so-called mercantilism, they tried to increase the performance of their countries. The measures included the export of domestic products and the limitation of the import of foreign goods, e.g. B. through customs duties. According to contemporary ideas, the money would have remained in the country's economic circle and would have increased the purchasing power of the population. Mercantilism was accompanied by the development of so-called manufactories. In contrast to the crafts that had previously been mainly organized in guilds, various professional groups were brought together in order to produce certain finished products in one place and in larger quantities.
In order to ensure that the state intervenes in economic life in the most qualified way possible, Eberhard Ludwig founded the September 1709 the first German Commerce Council. The committee was supposed to advise, establish and manage manufactories, mines, workhouses, postal and road systems. Many economic policy measures during the Duke's reign were initiated by the Council of Commerce, but were supported and implemented by Eberhard Ludwig. This includes, above all, the promotion of viticulture, which was Württemberg's main export to Bavaria and Austria before the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648). Strict punishments were imposed on wine counterfeiters, in one case even the death penalty. An edict from the duke prohibited the pressing of apple and pear cider because this drink reduced the consumption of wine. According to the regulation, apples and pears can only be processed into jam.
Negotiations with France (from 1711): During the War of the Spanish Succession, Eberhard Ludwig pursued two great ambitions; firstly, a territorial expansion and secondly, an elevation of his rank to either Elector or even “King of Franconia”.[41] In 1704, during the fights against the Bavarian Elector, he had already occupied the Wiesensteig estate on the Ostalb, which was surrounded by parts of Württemberg. He hoped to be awarded the Bavarian territory in later peace negotiations as a reward for the emperor's support. To secure his claim to Wiesensteig, Eberhard Ludwig tried to conclude alliances with Prussia and the Electoral Palatinate. With their help, Eberhard Ludwig wanted to achieve the return of Strasbourg and Alsace, as he had done in the War of the Palatinate Succession.
The ambitious desire to improve its rank was linked to the fact that Hanover was able to become an electorate in 1692 and Prussia became a kingdom in 1701.[42] Both received this dignity from the emperor in gratitude for their military support against France. Since the electors elected the emperor, they were able to make important political demands on him in advance. As elector, they enjoyed greater sovereignty, which could have prevented external interference such as in the Grävenitz affair. A higher ruler's title not only served prestige, but could also considerably expand an imperial prince's freedom of action, which was restricted by imperial law. Therefore, for such an increase in rank, Eberhard Ludwig was even prepared to change fronts and rely on the French King Louis XIV. to set. He tried, albeit unsuccessfully, to continue to gain ground by removing imperial princes from the empire. Louis XIV was for this. dependent on concessions to his possible allies. He or she repeatedly did His negotiators made the Duke an offer to get him the Elector's hat and Swabian imperial cities. However, since France was no longer able to achieve any significant successes against the Reich, Eberhard Ludwig soon withdrew his negotiators. Now everything depended on the outcome of the upcoming peace negotiations that took place in 1714.[42]
Return of Grävenitz (1711): The ducal mistress's banishment did not last long.[43] This is primarily due to the clever strategy of the Württemberg legation councilor Johann Heinrich Schütz. He suggested to Eberhard Ludwig that Wilhelmine von Grävenitz, who was now appointed Imperial Countess of Urach, be married in a marriage of convenience to his first minister, the widower Johann Franz Ferdinand Graf von Würben and Freudenthal, who was plagued by guilt lawsuits. Under the guise of this marriage of convenience, Eberhard Ludwig had his lover brought back from exile in Switzerland. Margrave Charles III Wilhelm von Baden-Durlach, the brother of Eberhard Ludwig's actual wife, was prepared to recognize the affront because of the risk of another French invasion. Emperor Joseph I, who had contributed to the escalation of the Grävenitz affair, was on the 17th. Died in April 1711.[43] His successor Charles VI. took a more tolerant attitude towards Eberhard Ludwig's marriage problem. Thanks to these changed external conditions and numerous negotiations, Schütz was able to overcome almost all resistance. As a thank you, he was appointed to the Privy Council by Eberhard Ludwig in 1712 and even raised to the rank of baron in 1717. At court, Eberhard Ludwig demonstratively granted his mistress the representative role of a duchess. From 1715 onwards, the countess resided in the Ludwigsburg residential palace in the apartment that was actually intended for Johanna Elisabeth von Baden-Durlach. She again took on the role of co-regent and advisor to the Duke. It can be considered certain that Eberhard Ludwig rarely made a decision without first hearing their views. At the same time, he demonstrated the absolutist claim that his will and favor alone could determine the rise and fall of the state apparatus. At the urging of his mistress, Eberhard Ludwig even weakened the Privy Council, the highest government authority. Formally, the Privy Council was committed to the Württemberg estates and criticized the Duke's wasteful court. Under the pretext that he could not constantly travel from his residence in Ludwigsburg to the meetings of the Privy Council in Stuttgart, he founded a conference ministry in 1717 that was subordinate to the Duke alone. The Privy Council was increasingly relegated to a function subordinate to the Conference Ministry. The conference ministry was therefore an important step towards the desired princely absolutism. In order to better control his ministers, the Duke ordered in a cabinet order dated January 4th. May 1724, that on Mondays, Wednesdays and Fridays the privy trainee and the assessor of the Conference Ministry had to appear in the Duke's cabinet room. They had to inform Eberhard Ludwig about all government matters and advise him, with the Imperial Countess von Würben also being present.
Navigability of the Neckar (1712–1714):Duke Eberhard Ludwig and his advisors tried to implement the plan to make the Neckar navigable, which was proposed in the middle of the 16th century. At the beginning of the 19th century, Duke Christoph had already persecuted him. However, due to the resistance of the imperial city of Heilbronn, which is independent of Württemberg, the work could mainly only be carried out on Württemberg soil. Since mills and other buildings protruded into the Neckar near Heilbronn, ship travelers were forced to stop in the city. Because of the ultimately unsuccessful negotiations with Heilbronn and Esslingen, work could not begin until 1712. From 1713 the route between Heilbronn and Cannstatt was opened and remained so. In 1716, Eberhard Ludwig ordered that at least two market ships had to sail on the river each week.[46] Despite all the efforts of the Commerce Council and the Duke, shipping on the Neckar proved to be comparatively unprofitable.
Introduction of the income tax (1713): In order to be able to finance the ever-growing court and the army, Eberhard Ludwig was dependent on more efficient taxation. So the Duke put it on the 24th. The so-called Third Tax Instructions issued in January 1713 stipulated that the amount of tax had to be determined based on the respective income or turnover. Previously, the population groups with greater land ownership and income, who were politically more influential thanks to the Württemberg estates, had to pay fewer taxes. However, Eberhard Ludwig was only of secondary concern about a fairer distribution of taxes; the increase in his income achieved in this way was much more important.
Peace of Baden (1714): On 7. In March 1714, the Archduchy of Austria and the Kingdom of France ended the War of the Spanish Succession in the Peace of Rastatt, without, however, making any agreements regarding the imperial princes. This only happened on the 7th. September 1714 in the Peace of Baden. The emperor did not comply with Eberhard Ludwig's demands either: the duke had to return the Wiesensteig estate to Bavaria, forego any increase in his title and recognize that Alsace remained part of France. Thus, all of the Duke's wartime ambitions failed.
Peace period (1714–1733)
Relapse of the County of Mömpelgard (1723): Some parts of the Duchy of Württemberg lay outside the country's borders, such as the County of Mömpelgard, which was surrounded by the French Free County of Burgundy.[48] A dynastic branch of Eberhard Ludwig ruled there. However, his cousin Leopold Eberhard von Württemberg-Mömpelgard died on the 25th. February 1723 without leaving any legitimate successors. The sons, all of whom were conceived out of wedlock and therefore not entitled to inherit, nevertheless laid claim to the government. Eberhard Ludwig had to react if he wanted to unite the county of Mömpelgard with his duchy. He sent his prime minister, Reichsgraf Friedrich Wilhelm von Grävenitz, the brother of his mistress, to the capital Mömpelgard. Since the conservative rural population of the county rejected the mistress regiment of their late sovereign, they were easily won over by the imperial count. The armed farmers finally drove out Leopold Erhard's illegitimate son.[48] Shortly afterwards, Eberhard Ludwig set out for the county with a large entourage to receive homage from the Mömpelgard subjects. With this symbolic act, in which the subjects swore loyalty and the duke guaranteed protection in return, he took possession of the territory. Eberhard Ludwig had thus achieved his only territorial expansion. This success was, of course, very fragile because, unlike in the rest of the duchy, he had to reckon with the fact that the self-confident population could quickly join forces with the French king against him. Eberhard Ludwig therefore did not touch the extensive self-government of the cities in Mömpelgard.
The Prussian host: Friedrich Wilhelm I, portrait created after 1733, artist unknown
Travel and stay at the Prussian court (1731): In order to be able to pursue a more independent policy towards the Archduchy of Austria, Eberhard Ludwig was dependent on the support of the emerging Protestant hegemony in the empire, the Kingdom of Prussia.[49] But there were also close family ties to the Prussian royal family. The elaborate train was intended to reflect Eberhard Ludwig's wishes and his high rank: On the 11th. On May 17, 1731, the Duke set off for the Prussian court in six carriages, each drawn by six stallions. This had a symbolic meaning, as only kings were allowed eight horses. Eberhard Ludwig presented himself as a sovereign who was hardly inferior to kings.[49] The last two carriages were used solely to transport wardrobe, luggage and four servants. Behind the carriages followed countless mounted servants such as cooks, valets and gun rangers. The Duke was received in Potsdam by King Friedrich Wilhelm I. The Prussian monarch honored his guest with hunting events, balls and soldier parades. After a two-week stay, Eberhard Ludwig, who was in poor health, began the arduous journey back. The visit to Potsdam and Berlin was the 55-year-old Duke's last trip.
Confessional political succession problem (1731): Eberhard Ludwig had only fathered a single son, Johanna Elisabeth von Baden-Durlach: Friedrich Ludwig was supposed to guarantee the continued existence of the Stuttgart dynastic line.[50] For this purpose, Eberhard Ludwig had his 18-year-old son married to the great-niece of the Prussian King Friedrich Wilhelm I. In fact, Hereditary Princess Henriette Marie gave birth on the 4th. August 1718 gave birth to a son named Eberhard Friedrich. Because of the high infant mortality rate, the succession to the throne was only apparently secured over two generations. The infant was only granted 563 days. In the mid-1720s his father also began to suffer. He suffered from severe coughing fits and continually lost weight.[50] Eberhard Ludwig showed little empathy for his seriously ill son. In letters he repeatedly urged him to have sexual intercourse. He reminded Henriette Marie of her divine obligation to give birth to an heir to the throne - in vain. Eberhard Ludwig had to realize that the Catholic branch of his cousin Karl Alexander could rule the Evangelical Lutheran duchy in the foreseeable future. Since the Duke and Württemberg subjects belonged to different denominations, the estates feared that Württemberg would be re-Catholicized on the basis of the Peace of Augsburg of 1555. However, the Peace of Westphalia of 1648 had already repealed the unofficial principle of the Peace of Augsburg “cuius regio, eius religio” - whose country, whose religion - according to which the sovereign could determine the denomination of the subjects - and instead wrote the territorial denomination of the “normal year” 1624 in the Holy Roman Empire. From a imperial legal point of view, re-Catholicization was impossible.[51] On the 24th In April 1731, Eberhard Ludwig declared that he wanted to separate from both his mistress and his wife. He wanted to remarry so that he could still have an heir to the throne. He initially refused to reconcile with his wife Johanna Elisabeth von Baden-Durlach to his perplexed ministers, as he still saw his wife in letters as a “punishment imposed on him by God”.[52] The Duke's age supported this decision. At 51, she could hardly be expected to become pregnant. On the other hand, a final one could Divorce from Johanna Elisabeth alienated the Margrave of Baden-Durlach, a strategically important political partner for the Duchy of Württemberg. Eberhard Ludwig was also known at the royal courts for his scandalous love life. For this reason, it was not possible to establish a new marriage. If he wanted to prevent Karl Alexander from ascending the throne, he ultimately had to reconcile with Johanna Elisabeth. On the 30th In June 1731, Eberhard Ludwig and Johanna Elisabeth agreed on a reconciliation treaty.[53] On the 23rd In November 1731, 32-year-old Friedrich Ludwig collapsed at the lunch table and died that same evening. Ludwig Eberhard had his long-time mistress Wilhelmine von Grävenitz, now Imperial Countess von Würben, imprisoned in Hohenurach Fortress. She was not released until the spring of 1733.[50] In April 1733 she left Württemberg for good.
Introduction of the new Code of Criminal Procedure (1732): which took place on 4. The criminal procedure code issued by Eberhard Ludwig in April 1732 was based on the Constitutio Criminalis Carolina of 1532, which is no longer up to date. It regulated the prosecution of criminals and also the preliminary investigation of criminal offenses. For this purpose, cruel forms of torture were expressly intended as a means of finding the truth.[54] Eberhard Ludwig saw poaching as a particularly serious crime, an encroachment on the noble privilege of hunting. Due to the frequent crop failures, farmers also occasionally shot game. In order to curb this, Eberhard Ludwig concluded a contract with the Republic of Venice, which enabled him to sentence poachers to galley sentences and to hand them over to the Venetian authorities for punishment. The people from Württemberg who were sentenced to galley service usually died of exhaustion before they were allowed to return.
Debt and function of the court: With expenses for the construction of the residential palace in Ludwigsburg, the standing army and the greatly expanded ducal central authorities, Eberhard Ludwig greatly expanded the economic performance of his duchy. The court alone consumed a quarter of state expenditure between 1714 and 1733. For comparison: With Louis XIV. In 1678 the court accounted for “only” 23% of state expenditure. In 1775, 42 years after Eberhard Ludwig's death, the deceased's unpaid debts amounted to one million guilders. However, high national debt was not an isolated phenomenon in the Baroque era, as imperial princes such as Eberhard Ludwig were inspired by cultural competition.[56] The sociologist Norbert Elias on Louis XIV. The applied rule theory that the court had the task of domesticating the nobility by involving them in the monarch's bureaucracy and army can, however, only be applied to Württemberg to a limited extent. In Württemberg there was no notable local nobility, but through the promotion of “non-countryside” or With noble families not from Württemberg at his court, the duke tried to establish a political counterweight to the estates dominated by the bourgeoisie that depended on his favor. The Conference Ministry, which replaced the Privy Council as the highest government body, was now only occupied by nobles who owed their calling and position solely to the Duke. At the end of Eberhard Ludwig's reign, the influence of the estates was significantly weakened, but not completely broken.
Death (1733):
Until his death, Eberhard Ludwig left no successor. Although he spread rumors that his wife was pregnant in 1732, this was purely his wishful thinking. The doctors had to make their uncertain diagnosis without a physical examination. They only had urine samples and the external impression of the 52-year-old Duchess. Still on the 12th On August 17, 1732, the Duke ordered the fortress commanders of Hohentübingen, Hohentwiel, Urach and Neuffen to prepare fireworks to mark his wife's imminent birth. Sufficient saltpeter and powder should be kept ready. On the 23rd In August 1732 he gave precise instructions for baptism. Only when the hired wet nurses asked him to leave the court did the Duke realize that with him the main dynastic line would die out. – The Duke’s health quickly declined. On the 31st In October 1733 he died of a stroke. The Württemberg throne went to Karl Alexander from the Württemberg-Winnental branch.
Culture and art
Foundation of the Hubertus Order: On 2. In November 1702, Eberhard Ludwig founded the first Württemberg order, the Hubertus Order. The knightly community was named after the patron saint of hunting, Saint Bishop Hubertus of Liège, and was intended to promote the Duke's rank. However, only regional princes such as the Margrave of Baden-Durlach, the Prince of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen and the Margrave of Bayreuth joined the order. Otherwise, the award was limited to the Württemberg court nobility. The court knights had to wear the order on their person every day. In case of violation, even the duke had to punish the commander with a shotgun and the observer with pistols, as well as ten guilders for the poor. The first meeting of knights took place on March 3rd. November 1704 at the Erlachhof, the nucleus of the later Ludwigsburg residential palace.
Hunting: Since the Middle Ages, hunting has been considered a privilege of princes and nobles. From the perspective of the nobility, it originally fulfilled three functions: firstly, to protect agriculture from damage caused by game, secondly to shoot down predators such as wolves and bears and thirdly to procure food.[59] By the time of Eberhard Ludwig, hunting had developed into a popular leisure activity and a courtly form of display of patriarchal strength and endurance. Hares, wild boars, deer and foxes were hunted into enclosures and Eberhard Ludwig was put to death. The Duke's shooting results were accurately reflected in hunting directories. In the two winters of 1731 and 1732 he is said to have killed 20,000 animals.[60] The duke had good qualities for hunting: he was a good rider and charioteer.
Founding of Ludwigsburg: As was common in Allen Western and Central European royal courts, Eberhard Ludwig modeled himself on the French model of the Palace of Versailles. He adopted not only the architectural ideas of Versailles, but also the French language, fashion and etiquette. When the Duke visited the court of Louis XIV in 1700 during his Grand Tour. visited, he traveled strictly incognito with a small entourage. He avoided an audience with the French king because of his experiences in the War of the Palatinate Succession, which had devastated his Duchy of Württemberg. The Duke of Württemberg only admired the unrestrictedly ruling Sun King as a patron of the arts. The successful military career in the War of the Spanish Succession further increased Eberhard Ludwig's self-confidence. Like the Sun King with Versailles and Ludwig Wilhelm of Baden-Baden with Rastatt, he now also wanted to have a large residence built at the gates of his capital. From his point of view, this residence, for which the foundation stone was laid in 1704, was politically necessary in order to underpin his claims to the electorate on the one hand and territorial rounding off on the other.[62] Since he achieved both ambitions just mentioned in the first decade of the 18th century. The Ludwigsburg Residence was supposed to compensate for these political failures. This expressed Eberhard Ludwig's desire to see his political defeats as only temporary setbacks through the architectural demonstration of strength.[62] The costs and burdens on his subjects played no role in the realization of these plans. The population of the surrounding region had to do forced labor to build the castle, regardless of whether the work happened during the grain and hay harvest season. Since many farmers and winegrowers arrived at the construction site too late or even escaped, the Duke approved cruel punishments, such as temporarily being chained to cart wheels. Since the Duke had no overall concept or did not allow the development of a construction plan, the costs of the castle exploded. The construction cost a total of over three million guilders.
The city of Ludwigsburg developed later. From 1711 onwards, Eberhard Ludwig stayed there more and more often, usually in the company of his long-time mistress Wilhelmine von Grävenitz. In 1718, Eberhard Ludwig and she together moved the residence from Stuttgart to Ludwigsburg and made the still sparsely populated planned city the capital of the duchy. Duchess Johanna Elisabeth of Baden-Durlach stayed in Stuttgart Palace.
Court ceremonies: Eberhard Ludwig's everyday life was strictly regulated by court ceremonies. In winter the Duke was woken up at 6 a.m. and in summer at 7 a.m. by his valet, who slept in the same room as Eberhard Ludwig. In addition to the valet, the black wolfhound Melac also slept in the immediate vicinity of the Duke. According to reports from the courtiers, the animal, resting on a tiger skin, was said to have behaved very suspiciously towards strangers and thus made the ideal “last body guard”.[64] In this regard, he is also named after the French general Ezéchiel de Mélac. During the War of the Palatinate Succession, he blew up Heidelberg Castle and caused many arsons. When Eberhard Ludwig got up, the morning ceremony of the Lever began, which Eberhard Ludwig took over from the Palace of Versailles. At this point, high-ranking ministers, generals and family members had already arrived. Chamberlains, court and chamberlains were entrusted with serving the Duke (dressing, warming up, adjusting and emptying the morning toilet). On this occasion, the court nobility could for the first time address a familiar word to the monarch, a situation in which positions or ranks could be gained or lost. Eberhard Ludwig's bedroom was the innermost room.[65] Gradually fewer and fewer people were allowed into the rooms in front of them (antechamber, audience room, hall of mirrors). In this way, rank relationships and also the Duke's favor were emphasized. Eberhard Ludwig took care of government business until 11 a.m., receiving presentations and advice from his ministers. Only with his signature could the state authorities bring laws and regulations into force. The luncheon began at 11 a.m., which, like Lever, required all important courtiers to be present. For this purpose, the Duke expanded his partly gold-plated tableware through expensive purchases abroad, as he distrusted the local arts and crafts. The composition and seating arrangement of the ducal dinner party, and even the allocation of free seats, was meticulously laid down in the court regulations of 1702 and 1730. The circle of people consisted of Eberhard Ludwig's closest family members, holders of high court and government offices, military men, at times his mistress and a few ladies who were not described by name. Foreign visitors received the privilege of dining at the Duke's table. However, anyone who could not show any significant ancestry was only granted this ducal favor once. If he stayed longer, he had to make do with the marshal's table.
In the afternoon, people went on sleigh or wagon trips into the surrounding area, went hunting, or took part in board games or social gatherings. The fixed daily routine meant that Eberhard Ludwig longed for variety, for which he had his chief master of ceremonies organize magnificent celebrations (balls, fireworks, operas and theater performances). On 100 days a year alone, the Duke was entertained by dramas and comedies in the theater.
Reception: The Duke's historical assessment is ambivalent. To some extent, historians share the opinion of his contemporaries that the duke vastly overestimated himself and the possibilities of his territory. He left behind a corrupt government system and an enormous mountain of debt. In addition, personal weakness was responsible for the fact that his mistress Christina Wilhelmina von Grävenitz was able to gain at least some political influence. On the other hand, it was precisely the courtly effort in the political theory of the 17th century. and 18. Century an indispensable part of political self-expression. In addition, during his reign the tax system was reformed, manufactories were promoted, new businesses were established in Württemberg with the acceptance of Huguenots, and the permanent existence of a standing army was enforced. Although not all of these political and economic measures were initiated by the Duke's direct initiative, he did support their implementation and enforce them.