Casuistry, Virtue and Business Ethics brings together three important processes for business ethics: casuistry, virtue ethics and the business case method. In doing so, it considers the overlap and synergy of casuistry and virtue ethics, the similarities and differences of casuistry and the business case method and the relationships between emerging and well-established cases. The goal of the book is twofold: to provide a distinctly practical method for moral decision-making within the context of business and to illustrate how contemporary vexing issues are similar to those of the past and how they might be resolved satisfactorily.
PREFACE........................................................................................................................... i
OVERVIEW....................................................................................................................... 9
PART 1: BUILDING A CASUISTRY FOR BUSINESS.............................................. 11
- Chapter 1: Features and History -........................................................................... 12
Characteristics of Case-based Reasoning...................................................................................................... 12
History of Casuistry........................................................................................................................................... 21
Ancient Greek Casuistry.............................................................................................................................. 21
Hebrew Casuistry.......................................................................................................................................... 23
Christian Casuistry........................................................................................................................................ 28
- Chapter 2: Casuistry versus Ethical Pluralism with Applied Principles -............... 34
Conventional Approach: Ethical Pluralism with Embedded Applied Principles..................................... 34
Benefits of Applied Principles Approaches.............................................................................................. 35
Shortcomings of Applied Principles Approaches..................................................................................... 37
- Chapter 3: Normativity and Analogy in Casuistry -................................................ 40
Normativity's Different Locations in Moral Reasoning.............................................................................. 40
Analogy as Reasoning Process versus Tool for Principle Formation and Validation............................ 42
- Chapter 4: The Role of Principles in Casuistry -..................................................... 48
Principles and the Proper End of Ethics.......................................................................................................... 48
The Place of Principles in Casuistry................................................................................................................ 51
- Chapter 5: Reflective Equilibrium and Casuistry -.................................................. 54
Reflective Equilibrium....................................................................................................................................... 54
Narrow Reflective Equilibrium......................................................................................................................... 55
Wide Reflective Equilibrium............................................................................................................................. 57
Reflective Equilibrium and Casuistry's Similarities and Differences........................................................ 60
Similarities...................................................................................................................................................... 60
Differences..................................................................................................................................................... 65
Weighing the Disparities............................................................................................................................... 73
- Chapter 6: Criticisms of Casuistry -......................................................................... 75
Aimless and Lacking Moral Force................................................................................................................... 77
Unstructured........................................................................................................................................................ 78
Casuistry's Logic and Dynamics................................................................................................................ 79
Conventional and Insular................................................................................................................................. 81
Arbitrary Taxonomies and Paradigmatic Cases........................................................................................... 85
The Structure and Dynamics of Casuistry's Taxonomies..................................................................... 85
Subjective Naming of Paradigm Cases..................................................................................................... 87
From Paradigm to Marginal Case: The Ford Pinto Case....................................................................... 89
Lax and Prone to Equivocation....................................................................................................................... 92
A) Catholic Concerns with Casuistic Caginess: Blaise Pascal versus The Jesuits............................. 92
B) Protestantism Chimes In: Concerns with Casuistry's Link to Authority....................................... 97
Equivocation in Principle-Based Methods: Bill Clinton versus the American People...................... 98
Modern Trends Toward Other Approaches................................................................................................. 103
The Conflation of Ethics and Law.......................................................................................................... 104
- Chapter 7: Casuistry's Revival in Medicine and Now, Business -......................... 108
Clinical Ethics: Casuistry's Restoration Begins.......................................................................................... 109
Elsewhere: Casuistry's Revival Continues.................................................................................................. 111
Casuistry and Law, Computer Ethics, and Journalism........................................................................ 111
Casuistry and Business-Medicine Comparisons................................................................................... 112
Casuistry and Business: The Road Ahead............................................................................................. 114
PART 2: VIRTUE ETHICS IN THE CONTEXT OF BUSINESS............................ 116
- Chapter 8: Aristotle's Virtue Ethics -..................................................................... 117
Background and Influence............................................................................................................................ 118
General Features of Virtue Ethics.................................................................................................................. 119
The Final Good End and Striving for Perfection................................................................................... 120
Habits that Define...................................................................................................................................... 123
Flow State and Flourishing in the Present............................................................................................... 124
Moderation and the Shifting Golden Mean........................................................................................... 125
Virtue and Personal Integration: The Competitive Runner................................................................ 128
Aspiration and Nature's Limits................................................................................................................ 129
The Social Aspects of Virtue..................................................................................................................... 131
Summary: General Virtue......................................................................................................................... 134
Application to Business: The Tylenol Crisis and Virtue-based Management................................. 135
The Particular Virtues...................................................................................................................................... 139
Prudence....................................................................................................................................................... 141
Practical Wisdom and the Final Good End....................................................................................... 145
Example: The Prudent Runner........................................................................................................... 145
A Goal in Itself....................................................................................................................................... 146
Prudence's Place in Business............................................................................................................... 147
Moral Prescience.................................................................................................................................... 148
Summary: Prudence............................................................................................................................. 150
Justice............................................................................................................................................................ 150
The Complete Virtue............................................................................................................................. 150
A Social Virtue....................................................................................................................................... 152
The Organizing Virtue........................................................................................................................... 156
Summary: Justice.................................................................................................................................. 157
Courage (Fortitude).................................................................................................................................... 158
Confidence: Keen in the Thick of Action But Calm Beforehand................................................ 158
Example: The Courage of the Boxer................................................................................................. 159
Example: The Courage of the Whistleblower.................................................................................. 161
Temperance (Self-Control)....................................................................................................................... 163
Self-Control and Adulthood................................................................................................................ 164
Example: Temperance and Physical Fitness.................................................................................... 165
Other Virtues................................................................................................................................................ 166
Generosity............................................................................................................................................... 167
Magnificence.......................................................................................................................................... 167
High-mindedness................................................................................................................................... 168
Ambition and the Lack of Ambition as the Extremes of an Unnamed Virtue.......................... 169
Gentleness............................................................................................................................................... 169
Friendliness............................................................................................................................................. 169
Truthfulness............................................................................................................................................ 170
Wittiness.................................................................................................................................................. 170
- Chapter 9: Building a Virtue Theory for Business -.............................................. 172
Virtue's Various Expressions.......................................................................................................................... 172
Stoicism........................................................................................................................................................ 173
Influential Moderns.................................................................................................................................... 174
Thomas Hobbes.................................................................................................................................... 175
David Hume........................................................................................................................................... 178
The Virtues of Commerce of Adam Smith................................................................................................. 181
Sympathy of Fellow-Feeling..................................................................................................................... 183
Proper Wealth Acquisition versus Greed................................................................................................. 188
Prudence and Assiduity............................................................................................................................. 190
Justice and Natural Jurisprudence........................................................................................................... 190
Universal Benevolence or Social Sympathy.......................................................................................... 192
Comparison: Smith and Aristotle on Virtue in General....................................................................... 195
Comparison: Smith and Aristotle on Particular Virtues....................................................................... 200
Virtues Specific to Commerce.................................................................................................................. 206
- Chapter 10: Virtue Ethics' Value -......................................................................... 212
Virtue Ethics' Strengths and Weaknesses.................................................................................................... 212
Strengths....................................................................................................................................................... 214
Weaknesses.................................................................................................................................................. 221
PART 3: OVERLAPS AND SYNERGIES OF METHODS....................................... 231
- Chapter 11: The Synergy of Casuistry and Virtue Ethics -................................... 232
Casuistry and Virtue Ethics' Similarities...................................................................................................... 232
Casuistry and Virtue Ethics' Differences..................................................................................................... 240
Casuistry-imbued Virtue Ethics versus Virtue-imbued Casuistry............................................................ 247
Virtue-imbued Casuistry's Synergies............................................................................................................ 248
Synergy of Strengths.................................................................................................................................. 248
Synergy of Offsetting Limitations........................................................................................................... 257
- Chapter 12: Bringing Casuistry and the Business Case Method Together -......... 263
Casuistry and Cases in Business................................................................................................................... 263
The Business Case and Case Method.......................................................................................................... 265
The Business Case...................................................................................................................................... 265
The Business Case Method....................................................................................................................... 270
The Business Case Method and Casuistry Compared.............................................................................. 273
Similarities.................................................................................................................................................... 273
Differences................................................................................................................................................... 276
Synergies: Bringing the Methods Together.................................................................................................. 279
Conclusion................................................................................................................................................... 287
PART 4: USING VIRTUE-IMBUED CASUISTRY IN BUSINESS PRACTICE.... 288
- Chapter 13: Breaking Stalemates: Using the Method to Upset the Genetically Modified Foods Impasse - 290
Background: Building to a Stalemate.......................................................................................................... 291
Proponents' Arguments............................................................................................................................. 293
Opponents' Arguments.............................................................................................................................. 296
Entrenching the Stalemate............................................................................................................................. 302
Defusing the Stalemate................................................................................................................................... 308
Limping Toward Resolution........................................................................................................................... 316
- Chapter 14: Cases Can Caution: Polio Eradication, Risk Exposure, and the Smallpox Case as Precedence -..................................................................................................................................... 320
Goal: Eradicating Polio................................................................................................................................... 321
Smallpox: A Cautionary Tale........................................................................................................................ 322
Killing a Deadly Disease............................................................................................................................ 323
Systematic Destruction.............................................................................................................................. 324
Gone But Not Forgotten............................................................................................................................ 326
An Effective Bioweapon........................................................................................................................... 327
Playing Catch-up........................................................................................................................................ 328
Lessons From a Near-miss.............................................................................................................................. 330
Polio Eradication in Perspective.................................................................................................................... 332
- Chapter 15: Risk Exposure: Using Cases in Strategies Involving an Aging Medication - 335
Background: Tamoxifen Therapy................................................................................................................ 337
A Therapy With Risks................................................................................................................................ 339
Longstanding and Profitable.................................................................................................................... 341
Assessing the Risk Exposure of an Aging Drug........................................................................................... 343
Step One: Weighing Losses Against Profits............................................................................................ 343
Step Two: Recognizing That Something is Missing.............................................................................. 345
Step Three: Augmenting With Cases....................................................................................................... 347
Problems and Opportunities With Case Use in Business........................................................................... 350
Impediments to Case Use in Business.................................................................................................... 350
Overcoming the Impediments to Case Use in Business....................................................................... 353
Criticisms of Using Ethics as a Tool of Risk Management................................................................. 354
Going Forward.................................................................................................................................................. 356
- Chapter 16: Risk Management: Capturing the Right Situation with Prudent Case Use in Scenario-based Modeling -................................................................................................................... 360
>Models->Cases......................................................................................... 361
Sliding Toward Numbers........................................................................................................................... 362
What Has Been Helpful and What Is Missing...................................................................................... 363
Case: Home Health Corporation.................................................................................................................. 364
Background: Home Health Corporation............................................................................................... 364
The Big Question: To Pay or Not To Pay For Overtime...................................................................... 365
The Deterministic Approach..................................................................................................................... 366
The Upset of a New Competitor.............................................................................................................. 369
The Stochastic Approach.......................................................................................................................... 370
Strategy and Modeling.................................................................................................................................... 374
Strategy As a Guiding Process.................................................................................................................. 375
Descriptive Modeling: A Two-dimensional Snapshot.......................................................................... 377
Stochastic Modeling: A Three-dimensional Hologram........................................................................ 378
Strategic Prescience.......................................................................................................................................... 381
The Importance of Prudence in Case Selection......................................................................................... 382
Prudent Elders as Key to Effective Strategy.......................................................................................... 382
The Importance of Business Cases in Strategizing............................................................................... 383
Complications Inhibiting Case Use in Business.................................................................................... 384
- Chapter 17: Going Forward: Developing a Workable Virtue-imbued Casuistry for Business - 386
What Has Been Done...................................................................................................................................... 386
What Remains To Be Done........................................................................................................................... 388
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS........................................................................................... 391
APPENDIX.................................................................................................................... 393
NAME INDEX............................................................................................................... 397
BUSINESS/INSTITUTION INDEX............................................................................ 400
SUBJECT INDEX......................................................................................................... 401
WORKS CITED............................................................................................................. 406
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