Sir Krishna Govinda Gupta
1851-1926
prominent Bengali social reformer

Original autograph letter on Ballabrooie, High Ground, Bangalore headed paper dated 14 July 1923

wondering "what the members of the British Consular Services do. Do they keep their eyes shut to what goes on around them?"

Letter closed & signed by Gupta

1 horizontal & 1 vertical original mailing folds. Several annotations and markings.




























Sir Krishna Govinda Gupta (Bengali: স্যার কৃষ্ণগোবিন্দ গুপ্ত), (28 February 1851 - 20 March 1926) KCSI ICS, was a noted Indian Statesman, the sixth Indian member of the Indian Civil Service, a Barrister-at-Law, a prominent Bengali social reformer of 19th Century and leading Brahmo Samaj personality.

Parents: Kali Narayan Gupta and Annada Sundari Gupta (daughter of Madhab Chandra Sen)
Wife: Prasanna Tara Gupta (daughter of Nabin Chandra Das)
Brothers: Peari Mohun Gupta; Ganga Gobindo Gupta; Binoy Chandra Gupta
Sisters: Subala Gupta; Bimala Das; Hemanta Sashi Sen; Soudamini Das; Chapala Dutta; Sarala Das;
Son: Jatindra Chandra Gupta; BR> Daughters: Hem Kusum Sen (wife of Atul Prasad Sen); Saraju Sen; Ila Gupta; Nalini Gupta (wife of Sir Albion Rajkumar Banerjee, ICS)

Krishna Govinda Gupta was born in Bhatpara village, Sadar Police Station, Narsingdi district, near Dhaka, presently located in Bangladesh. His father was Kali Narayan Gupta, a landlord of Bhatpara, and an eminent person in Brahmin dominated society. His early education was carried out at Mymensingh Government School and Dacca College. Later, he joined the University College, London where he successfully took the Open Competitive Examination standing 2nd in the final examination. He became the 7th Indian member of the Indian Civil Service, joining the service as a probationer in 1871 coming out to India in 1873. He was also called to the Bar by The Honourable Society of the Middle Temple.

In the British occupied India appointment to all covenanted posts were reserved for the Britishers only. The posts of Munsif and Sadar Amin were created and opened to Indians in 1832. In 1833, the posts of deputy magistrate and deputy collector were created and opened to Indians. The ICS Act of 1861 established the Indian Civil Service. The Act of 1853 had already established the practice of recruiting covenanted civilians through competitive examinations. Even after these, it was extremely difficult for any Indian to go to England and compete with the British for a position. Satyendranath Tagore (elder brother of Rabindranath Tagore), along with Monomohun Ghose took upon this daunting task and set sail for England in 1862 to prepare for and compete in the civil service examinations. Satyendranath was selected, as the first Indian, for the Indian Civil Service in June, 1863. He completed his probationary training and returned to India in November 1864. Monomohun Ghose did not succeed in the examination for the ICS but was called to the bar.

Krishna Govinda Gupta appeared in the Indian Civil Service examination in 1871 in London and became a probationer. He joined Civil Service on 24 October 1873 as Assistant Magistrate and Collector, being the sixth Indian to join ICS up to that time.

Successively he served in the special duty of controlling famine in Bengal and Bihar during 1873-74; became joint magistrate and deputy collector in 1884; appointed as Secretary, Board of Revenue in 1887; became magistrate and collector in 1889; appointed as the junior secretary to the Board of Revenue in 1990; became the commissioner of excise in March 1893; and acted as the divisional commissioner of Burdwan in 1901. He was the first Indian to be appointed as Member, Board of Revenue in 1904. He then became a member of the Indian Excise Committee in 1905 and was on special duty in connection with the Fisheries of Bengal in 1906.

It was a report submitted by Krishna Govinda in 1906, on the potential of fisheries in Bengal, while he was a member of the Excice Committee, that paved the way of creation of the Department of Fisheries in the Government of Bengal in 1908. Encouragement in cultivation of inland fisheries, prawn and other water based farming etc. were a government prerogative since that time. The legacy is still continuing for the fish loving Bengalis in both India and Bangladesh till the present.

In 25 July 1907, Krishna Govinda Gupta along with Dr. Syed Hussain Bilgrami became the first Indian to be nominated as member of the Secretary of State's Council of India. Later he was also appointed as a member of Lord Esher's Army in India Committee in 1920.

Satyendranath Tagore (1842 - 1923), an ICS of 1963, was a close associate of Krishna Govinda in his socio literary activities. Taraknath Palit, Monomohun Ghose, Satyendra Prasanna Sinha, Bihari Lal Gupta and Krishna Govinda Gupta were some of the regular participants among the eminent stalwarts of the then Bengal in the majlis (discussions) arranged from time to time in Satyendranath's house in Park Street and Ballygunge.

Member, India Council, London; b. Bhatpara, Dacca, 1851; e.s. of Kali Narayan Gupta; m. 1866, Prasannatara, d. of Nabin Chandra Das (d. 1908); educ: Mymensing Government School; Dacca College; London University College; joined I.C.S., 1873; Secretary, Board of Revenue, 1887; Commissioner of Excise, 1893; Divisional Commissioner, 1901; Member, Board of Revenue, 1904, (the first Indian to hold that appointment in all India); Member, Indian Excise Committee, 1905; on special duty in connection with the Fisheries of Bengal, 1906; deputed to Europe and America to carry on fishery investigation, 1907; nominated to the India Council, 1907; is one of the two Indians who were for the first time appointed to that office; called to Bar (Middle Temple). Address: India Office, Whitehall, S.W. Clubs: National Liberal; Calcutta.



Brahmo Samaj, (Sanskrit: “Society of Brahma”)Brahmo also spelled Brahma, theistic movement within Hinduism, founded in Calcutta [now Kolkata] in 1828 by Ram Mohun Roy. The Brahmo Samaj does not accept the authority of the Vedas, has no faith in avatars (incarnations), and does not insist on belief in karma (causal effects of past deeds) or samsara (the process of death and rebirth). It discards Hindu rituals and adopts some Christian practices in its worship. Influenced by Islam and Christianity, it denounces polytheism, image worship, and the caste system. The society has had considerable success with its programs of social reform but has never had a significant popular following.


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Whereas Ram Mohun Roy wanted to reform Hinduism from within, his successor, Debendranath Tagore, broke away in 1850 by repudiating Vedic authority and making reason and intuition the basis of Brahmanism. He tried, however, to retain some of the traditional Hindu customs, and a radical group led by Keshab Chunder Sen seceded and organized the Brahmo Samaj of India in 1866 (the older group became known as the Adi—i.e., original—Brahmo Samaj). The new branch became eclectic and cosmopolitan and was most influential in the struggle for social reform. It sponsored the Band of Hope temperance society, encouraged the education of women, and campaigned for the remarriage of widows and for legislation to prevent child marriages. When Keshab arranged for his daughter to marry the Prince of Cooch Behar, both parties were well under age. He was thus violating his own reformist principles, and many of his followers rebelled, forming a third samaj (“society,” “association”), the Sadharan (i.e., common) Brahmo Samaj, in 1878. The Sadharan Samaj gradually reverted to the teaching of the Upanishads and carried on the work of social reform. Although the movement lost force in the 20th century, its fundamental social tenets were accepted, at least in theory, by Hindu society.


The Brahmo Samaj was a monotheistic sect of Hinduism. The movement began through meetings of Bengalis in Calcutta in 1828. One of the leading figures was Ram Mohun Roy. This group was known as the Brahmo Sabha. In 1831, Roy visited England as a reforming ambassador and died there in 1833. He was buried in Bristol and his funeral sermon was conducted by Lant Carpenter, a Unitarian minister.


Debendranath Tagore, the father of Rabindranath Tagore, was a key member of the Brahmo Sabha. In 1843 he was involved in the creation of the Brahmo Samaj. Keshub Chunder Sen, a disciple of Tagore, joined the Samaj in 1857 but broke away in a formal schism in 1866. This schism was called the Brahmo Samaj of India. In 1870, Sen visited Britain and met with Mary Carpenter, the daughter of Lant Carpenter. Together they founded the National Indian Association, an organization designed to promote social reform in India and provide a meeting place for Indians and British people in Britain. Sen returned to India and created a major schism in the reforming society of the Brahmo Samaj when he married his 14-year-old daughter to the Maharaja of Cooch Behar, violating the Brahmo Marriage Act.


However, the Brahmo Samaj (in its various guises) continued to flourish in India and particularly Bengal. Rabindranath Tagore's Visva Bharati University was founded in 1921 as an expression of Brahmo universalism. The influence of Ram Mohun Roy and Keshub Chunder Sen in Britain could also be seen into the twentieth century. The cemetery where Roy was buried became a pilgrimage spot for Brahmos visiting the UK and the National Indian Association convened annual remembrances on the anniversary of Sen's death.


Krishna Govinda GUPTA, British Secretary.

Background

GUPTA, Krishna Govinda was born on February 28, 1851 in Bhatpara, Dacca. Son of Kali Narayan Gupta.


Education

Studied at Mymensing Government School. Dacca College; London University College.


Career

Joined Indian Civil Service, 1873 (2nd at the final examination). Passed through all the grades in Bengal. Secretary Board of Revenue, 1887.


Commissioner of Excise, 1893. Divisional Commissioner, 1901. Member Board of Revenue, 1904, being the first Indian to hold that appointment.


Member Indian Excise Committee, 1905. On special duty in connection with the Fisheries of Bengal, 190G. Deputed to Europe and America in 1907 to cany on fishery investigation, as a result of which a new department is being organised to conserve and develop the provincial fisheries.


Nominated to the Indian Council, 1907. Being one of the two Indians who were for the first time raised to that position. C.S.T., 1909; Member, Council of Secretary of State for India since 1908; Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple, 1873; late Indian Civil Service.


Membership

Clubs: National Liberal; Calcutta.


Connections

Spouse 1866, Prasannatava,daughter of Nabin Chandra Das (d.


Father:

Kali Narayan Gupta

Spouse:

Prasannatava


Ram Mohan Roy and Debendranath Tagore founded the Brahmo Samaj, a philosophical movement grounded in belief in the unity of the divine and absolute equality between all people. As the “Fathers of the Indian Renaissance,” their ideas led to radical reforms, challenging the caste system, child marriage and violence against women. This service reflects on the impact of this movement, including reflections from WUS member, Swati Mukherjee, who grew up in an India shaped by its affirmation of human dignity, the right of conscience and freedom of religion.


A Faith That Changed the World The Brahmo Samaj – May 12th, 2019Download

May 12, 2019


“A Faith That Changed the World: The Brahmo Samaj”


The Rev. Heather Janules


Sometimes it is not easy, being part of a faith tradition that few people know about or understand. I imagine I am not the only Unitarian Universalist minister who, when strangers in the grocery store or a doctor’s waiting room discover your vocation, either apologize for swearing, start professing a love of Jesus or both. I imagine I am not the only long-time Unitarian Universalist who is often asked “What is that?” when we name our religious affiliation or, by the inquirer’s response, we know they have confused Unitarian Universalism for the Unification church.


Perhaps for these reasons, Unitarian Universalists have developed a practice of crafting “elevator speeches,” short explanations of their beliefs that can be shared in the time it takes to travel from one floor to another in an elevator. Some of them are serious:


At its best, Unitarian Universalism is a religion of people who covenant to treat one another well, care for the earth, and protect the beautiful tapestry of cultures and communities that make up the people of the world. Love is the core value from which we build.[1]


Some of them are pithy: “Unitarian Universalism means never having to say, ‘I’m right, you’re wrong!’[2] and “Unitarianism proclaims that we spring from a common source; Universalism, that we share a common destiny.


Some are pithy and humorous: “We are the ‘one God, no Hell’ church.”[3]


As a member of a faith small in number, I am somewhat envious of the great traditions, recognized or even understood by outsiders. I am not Muslim but I know what it means to go to Mecca. I am not Jewish but I know what it means to sit Shiva. By their number, their influence on human history, their crackerjack marketing team or all of the above, some faiths have a presence in the human consciousness beyond their adherents.


So imagine when I learned there is what some call “a Unitarian form of Hinduism” – I was surprised and delighted. How wonderful it was to discover that my minority spirituality was articulated and practiced long ago, in a distant and different culture, a place that still has many believers today. It was wonderful to find out that Unitarian Universalism has a small home within the great and diverse Hindu faith.


I am speaking of the Brahmo Samaj, a “monotheistic reformist movement” of Hinduism, founded in 1828 by Ram Mohan Roy and Debendranath Tagore.  If the name Tagore sounds familiar, Debendranath is the father of beloved, Nobel prize-winning poet Rabindranath Tagore, whose lyrical words often reflect the principles and ideals of the Brahmo community (as “Samaj” means “community” in India.)  I wanted to learn more about the Brahmo Samaj, a curiosity that led to today’s service.


In my exploration, I was first challenged by an obvious question: If Unitarian Universalism is the “one god, no Hell church” and Hinduism is known for its many gods, how can there be a Unitarian expression of Hinduism? Perhaps it is time for a Brahmo Samaj elevator speech, made – in part – through a demonstration:


Imagine this glass of water is the Hindu god Brahma, the creator


And this water is Shiva the destroyer


And this water is Ganesha the remover of obstacles


And this water is Krishna


And this is the God of Jewish and Christian scripture


And this is all of humanity


And this is all of nature


As we learned in today’s First Reflection, the Brahmos teach us that all manifestations of the divine, including human beings, are of the same essence.


Thus, the Brahmo Samaj articulates their “prime principles” – on God, being and love – as:


There is always Infinite Singularity – immanent and transcendent Singular Author and Preserver of Existence – He who is manifest everywhere and in everything, in the fire and in the water, in the smallest plant to the mightiest oak.


Being is created from Singularity. Being is renewed to Singularity. Being exists to be one (again) with Loving Singularity.


Respect all creations and beings but never venerate them for only Singularity can be loved.[4]


The Brahmo Samaj has a rich and complex history. The movement began with Ram Mohan Roy, born in 1772. He was an amazing scholar, becoming fluent in Sanskrit, Persian and English and conversant in Arabic, Latin and Greek. As historian Alan Hodder notes, “Roy’s intensive study under his Muslim tutors of the Qu’an and the Sufi poets nurtured in him and abiding respect for the Muslim tawhid, the absolute Unity of God, which would become the cornerstone of his mature religious philosophy and the basis for his critiques of Hindu ‘idolatry’ and later, trinitarianism.”[5]


Roy connected with a Baptist missionary to India, William Carey. Roy’s affiliation with Carey and the Baptist church was a catalyst to challenging the priestly classes of Indian society, the practice of sati – widows throwing themselves, or being thrown, upon the funeral pyre of their husbands – child marriage, dowries and polygamy. In time, Roy ended his relationship with Carey as he could no longer promote the idea of a trinitarian God. In the midst of theological conflicts with trinitarian colleagues, Unitarian contemporaries of Roy in England and the United States became philosophical allies with Roy.[6] His break from traditional Hinduism and disassociation with trinitarian Christianity became pronounced with the founding of the Brahmo Sahba on August 20th, 1828 with Devendranath Tagore, the first house of worship opening in 1830.


After Roy’s death, Devendranath Tagore became its primary leader, eventually publishing a Brahma Dharma book in 1850 that defined the tradition as separate from Hinduism, a unique religion unto itself, and challenged the infallibility of the Hindu Vedas.


The movement then splits, thanks to the interference of a Unitarian minister, Charles Dall. The contemporary website for the World Brahmo Council tells the story this way: “Dall, a roving Unitarian missionary, is in a troubled marriage in Boston with…Caroline Wells Healey Dall, suffering a series of mental depressions, and is sufficiently persuaded to grant his wife a Boston divorce by sailing to India forever as the first foreign Unitarian missionary.”[7]


No matter what motivated Dall to come to India, his connections with the Brahmo Samaj were positive until he began to introduce works by Unitarian Christians. Alienating both orthodox Christians and Tagore, who did not welcome discussion of Christianity, Tagore then banned Dall from the Samaj. Now ostracized, Dall began a Samaj of his own with progressive members of the Brahmo Samaj, the Rammohun Roy Society. This separate group eventually split again and, in time, one half of the divided group reintegrated with the original Samaj. Speaking to the question of excommunication, the World Brahmo Council concludes “In the early days of Brahmoism a few people were admitted as members who caused immense trouble to our religion and gave it a bad name, after their expulsion in 1866 True Brahmoism has had no apostasy in its ranks.”[8]


Currently, while Brahmoism is considered a religion, Brahmos no longer gather in congregations. The original Samaj no longer holds worship services while the more liberal break off tradition worships about twice a year. Yet, it is believed that the original Samaj has eight million members while other branches claim thousands of adherents. One can identify solely as a Brahmo or – as in Unitarian Universalism – one can practice another faith while also claiming a Brahmo identity. The Brahmo World Council affirms that Brahmos do not evangelize: “Brahmoism was never a ‘proselytizing religion.’ Like all the great Asian religions, we sit on the seashore (or a Himalayan mountain or the Internet) and wait for truthseekers to seek us out.”[9]


In the most succinct possible terms, one could say that the Brahmo Samaj is a “one god, no Hell” community that does not convert but invites people into its movement. Brahmos draw from their principles of universal human dignity, affirmation of reason and belief in religious freedom to transform society for the better.


Despite the dubious social skills of a certain Charles Dall many years ago, one could say there is strong resonance between the Principles and practices of Unitarian Universalism and the Brahmo Samaj. One could say these ideas are not confined to small, unknown traditions but instead shared across cultures and continents. One could say that Brahmo and Unitarian ideals and adherents have changed the world throughout history and that these principles are still needed this day.


Swati Mukherjee


In the 1980s Calcutta was a very vibrant city to grow up in and I consider myself fortunate to be part of a cultural, crowded yet somehow functional city on the eastern shore of India. I am the first woman in my family who had held a job (this is counting the past generation – from my grandfather’s mother to my mother). There are few individuals shaped my identity when I was growing up during the early years of my life be it in my grandparents’ house near the pristine backwaters of the Bay of Bengal or in my parents’ house in the chaotic city. I was a daughter from a Hindu family who was sent to catholic school, and this school was in a predominantly Islamic neighborhood of the city. Seeing several ways to preach and call God baffled me as a child, especially when I would bring the bible from school and ask why is the Veda or Gita a different holy scripture – are they both holy? Why did we have a guru (living god) yet when my mother taught me about karma and rebirth she talked about Shiva, Krishna or the women power Kali who can protect us.


In my sixth-grade history class I was introduced to an entity called the Brahmo Samaj: Raja Ram Mohan Roy, along with Dwarkanath Tagore founded the Brahmo Samaj, an important socio-religious reform movement in the state of West Bengal in the year 1828. Dwarkanath Tagore is the grandfather of the Nobel prize winner poet and writer, Rabindranath Tagore, as Rev Heather mentioned. The society aimed to start a movement to reform the Hindu religion that primarily based it’s believes on the existence of one God. Growing up in a Hindu family the key to our worship has been several deities as idols or pictures, customs and rituals – for example the one particularly close to my heart is nothing to eat or drink on your wedding day. You can imagine, my husband being an agnostic – it was a tough wedding day for me, and if I tried to reason with my family they would always try and link the rituals to some scientific reason that I did not see the connection to!


The Samaj did not believe in the caste system and their implications. The Samaj aimed to abolish these rituals and idol-worship. The aspect that appealed to me the most was that the Samaj forbid its members to attack other religious. As a young Hindu going to Catholic school it seemed to answer some of my questions.


Brahmo Samaj has primarily started in the city of Calcutta, this is where me and my husband was born and raised. In the late 1800s Brahmo Samaj started spreading to other parts of the country.


I think most of us have heard about the caste system and its prevalence in India. The Samaj allowed inter-caste marriage, abolish the food-serving restrictions to lower castes and allowing all castes to assemble together in an area, rather than preaching segregation.


In the Hindu religion there is not only the Bhagwad Gita but there are other scriptures like the Veda, Upanisads, Puran that dictates the guidance of the religion. There scriptures are written in Sanskrit and not very eligible to a young Hindu who had no knowledge about Sanskrit. The Samaj translated these documents in Bengali – being a Unitarian Hindu, I have to admit that I have a version of Gita in English.


The Brahmo Samaj was not only a religious movement but a social movement particularly on women’s liberalization. The women in the religion often wore white or subdued colors to symbolize the religious revolution and protection of women’s rights. Such a saree is part of the table on the right.


While I was growing up, I learned that in the classic Hindu religion:


There was practice of sati for married Hindu woman, which is a funeral custom where married women were forced to jump in the fire during the funeral of their husband. In that era woman (both mothers and daughters) did not have a voice so a wedding of young ten-year-old to an eighty-year-old man was very common. So often twenty-year-old women were forced to commit sati.  

Widows, irrespective of the age were not allowed to eat eggs or fish (the staple food in Bengal), wear colors, or re-marry.

Women were not allowed to get any formal education.  

Women had no right to own property as any inheritance went directly to sons.

Polygamy was very common, and the woman had no say in the choices made.

In public gatherings, woman was not included in the main area, for example a concert. They were supposed to sit behind a curtain called the purdah, as a secluded part of the society.

In order to marry a woman high levels of money and property needed to be paid to the man’s family – also known as the dowry system.

From the teachings of the Brahmo Samaj, Raja Ramohan Roy abolished Sati in December 1829. The Brahmo Samaj fought against the caste system, polygamy, child marriage, infanticide, untouchability, seclusion of women and Purdah system. Such movement gave the woman’s advocate in me hope while I was growing up surrounded by anti-woman customs. Rarely would marriages occur for woman at the age of 14, they were allowed to come out of the house and get formal education. I lot of effort was put to establishing education for Indian woman, irrespective of the martial or caste status.


Even though when I was growing up the existence of the Brahmo Samaj was non-existence, but I remember walking from my college to look at the building where this movement started when I was 18. I was often told that they were too liberal and women wearing all white was too extreme for Hindu women. In my heart I thought I can be a women’s rights’ advocate: it would be easier for me now than it was for the women of Brahmo Samaj in the nineth century. Brahmo Samaj has a special place in my heart and I am proud to find the parallel of Brahmo Samaj by being a Hindu Unitarian Universalist.    


The Brahmo Samaj had several other great participants from Calcutta: Dawarkanath Tagore, Kesab Chandra Sen, Debendranath Tagore, Swami Vivekananda, Rabindranath Tagore. Rabindranath Tagore’s birthday was May 7th and his songs was a basis of lot of the gatherings of Brahmo Samaj. In today’s service we have included a lot of music from Tagore.


I hope I have left you with a glimpse of the Brahmo Samaj and how it shaped woman liberalization.


গুপ্ত, স্যার কৃষ্ণগোবিন্দ

English

গুপ্ত, স্যার কৃষ্ণগোবিন্দ (১৮৫১-১৯২৬)  প্রশাসক, ধর্মসংস্কারক, সমাজসেবক। তিনি কে.জি গুপ্ত নামে সমধিক পরিচিত। কে.জি গুপ্ত তৎকালীন পূর্ববাংলা তথা বর্তমান বাংলাদেশের প্রথম আইসিএস। তাঁর জন্ম ১৮৫১ সালের ২৮ ফেব্রুয়ারি নরসিংদী জেলার সদর থানার ভাটপাড়া গ্রামে। পিতার নাম কালীনারায়ণ গুপ্ত এবং মাতার নাম অন্নদাসুন্দরী গুপ্তা। পিতা ছিলেন ভাটপাড়ার জমিদার এবং ব্রাহ্ম সমাজের নেতা। কৃঞ্চগোবিন্দের শিক্ষাজীবন শুরু হয় ঢাকার পোগজ স্কুলে। পরে ঢাকা কলেজিয়েট স্কুল থেকে ১৮৬৭ সালে প্রবেশিকা এবং ১৮৬৯ সালে ঢাকা কলেজ থেকে এফ.এ পরীক্ষায় উত্তীর্ণ হন। একই বছর তিনি উচ্চ শিক্ষার্থে ব্রিটেন যান। তিনি লিংকন্স ইন থেকে বার-এট-ল’ সম্পন্ন করেন। ১৮৭১ সালে তিনি আইসিএস (Indian Civil Service) উত্তীর্ণ হয়ে দেশে প্রত্যাবর্তন করেন।


ভারতে ব্রিটিশ প্রশাসনে যোগদানের মাধ্যমে কে.জি গুপ্ত কর্মজীবন শুরু করেন। তিনি দীর্ঘ কর্মজীবনে মহকুমা প্রশাসক, জেলা প্রশাসক, আবগারি কমিশনার, বিভাগীয় কমিশনার, বোর্ড অব রেভিনিউ-এর সদস্যসহ সরকারের বিভিন্ন উচ্চ পদে দায়িত্ব পালন করেন। ব্রিটিশ সরকার তাঁকে ব্রিটিশ-ভারতে ভাইসরয়ের ইন্ডিয়ান কাউন্সিলের সদস্য মনোনীত করে। তিনি ছিলেন এ পদে প্রথম ভারতীয়। এ ছাড়া তিনি একই সঙ্গে হাউস অব কমন্স-এর একমাত্র ভারতীয় সদস্য হিসেবে দায়িত্ব পালন করেন। ১৯০৬ সালে তিনি সরকারি চাকুরি থেকে অবসর গ্রহণ করেন।


কে.জি গুপ্ত ছিলেন সমাজসেবক এবং ধর্ম সংস্কারক। ১৮৬৯ সালে তিনি ব্রাহ্ম ধর্মে দীক্ষা গ্রহণ করেন। ১৩০০ বঙ্গাব্দে তিনি নিজ জমিদারি এস্টেট কাওরাইদে ব্রাহ্মমন্দির নির্মাণ করেন। ১৮৭১ সালে ঢাকায় রামমোহন রায় লাইব্রেরি প্রতিষ্ঠায় তিনি গুরুত্বপূর্ণ ভূমিকা পালন করেন। তিনি এবং তাঁর পিতা কালীনারায়ণ গুপ্ত ছিলেন ঢাকা ও ময়মনসিংহে ব্রাহ্ম সমাজের প্রধান পৃষ্ঠপোষক। তিনি ১৯১৯ সালে নিজ এলাকা পাঁচদোনাতে ‘স্যার কে.জি গুপ্ত উচ্চ বিদ্যালয়’ এবং কাওরাইদে ‘কালীনারায়ণ গুপ্ত উচ্চ বিদ্যালয়’ প্রতিষ্ঠা করেন।


কে.জি গুপ্ত তাঁর কর্মকান্ডের স্বীকৃতিস্বরূপ ব্রিটিশ সরকার কর্তৃক ‘কে.সি.এস.আই’ (Knight Commander of the Star of India) উপাধিতে ভূষিত হন। তিনি ছিলেন এ উপাধি প্রাপ্ত প্রথম ভারতীয়। ১৯২৬ সালের ২৯ মার্চ স্যার কে.জি গুপ্তর মৃত্যু হয়। তাঁর নামানুসারে ঢাকার লক্ষ্মীবাজারে একটি রাস্তার নামকরণ করা হয়েছে ‘কে.জি গুপ্ত লেন’।  [এ.টি.এম যায়েদ হোসেন]


Gupta, Sir Krishnogobinda

বাংলা

Gupta, Sir Krishnogobinda (1851-1926) an administrator, religious reformer and a philanthropist. Krishnagobinda Gupta was well known as KG Gupta. He was the first ICS officer of the then East-Bengal (Bangladesh). He was born on 28 February 1851 in the village of Bhatpara of sadar thana in Narsingdi district. A zamindar of Bhatpara and also a leader of Brahma Samaj, Kalinarayan Gupta was his father and Mother Annadasundari Gupta. KG Gupta started his primary education at Pogos school of Dhaka. He passed the Entrance examination in 1867 from Dhaka Collegiate School and FA from Dhaka College in 1869. In the same year he went to England for higher studies. Gupta obtained his Bar-at-Law at Lincoln's Inn in London. KG Gupta then got back to his native soil and qualified for ICS (Indian Civil Service) In 1871.


Thus KG Gupta started his career as a civil servant in British India. In his career, he served as Sub-divisional Officer, District Administrator, Tax Commissioner, District Commissioner, and the Member of the Board of Revenue, along with other high official posts. He was the first Indian to be nominated by the British Government as the Member of the Indian Council to the Viceroy of British-India. Besides, at the same time he served as the only Indian member in the House of Commons. KG Gupta retired from the civil service in 1906.


As a religious reformer he established a Brahma temple in 1300 BS in his zamindari estate at Kaoraid. He played an important role in establishing Rammohun Roy Library in Dhaka in 1871. He and his father Kalinarayan Gupta were the chief patron of the Brahma Samaj of Dhaka and Mymensingh. He established 'Sir KG Gupta High School' at Panchdona and 'Kalinarayan High School' at Kaoraid in 1919. In recognition of his services British Government conferred upon KG Gupta the title of KCSI (Knight Commander of the State of India). He was the first Indian who received such award. Krishnagobinda Gupta died on 29 March 1926. A road was named in his memory as 'KG Gupta Lane' at Lakshmibazar in Dhaka. [ATM Zayed Hossain]


পঞ্চকবির একজন অতুলপ্রসাদ সেনের সমাধি আছে কাওরাইদে। ঢাকার অদূরবর্তী গাজীপুরের শ্রীপুর উপজেলার শিক্ষক ও সংস্কৃতিকর্মীদের সঙ্গে আলাপে জানা গেল এ কথা। সংশয় জাগে মনে, ব্রাহ্মধর্মের অনুসারী অতুলপ্রসাদের তো চিতা হওয়ার কথা_ সমাধি নয়। স্মৃতি হাতড়ে যতদূর মনে পড়ছিল 'মোদের গরব, মোদের আশা, আ-মরি বাংলা ভাষা' গানের রচয়িতা অতুলপ্রসাদ সেনের শেষজীবন কেটেছে ভারতের লক্ষেষ্টৗতে। কিন্তু শ্রীপুর থেকে ১০-১২ কিলোমিটার দূরে কাওরাইদে গিয়ে সুতিয়া নদীতীরে সত্যি অতুলপ্রসাদ সেনের সমাধির দেখা মিলল।নদীর এক তীরে গাজীপুরের শ্রীপুর, অন্য তীরে ময়মনসিংহের গফরগাঁও। শ্রীপুরের কাওরাইদ ইউনিয়নের কাওরাইদ গ্রামেই ছিল ভাওয়ালের জমিদার কালীনারায়ণ গুপ্তের কাছারিবাড়ি। এখানেই কালীনারায়ণ গুপ্ত প্রতিষ্ঠা করেছিলেন একটি ব্রাহ্মমন্দির। এই ব্রাহ্মমন্দির লাগোয়া সমাধিতে শুধু অতুলপ্রসাদের নয়_ রয়েছে তার দাদামশাই কালীনারায়ণ ও মামা কেজি গুপ্ত নামে সমধিক পরিচিত স্যার কৃষ্ণগোবিন্দ গুপ্তের সমাধিও। এই কালীনারায়ণের নামেই ঢাকা বিশ্ববিদ্যালয়ে দেওয়া হয় কালীনারায়ণ বৃত্তি। বৃত্তিটা কালে কালে এর অর্থমূল্যের কারণে আকর্ষণ হারালেও ঢাকা বিশ্ববিদ্যালয়ের জন্মলগ্নে এই বৃত্তির মূল্য ছিল অনেক। কেজি গুপ্ত ছিলেন প্রথম ভারতীয় প্রিভি কাউন্সিলর ও পূর্ববঙ্গ থেকে প্রথম আইসিএস। 

কালীনারায়ণের কন্যা হেমন্তশশীর পুত্র অতুলপ্রসাদ সেন। ১৮৭১ সালের ২০ অক্টোবর কালীনারায়ণের ঢাকার বাড়িতে অতুলপ্রসাদের জন্ম। তার পৈতৃক বাড়ি

ছিল দক্ষিণ বিক্রমপুরের মাগর-ফরিদপুর গ্রামে। এ গ্রামটি বর্তমানে শরীয়তপুর জেলার নড়িয়া উপজেলায় অবস্থিত এবং এখন সেখানকার মানুষ গ্রামটিকে আর মাগর-ফরিদপুর নয়, মগর বলে ডাকে। অতুলপ্রসাদের বাবার নাম রামপ্রসাদ সেন। অতি অল্পবয়সেই অতুলপ্রসাদ পিতৃহারা হন

। অতুলপ্রসাদের বাবা রামপ্রসাদ সেন মারা যাওয়ার পর, বছর ছয়েক মা হেমন্তশশী তার ছেলেমেয়েদের নিয়ে বাপের বাড়িতেই থাকতেন। ১৮৯০ সালে ছেলেমেয়েদের রেখে হেমন্তশশী কিছু সময়ের জন্য গিয়েছিলেন বড় ভাই কৃষ্ণগোবিন্দ গুপ্তের কাছে। কয়েক দিন পর হঠাৎ প্রকাশ পেল দেশবন্ধুু চিত্তরঞ্জন দাশের জেঠা ও আচার্য জগদীশচন্দ্র বসুর শ্বশুর সমাজসংস্কারক দুর্গামোহন দাশের সঙ্গে বিয়ে হয়েছে হেমন্তশশীর। বিয়েটা হয় অত্যন্ত গোপনে। বাংলায় ততদিনে সতীদাহ প্রথা রদ ও বিধবা বিয়ের প্রচলন আন্দোলনে রূপ পেলেও চারদিকে এ বিয়ের খবর বেশ আলোচনার জন্ম দেয়। গভীর আঘাত পান অতুলপ্রসাদও।

যৌবনে অতুলপ্রসাদও মামাতো বোনের সঙ্গে প্রেম ও বিয়ের মধ্য দিয়ে একই রকমের আলোচনার জন্ম দিয়েছিলেন। ১৮৮২ সালে ব্যারিস্টারি পড়তে বিলেত যান অতুলপ্রসাদ। কিছু পরেই সপরিবারে বিলেতে আসেন তার বড় মামা কেজি গুপ্ত। এই সময় কেজি গুপ্তের মেয়ে, নিজের মামাতো বোন হেমকুসুমের সঙ্গে ঘনিষ্ঠ সম্পর্ক গড়ে ওঠে অতুলপ্রসাদের। হেমকুসুমের গানে, বেহালা-পিয়ানো বাজানোর হাতে মুগ্ধ হন অতুলপ্রসাদ। শুরু হয় তাদের প্রেম। বিলেত থেকে ফিরে আসার পর বিয়ে করার সিদ্ধান্ত নেন তারা। প্রবল অশান্তি শুরু হয় পরিবারে। অতুলপ্রসাদের মা হেমন্তশশীও এই বিয়ের বিরোধিতা করেন। এ কথাও শোনা যায়, অতুলপ্রসাদের এই সিদ্ধান্ত নেওয়ার পেছনে কোথাও হয়তো কাজ করেছিল মায়ের প্রতি পুরনো অভিমান। তাই সামাজিকভাবে নিষিদ্ধ সম্পর্ক গড়ে প্রতিশোধ নেন তিনি।

কিন্তু বিয়ে হবে কী করে? আইনে তো এমন বিয়ে স্বীকৃত নয়। সত্যেন্দ্রপ্রসন্ন সিংহের পরামর্শে অতুলপ্রসাদ পাড়ি দিলেন স্কটল্যান্ডের গ্রেটনা গ্রিন গ্রামে। সেখানকার রীতিতে ১৯০০ সালে বিয়ে করেন অতুলপ্রসাদ ও হেমকুসুম। অতুলপ্রসাদের মামা থেকে শ্বশুর হয়ে গেলেন স্যার কেজি গুপ্ত। এ ঘটনার অভিঘাত ছিল বহুদূর। বিলেতে আইন ব্যবসা জমাতে ব্যর্থ হন তিনি। এরই মধ্যে ১৯০১ সালে তাদের যমজ পুত্রসন্তানের জন্ম হলে তাদের নাম রাখা হয় দিলীপকুমার ও নিলীপকুমার। বিলেতে পসার জমাতে ব্যর্থ হয়ে এক সন্তান নিলীপকুমারের মৃত্যুর পর ১৯০২ সালে যখন আরেক সন্তান দিলীপকুমারকে নিয়ে বিধ্বস্ত অবস্থায় তারা কলকাতায় ফিরে এলেন, তখন প্রকাশ্যে একজন আত্মীয়ও পাশে দাঁড়ায়নি। এরপর সপরিবারে লক্ষেষ্টৗতে চলে যান অতুলপ্রসাদ। সেখানে তার আইন ব্যবসায় পসার জমে ওঠে। অতুলপ্রসাদের সঙ্গীতজীবনেও এ পর্বটি সবচেয়ে সমৃদ্ধ। অবশ্য পারিবারিক জীবনে সুখ আসেনি তার। স্ত্রীর সঙ্গে এখানে এসেই সীমাহীন দূরত্ব তৈরি হয়। ১৯০০ সালে মামাতো বোন হেমকুসুমের সঙ্গে বিয়ের পর অতুলপ্রসাদের মামা স্যার কেজি গুপ্ত ২৫ বছর বেঁচে ছিলেন। কেজি গুপ্তের মৃত্যু হয় ১৯২৬ সালের ২৩ মার্চ। অতুলপ্রসাদও দীর্ঘায়ু পাননি। তার মৃত্যু হয় ১৯৩৪ সালের ২৭ আগস্ট। জীবদ্দশায় মামা-ভাগ্নের মধ্যে যোজন দূরত্ব রচিত হলেও সমাধিতে আছেন তারা কাছাকাছি। পাশেই রয়েছে কালীনারায়ণের নিজের ও পরিবারের অন্য সদস্যদের সমাধিও।

গাজীপুরের ইতিহাস গবেষক ড. ফরিদ আহমদ জানালেন, সমাধিতে কারোরই মৃতদেহ নেই, চিতাভস্ম রয়েছে। তাদের কেউ লক্ষেষ্টৗ, কেউ আবার লন্ডনে শেষনিঃশ্বাস ত্যাগ করেছেন। যে যেখানে মারা গেছেন, সেখানেই তাদের চিতা হয়েছে। পরে চিতাভস্ম এনে কাওরাইদে সমাহিত করা হয়েছে। ধারণা করা হয়, ব্রাহ্ম ও হিন্দু রীতি অনুযায়ী সবারই পিণ্ডদান করা হয়েছে পাশের সুতিয়া নদীতে। তিনি বলেন, কালীনারায়ণ, কৃষ্ণগোবিন্দ ও অতুলপ্রসাদ_ শ্রেষ্ঠ তিন বাঙালি ও তাদের সমাধিটি পুরোপুরি অরক্ষিত রয়েছে। পাশের ব্রাহ্মমন্দিরটিও অরক্ষিত। তবু মন্দিরকে ঘিরে কাওরাইদে যে ব্রাহ্মসমাজ রয়েছে, তারাই এর রক্ষণাবেক্ষণ করছেন। 

সরেজমিন কাওরাইদে গিয়ে দেখা গেল, ব্রাহ্মমন্দিরটি তালাবদ্ধ। সমাধিতে যাওয়ার একমাত্র গেটেও তালা ঝুলছে। এলাকাটি কাওরাইদ নামে পরিচিত হলেও মন্দিরের ফলকে লেখা আছে কাওরাদি ব্রাহ্মমন্দির। দর্শনার্থীদের আসার খবর পেয়ে এলেন শান্তা পাল। কাওরাইদের সর্বশেষ ব্রাহ্মধর্মানুসারী একমাত্র পরিবারটির কনিষ্ঠ সদস্য শান্তা। তার বড় ভাই দীপক পাল কাওরাইদ ব্রাহ্মধর্ম মণ্ডলীর সাধারণ সম্পাদক।

শান্তা জানালেন, একদা এই কাওরাইদে কিছু সময়ের জন্য এসেছিলেন বিশ্বকবি রবীন্দ্র্রনাথ ঠাকুরও। পরে শান্তার বড় ভাই দীপক পালের সঙ্গে আলাপ হলে তিনিও একই কথা বললেন। তবে কবে-কখন রবীন্দ্রনাথ এসেছিলেন, তা নিশ্চিত করতে পারলেন না তারা। দীপক পাল বলেন, শুনেছি রবীন্দ্রনাথ ময়মনসিংহে যাওয়ার পথে ট্রেন থেকে এখানে নেমেছিলেন।

গাজীপুরের ইতিহাস গবেষক ফরিদ আহমদ বলেন, কাওরাইদে রবীন্দ্রনাথ এসেছিলেন, এটা এখানকার মানুষের কাছে একটা জনপ্রিয় জনশ্রুতি, প্রামাণ্য কিছু আমাদের জানা নেই। তবে এটা নিশ্চিত যে রবীন্দ্রনাথ ঠাকুর ১৯২৬ সালের ৭ ফেব্রুয়ারি ঢাকায় এসে সপ্তাহখানেক থাকার পর ময়মনসিংহে গিয়েছিলেন। 

রবীন্দ্রনাথ ব্রাহ্মধর্মের অনুসারী ছিলেন। রাজা রামমোহন রায় ১৮২৬ সালে একেশ্বরবাদী মণ্ডলী স্থাপন করে নাম দেন 'বেদান্ত প্রতিপাদ্য ধর্ম'। ১৮৩০ সালের ২৩ জানুয়ারি বুধবার মন্দিরগৃহ প্রতিষ্ঠা করেন। তাই বুধবার ব্রাহ্মদের পবিত্র দিন। পরে মহর্ষি দেবেন্দ্রনাথ ঠাকুর বেদান্ত প্রতিপাদ্য ধর্মের নামকরণ করেন ব্রাহ্মধর্ম। রবীন্দ্রনাথ ঠাকুর দেবেন্দ্রনাথ ঠাকুরের পঞ্চদশ সন্তানের অন্যতম। ১৯২৬ সালে রবীন্দ্রনাথ যখন ময়মনসিংহে যান, তখন কাওরাইদে ব্রাহ্মধর্মের অনেক বড় মণ্ডলী ছিল। তাই পথে তার যাত্রাবিরতি করা খুব একটা অস্বাভাবিক নয়।

দীপক পাল জানালেন, বর্তমানে কাওরাইদে তাদের পরিবারটি ছাড়া আর কোনো ব্রাহ্মধর্মের অনুসারী নেই। পাশের গফরগাঁওয়ে রয়েছে আরেকটি পরিবার। তবে উৎসব-আচারে এখনও এখানে সারাদেশ থেকে ব্রাহ্মধর্মের অনুসারীরা জমায়েত হন। সারাদেশে ব্রাহ্মধর্মের অনুসারী পরিবারের সংখ্যা সাকল্যে ২৫ থেকে ৩০টি।

কাওরাইদ ইউনিয়ন পরিষদের চেয়ারম্যান রফিকুল ইসলাম মুক্তিযুদ্ধের সময় অতুলপ্রসাদ সেনের স্মৃতিফলকটি পাকিস্তানি সৈন্যরা গুলি করে ভেঙে ফেলেছিল। তখন স্মৃতিফলকে তার 'মোদের গরব, মোদের আশা, আ-মরি বাংলা ভাষা' গানের চরণটি লেখা ছিল। তার মতে, ব্রাহ্মমন্দির ও অতুলপ্রসাদ, স্যার কেজি গুপ্তসহ অন্য মনীষীদের সমাধিস্থল রক্ষণাবেক্ষণের অভাবে পরিত্যক্ত স্থানে পরিণত হতে চলেছে। তিনি এই স্থানটি সংরক্ষণের জন্য জেলা প্রশাসনসহ ঊর্ধ্বতন কর্তৃপক্ষের কাছে আবেদন করবেন বলে জানালেন।


India, officially the Republic of India (ISO: Bhārat Gaṇarājya),[25] is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area; the most populous country as of June 1, 2023;[26][27] and from the time of its independence in 1947, the world's most populous democracy.[28][29][30] Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast, it shares land borders with Pakistan to the west;[j] China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the north; and Bangladesh and Myanmar to the east. In the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives; its Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a maritime border with Thailand, Myanmar, and Indonesia.

Modern humans arrived on the Indian subcontinent from Africa no later than 55,000 years ago.[31][32][33] Their long occupation, initially in varying forms of isolation as hunter-gatherers, has made the region highly diverse, second only to Africa in human genetic diversity.[34] Settled life emerged on the subcontinent in the western margins of the Indus river basin 9,000 years ago, evolving gradually into the Indus Valley Civilisation of the third millennium BCE.[35] By 1200 BCE, an archaic form of Sanskrit, an Indo-European language, had diffused into India from the northwest.[36][37] Its evidence today is found in the hymns of the Rigveda. Preserved by an oral tradition that was resolutely vigilant, the Rigveda records the dawning of Hinduism in India.[38] The Dravidian languages of India were supplanted in the northern and western regions.[39] By 400 BCE, stratification and exclusion by caste had emerged within Hinduism,[40] and Buddhism and Jainism had arisen, proclaiming social orders unlinked to heredity.[41] Early political consolidations gave rise to the loose-knit Maurya and Gupta Empires based in the Ganges Basin.[42] Their collective era was suffused with wide-ranging creativity,[43] but also marked by the declining status of women,[44] and the incorporation of untouchability into an organised system of belief.[k][45] In South India, the Middle kingdoms exported Dravidian-languages scripts and religious cultures to the kingdoms of Southeast Asia.[46]

In the early medieval era, Christianity, Islam, Judaism, and Zoroastrianism became established on India's southern and western coasts.[47] Muslim armies from Central Asia intermittently overran India's northern plains,[48] eventually founding the Delhi Sultanate, and drawing northern India into the cosmopolitan networks of medieval Islam.[49] In the 15th century, the Vijayanagara Empire created a long-lasting composite Hindu culture in south India.[50] In the Punjab, Sikhism emerged, rejecting institutionalised religion.[51] The Mughal Empire, in 1526, ushered in two centuries of relative peace,[52] leaving a legacy of luminous architecture.[l][53] Gradually expanding rule of the British East India Company followed, turning India into a colonial economy, but also consolidating its sovereignty.[54] British Crown rule began in 1858. The rights promised to Indians were granted slowly,[55][56] but technological changes were introduced, and modern ideas of education and the public life took root.[57] A pioneering and influential nationalist movement emerged, which was noted for nonviolent resistance and became the major factor in ending British rule.[58][59] In 1947 the British Indian Empire was partitioned into two independent dominions,[60][61][62][63] a Hindu-majority Dominion of India and a Muslim-majority Dominion of Pakistan, amid large-scale loss of life and an unprecedented migration.[64]

India has been a federal republic since 1950, governed through a democratic parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society. India's population grew from 361 million in 1951 to almost 1.4 billion in 2022.[65] During the same time, its nominal per capita income increased from US$64 annually to US$2,601, and its literacy rate from 16.6% to 74%. From being a comparatively destitute country in 1951,[66] India has become a fast-growing major economy and a hub for information technology services, with an expanding middle class.[67] It has a space programme. Indian movies, music, and spiritual teachings play an increasing role in global culture.[68] India has substantially reduced its rate of poverty, though at the cost of increasing economic inequality.[69] India is a nuclear-weapon state, which ranks high in military expenditure. It has disputes over Kashmir with its neighbours, Pakistan and China, unresolved since the mid-20th century.[70] Among the socio-economic challenges India faces are gender inequality, child malnutrition,[71] and rising levels of air pollution.[72] India's land is megadiverse, with four biodiversity hotspots.[73] Its forest cover comprises 21.7% of its area.[74] India's wildlife, which has traditionally been viewed with tolerance in India's culture,[75] is supported among these forests, and elsewhere, in protected habitats.

Etymology
According to the Oxford English Dictionary (third edition 2009), the name "India" is derived from the Classical Latin India, a reference to South Asia and an uncertain region to its east; and in turn derived successively from: Hellenistic Greek India ( Ἰνδία); ancient Greek Indos ( Ἰνδός); Old Persian Hindush, an eastern province of the Achaemenid Empire; and ultimately its cognate, the Sanskrit Sindhu, or "river," specifically the Indus River and, by implication, its well-settled southern basin.[76][77] The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi (Ἰνδοί), which translates as "The people of the Indus".[78]

The term Bharat (Bhārat; pronounced [ˈbʱaːɾət] (listen)), mentioned in both Indian epic poetry and the Constitution of India,[79][80] is used in its variations by many Indian languages. A modern rendering of the historical name Bharatavarsha, which applied originally to North India,[81][82] Bharat gained increased currency from the mid-19th century as a native name for India.[79][83]

Hindustan ([ɦɪndʊˈstaːn] (listen)) is a Middle Persian name for India that became popular by the 13th century,[84] and was used widely since the era of Mughal Empire. The meaning of Hindustan has varied, referring to a region encompassing present-day northern India and Pakistan or to India in its near entirety.[79][83][85]

History
Main articles: History of India and History of the Republic of India
Ancient India

Manuscript illustration, c. 1650, of the Sanskrit epic Ramayana, composed in story-telling fashion c. 400 BCE – c. 300 CE[86]
By 55,000 years ago, the first modern humans, or Homo sapiens, had arrived on the Indian subcontinent from Africa, where they had earlier evolved.[31][32][33] The earliest known modern human remains in South Asia date to about 30,000 years ago.[31] After 6500 BCE, evidence for domestication of food crops and animals, construction of permanent structures, and storage of agricultural surplus appeared in Mehrgarh and other sites in Balochistan, Pakistan.[87] These gradually developed into the Indus Valley Civilisation,[88][87] the first urban culture in South Asia,[89] which flourished during 2500–1900 BCE in Pakistan and western India.[90] Centred around cities such as Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Dholavira, and Kalibangan, and relying on varied forms of subsistence, the civilisation engaged robustly in crafts production and wide-ranging trade.[89]

During the period 2000–500 BCE, many regions of the subcontinent transitioned from the Chalcolithic cultures to the Iron Age ones.[91] The Vedas, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism,[92] were composed during this period,[93] and historians have analysed these to posit a Vedic culture in the Punjab region and the upper Gangetic Plain.[91] Most historians also consider this period to have encompassed several waves of Indo-Aryan migration into the subcontinent from the north-west.[92] The caste system, which created a hierarchy of priests, warriors, and free peasants, but which excluded indigenous peoples by labelling their occupations impure, arose during this period.[94] On the Deccan Plateau, archaeological evidence from this period suggests the existence of a chiefdom stage of political organisation.[91] In South India, a progression to sedentary life is indicated by the large number of megalithic monuments dating from this period,[95] as well as by nearby traces of agriculture, irrigation tanks, and craft traditions.[95]


Cave 26 of the rock-cut Ajanta Caves
In the late Vedic period, around the 6th century BCE, the small states and chiefdoms of the Ganges Plain and the north-western regions had consolidated into 16 major oligarchies and monarchies that were known as the mahajanapadas.[96][97] The emerging urbanisation gave rise to non-Vedic religious movements, two of which became independent religions. Jainism came into prominence during the life of its exemplar, Mahavira.[98] Buddhism, based on the teachings of Gautama Buddha, attracted followers from all social classes excepting the middle class; chronicling the life of the Buddha was central to the beginnings of recorded history in India.[99][100][101] In an age of increasing urban wealth, both religions held up renunciation as an ideal,[102] and both established long-lasting monastic traditions. Politically, by the 3rd century BCE, the kingdom of Magadha had annexed or reduced other states to emerge as the Mauryan Empire.[103] The empire was once thought to have controlled most of the subcontinent except the far south, but its core regions are now thought to have been separated by large autonomous areas.[104][105] The Mauryan kings are known as much for their empire-building and determined management of public life as for Ashoka's renunciation of militarism and far-flung advocacy of the Buddhist dhamma.[106][107]

The Sangam literature of the Tamil language reveals that, between 200 BCE and 200 CE, the southern peninsula was ruled by the Cheras, the Cholas, and the Pandyas, dynasties that traded extensively with the Roman Empire and with West and Southeast Asia.[108][109] In North India, Hinduism asserted patriarchal control within the family, leading to increased subordination of women.[110][103] By the 4th and 5th centuries, the Gupta Empire had created a complex system of administration and taxation in the greater Ganges Plain; this system became a model for later Indian kingdoms.[111][112] Under the Guptas, a renewed Hinduism based on devotion, rather than the management of ritual, began to assert itself.[113] This renewal was reflected in a flowering of sculpture and architecture, which found patrons among an urban elite.[112] Classical Sanskrit literature flowered as well, and Indian science, astronomy, medicine, and mathematics made significant advances.[112]

Medieval India

Brihadeshwara temple, Thanjavur, completed in 1010 CE

The Qutub Minar, 73 m (240 ft) tall, completed by the Sultan of Delhi, Iltutmish
The Indian early medieval age, from 600 to 1200 CE, is defined by regional kingdoms and cultural diversity.[114] When Harsha of Kannauj, who ruled much of the Indo-Gangetic Plain from 606 to 647 CE, attempted to expand southwards, he was defeated by the Chalukya ruler of the Deccan.[115] When his successor attempted to expand eastwards, he was defeated by the Pala king of Bengal.[115] When the Chalukyas attempted to expand southwards, they were defeated by the Pallavas from farther south, who in turn were opposed by the Pandyas and the Cholas from still farther south.[115] No ruler of this period was able to create an empire and consistently control lands much beyond their core region.[114] During this time, pastoral peoples, whose land had been cleared to make way for the growing agricultural economy, were accommodated within caste society, as were new non-traditional ruling classes.[116] The caste system consequently began to show regional differences.[116]

In the 6th and 7th centuries, the first devotional hymns were created in the Tamil language.[117] They were imitated all over India and led to both the resurgence of Hinduism and the development of all modern languages of the subcontinent.[117] Indian royalty, big and small, and the temples they patronised drew citizens in great numbers to the capital cities, which became economic hubs as well.[118] Temple towns of various sizes began to appear everywhere as India underwent another urbanisation.[118] By the 8th and 9th centuries, the effects were felt in South-East Asia, as South Indian culture and political systems were exported to lands that became part of modern-day Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Brunei, Cambodia, Vietnam, Philippines, Malaysia, and Indonesia.[119] Indian merchants, scholars, and sometimes armies were involved in this transmission; South-East Asians took the initiative as well, with many sojourning in Indian seminaries and translating Buddhist and Hindu texts into their languages.[119]

After the 10th century, Muslim Central Asian nomadic clans, using swift-horse cavalry and raising vast armies united by ethnicity and religion, repeatedly overran South Asia's north-western plains, leading eventually to the establishment of the Islamic Delhi Sultanate in 1206.[120] The sultanate was to control much of North India and to make many forays into South India. Although at first disruptive for the Indian elites, the sultanate largely left its vast non-Muslim subject population to its own laws and customs.[121][122] By repeatedly repulsing Mongol raiders in the 13th century, the sultanate saved India from the devastation visited on West and Central Asia, setting the scene for centuries of migration of fleeing soldiers, learned men, mystics, traders, artists, and artisans from that region into the subcontinent, thereby creating a syncretic Indo-Islamic culture in the north.[123][124] The sultanate's raiding and weakening of the regional kingdoms of South India paved the way for the indigenous Vijayanagara Empire.[125] Embracing a strong Shaivite tradition and building upon the military technology of the sultanate, the empire came to control much of peninsular India,[126] and was to influence South Indian society for long afterwards.[125]

Early modern India
In the early 16th century, northern India, then under mainly Muslim rulers,[127] fell again to the superior mobility and firepower of a new generation of Central Asian warriors.[128] The resulting Mughal Empire did not stamp out the local societies it came to rule. Instead, it balanced and pacified them through new administrative practices[129][130] and diverse and inclusive ruling elites,[131] leading to more systematic, centralised, and uniform rule.[132] Eschewing tribal bonds and Islamic identity, especially under Akbar, the Mughals united their far-flung realms through loyalty, expressed through a Persianised culture, to an emperor who had near-divine status.[131] The Mughal state's economic policies, deriving most revenues from agriculture[133] and mandating that taxes be paid in the well-regulated silver currency,[134] caused peasants and artisans to enter larger markets.[132] The relative peace maintained by the empire during much of the 17th century was a factor in India's economic expansion,[132] resulting in greater patronage of painting, literary forms, textiles, and architecture.[135] Newly coherent social groups in northern and western India, such as the Marathas, the Rajputs, and the Sikhs, gained military and governing ambitions during Mughal rule, which, through collaboration or adversity, gave them both recognition and military experience.[136] Expanding commerce during Mughal rule gave rise to new Indian commercial and political elites along the coasts of southern and eastern India.[136] As the empire disintegrated, many among these elites were able to seek and control their own affairs.[137]


A distant view of the Taj Mahal from the Agra Fort

A two mohur Company gold coin, issued in 1835, the obverse inscribed "William IV, King"
By the early 18th century, with the lines between commercial and political dominance being increasingly blurred, a number of European trading companies, including the English East India Company, had established coastal outposts.[138][139] The East India Company's control of the seas, greater resources, and more advanced military training and technology led it to increasingly assert its military strength and caused it to become attractive to a portion of the Indian elite; these factors were crucial in allowing the company to gain control over the Bengal region by 1765 and sideline the other European companies.[140][138][141][142] Its further access to the riches of Bengal and the subsequent increased strength and size of its army enabled it to annex or subdue most of India by the 1820s.[143] India was then no longer exporting manufactured goods as it long had, but was instead supplying the British Empire with raw materials. Many historians consider this to be the onset of India's colonial period.[138] By this time, with its economic power severely curtailed by the British parliament and having effectively been made an arm of British administration, the East India Company began more consciously to enter non-economic arenas, including education, social reform, and culture.[144]

Modern India
Main article: History of the Republic of India
Historians consider India's modern age to have begun sometime between 1848 and 1885. The appointment in 1848 of Lord Dalhousie as Governor General of the East India Company set the stage for changes essential to a modern state. These included the consolidation and demarcation of sovereignty, the surveillance of the population, and the education of citizens. Technological changes—among them, railways, canals, and the telegraph—were introduced not long after their introduction in Europe.[145][146][147][148] However, disaffection with the company also grew during this time and set off the Indian Rebellion of 1857. Fed by diverse resentments and perceptions, including invasive British-style social reforms, harsh land taxes, and summary treatment of some rich landowners and princes, the rebellion rocked many regions of northern and central India and shook the foundations of Company rule.[149][150] Although the rebellion was suppressed by 1858, it led to the dissolution of the East India Company and the direct administration of India by the British government. Proclaiming a unitary state and a gradual but limited British-style parliamentary system, the new rulers also protected princes and landed gentry as a feudal safeguard against future unrest.[151][152] In the decades following, public life gradually emerged all over India, leading eventually to the founding of the Indian National Congress in 1885.[153][154][155][156]

The rush of technology and the commercialisation of agriculture in the second half of the 19th century was marked by economic setbacks and many small farmers became dependent on the whims of far-away markets.[157] There was an increase in the number of large-scale famines,[158] and, despite the risks of infrastructure development borne by Indian taxpayers, little industrial employment was generated for Indians.[159] There were also salutary effects: commercial cropping, especially in the newly canalled Punjab, led to increased food production for internal consumption.[160] The railway network provided critical famine relief,[161] notably reduced the cost of moving goods,[161] and helped nascent Indian-owned industry.[160]


1909 map of the British Indian Empire

Jawaharlal Nehru sharing a light moment with Mahatma Gandhi, Mumbai, 6 July 1946
After World War I, in which approximately one million Indians served,[162] a new period began. It was marked by British reforms but also repressive legislation, by more strident Indian calls for self-rule, and by the beginnings of a nonviolent movement of non-co-operation, of which Mahatma Gandhi would become the leader and enduring symbol.[163] During the 1930s, slow legislative reform was enacted by the British; the Indian National Congress won victories in the resulting elections.[164] The next decade was beset with crises: Indian participation in World War II, the Congress's final push for non-co-operation, and an upsurge of Muslim nationalism. All were capped by the advent of independence in 1947, but tempered by the partition of India into two states: India and Pakistan.[165]

Vital to India's self-image as an independent nation was its constitution, completed in 1950, which put in place a secular and democratic republic.[166] Per the London Declaration, India retained its membership of the Commonwealth, becoming the first republic within it.[167] Economic liberalisation, which began in the 1990s, has created a large urban middle class, transformed India into one of the world's fastest-growing economies,[168] and increased its geopolitical clout. Indian films, music, and spiritual teachings play an increasing role in global culture.[169] Yet, India is also shaped by seemingly unyielding poverty, both rural and urban;[169] by religious and caste-related violence;[170] by Maoist-inspired Naxalite insurgencies;[171] and by separatism in Jammu and Kashmir and in Northeast India.[172] It has unresolved territorial disputes with China[173] and with Pakistan.[173] India's sustained democratic freedoms are unique among the world's newer nations; however, in spite of its recent economic successes, freedom from want for its disadvantaged population remains a goal yet to be achieved.[174]

Geography
Main article: Geography of India
India accounts for the bulk of the Indian subcontinent, lying atop the Indian tectonic plate, a part of the Indo-Australian Plate.[175] India's defining geological processes began 75 million years ago when the Indian Plate, then part of the southern supercontinent Gondwana, began a north-eastward drift caused by seafloor spreading to its south-west, and later, south and south-east.[175] Simultaneously, the vast Tethyan oceanic crust, to its northeast, began to subduct under the Eurasian Plate.[175] These dual processes, driven by convection in the Earth's mantle, both created the Indian Ocean and caused the Indian continental crust eventually to under-thrust Eurasia and to uplift the Himalayas.[175] Immediately south of the emerging Himalayas, plate movement created a vast crescent-shaped trough that rapidly filled with river-borne sediment[176] and now constitutes the Indo-Gangetic Plain.[177] The original Indian plate makes its first appearance above the sediment in the ancient Aravalli range, which extends from the Delhi Ridge in a southwesterly direction. To the west lies the Thar Desert, the eastern spread of which is checked by the Aravallis.[178][179][180]


The Tungabhadra, with rocky outcrops, flows into the peninsular Krishna river.[181]

Fishing boats lashed together in a tidal creek in Anjarle village, Maharashtra
The remaining Indian Plate survives as peninsular India, the oldest and geologically most stable part of India. It extends as far north as the Satpura and Vindhya ranges in central India. These parallel chains run from the Arabian Sea coast in Gujarat in the west to the coal-rich Chota Nagpur Plateau in Jharkhand in the east.[182] To the south, the remaining peninsular landmass, the Deccan Plateau, is flanked on the west and east by coastal ranges known as the Western and Eastern Ghats;[183] the plateau contains the country's oldest rock formations, some over one billion years old. Constituted in such fashion, India lies to the north of the equator between 6° 44′ and 35° 30′ north latitude[m] and 68° 7′ and 97° 25′ east longitude.[184]

India's coastline measures 7,517 kilometres (4,700 mi) in length; of this distance, 5,423 kilometres (3,400 mi) belong to peninsular India and 2,094 kilometres (1,300 mi) to the Andaman, Nicobar, and Lakshadweep island chains.[185] According to the Indian naval hydrographic charts, the mainland coastline consists of the following: 43% sandy beaches; 11% rocky shores, including cliffs; and 46% mudflats or marshy shores.[185]

Major Himalayan-origin rivers that substantially flow through India include the Ganges and the Brahmaputra, both of which drain into the Bay of Bengal.[186] Important tributaries of the Ganges include the Yamuna and the Kosi; the latter's extremely low gradient, caused by long-term silt deposition, leads to severe floods and course changes.[187][188] Major peninsular rivers, whose steeper gradients prevent their waters from flooding, include the Godavari, the Mahanadi, the Kaveri, and the Krishna, which also drain into the Bay of Bengal;[189] and the Narmada and the Tapti, which drain into the Arabian Sea.[190] Coastal features include the marshy Rann of Kutch of western India and the alluvial Sundarbans delta of eastern India; the latter is shared with Bangladesh.[191] India has two archipelagos: the Lakshadweep, coral atolls off India's south-western coast; and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, a volcanic chain in the Andaman Sea.[192]

Indian climate is strongly influenced by the Himalayas and the Thar Desert, both of which drive the economically and culturally pivotal summer and winter monsoons.[193] The Himalayas prevent cold Central Asian katabatic winds from blowing in, keeping the bulk of the Indian subcontinent warmer than most locations at similar latitudes.[194][195] The Thar Desert plays a crucial role in attracting the moisture-laden south-west summer monsoon winds that, between June and October, provide the majority of India's rainfall.[193] Four major climatic groupings predominate in India: tropical wet, tropical dry, subtropical humid, and montane.[196]

Temperatures in India have risen by 0.7 °C (1.3 °F) between 1901 and 2018.[197] Climate change in India is often thought to be the cause. The retreat of Himalayan glaciers has adversely affected the flow rate of the major Himalayan rivers, including the Ganges and the Brahmaputra.[198] According to some current projections, the number and severity of droughts in India will have markedly increased by the end of the present century.[199]

Biodiversity
Main articles: Forestry in India and Wildlife of India

India has the majority of the world's wild tigers, approximately 3,170 in 2022.[200]

A Chital (Axis axis) stag in the Nagarhole National Park in a region covered by a moderately dense[n] forest.
India is a megadiverse country, a term employed for 17 countries which display high biological diversity and contain many species exclusively indigenous, or endemic, to them.[201] India is a habitat for 8.6% of all mammal species, 13.7% of bird species, 7.9% of reptile species, 6% of amphibian species, 12.2% of fish species, and 6.0% of all flowering plant species.[202][203] Fully a third of Indian plant species are endemic.[204] India also contains four of the world's 34 biodiversity hotspots,[73] or regions that display significant habitat loss in the presence of high endemism.[o][205]

According to official statistics, India's forest cover is 713,789 km2 (275,595 sq mi), which is 21.71% of the country's total land area.[74] It can be subdivided further into broad categories of canopy density, or the proportion of the area of a forest covered by its tree canopy.[206] Very dense forest, whose canopy density is greater than 70%, occupies 3.02% of India's land area.[206][207] It predominates in the tropical moist forest of the Andaman Islands, the Western Ghats, and Northeast India. Moderately dense forest, whose canopy density is between 40% and 70%, occupies 9.39% of India's land area.[206][207] It predominates in the temperate coniferous forest of the Himalayas, the moist deciduous sal forest of eastern India, and the dry deciduous teak forest of central and southern India.[208] Open forest, whose canopy density is between 10% and 40%, occupies 9.26% of India's land area.[206][207] India has two natural zones of thorn forest, one in the Deccan Plateau, immediately east of the Western Ghats, and the other in the western part of the Indo-Gangetic plain, now turned into rich agricultural land by irrigation, its features no longer visible.[209]

Among the Indian subcontinent's notable indigenous trees are the astringent Azadirachta indica, or neem, which is widely used in rural Indian herbal medicine,[210] and the luxuriant Ficus religiosa, or peepul,[211] which is displayed on the ancient seals of Mohenjo-daro,[212] and under which the Buddha is recorded in the Pali canon to have sought enlightenment.[213]

Many Indian species have descended from those of Gondwana, the southern supercontinent from which India separated more than 100 million years ago.[214] India's subsequent collision with Eurasia set off a mass exchange of species. However, volcanism and climatic changes later caused the extinction of many endemic Indian forms.[215] Still later, mammals entered India from Asia through two zoogeographical passes flanking the Himalayas.[216] This had the effect of lowering endemism among India's mammals, which stands at 12.6%, contrasting with 45.8% among reptiles and 55.8% among amphibians.[203] Among endemics are the vulnerable[217] hooded leaf monkey[218] and the threatened[219] Beddome's toad[219][220] of the Western Ghats.


The last three Asiatic cheetahs (on record) in India were shot dead in 1948 in Surguja district, Madhya Pradesh, Central India by Maharajah Ramanuj Pratap Singh Deo. The young males, all from the same litter, were sitting together when they were shot at night.
India contains 172 IUCN-designated threatened animal species, or 2.9% of endangered forms.[221] These include the endangered Bengal tiger and the Ganges river dolphin. Critically endangered species include: the gharial, a crocodilian; the great Indian bustard; and the Indian white-rumped vulture, which has become nearly extinct by having ingested the carrion of diclofenac-treated cattle.[222] Before they were extensively utilized for agriculture and cleared for human settlement, the thorn forests of Punjab were mingled at intervals with open grasslands that were grazed by large herds of blackbuck preyed on by the Asiatic cheetah; the blackbuck, no longer extant in Punjab, is now severely endangered in India, and the cheetah is extinct.[223] The pervasive and ecologically devastating human encroachment of recent decades has critically endangered Indian wildlife. In response, the system of national parks and protected areas, first established in 1935, was expanded substantially. In 1972, India enacted the Wildlife Protection Act[224] and Project Tiger to safeguard crucial wilderness; the Forest Conservation Act was enacted in 1980 and amendments added in 1988.[225] India hosts more than five hundred wildlife sanctuaries and eighteen biosphere reserves,[226] four of which are part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves; seventy-five wetlands are registered under the Ramsar Convention.[227]

Politics and government
Politics
Main article: Politics of India

As part of Janadesh 2007, 25,000 pro-land reform landless people in Madhya Pradesh listen to Rajagopal P. V.[228]
A parliamentary republic with a multi-party system,[229] it has six recognised national parties, including the Indian National Congress (INC) and the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), and more than 50 regional parties.[230] The Congress is considered centre-left in Indian political culture,[231] and the BJP right-wing.[232][233][234] For most of the period between 1950—when India first became a republic—and the late 1980s, the Congress held a majority in the Parliament. Since then, however, it has increasingly shared the political stage with the BJP,[235] as well as with powerful regional parties which have often forced the creation of multi-party coalition governments at the centre.[236]

In the Republic of India's first three general elections, in 1951, 1957, and 1962, the Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru-led Congress won easy victories. On Nehru's death in 1964, Lal Bahadur Shastri briefly became prime minister; he was succeeded, after his own unexpected death in 1966, by Nehru's daughter Indira Gandhi, who went on to lead the Congress to election victories in 1967 and 1971. Following public discontent with the state of emergency she declared in 1975, the Congress was voted out of power in 1977; the then-new Janata Party, which had opposed the emergency, was voted in. Its government lasted just over two years. There were two prime ministers during this period; Morarji Desai and Charan Singh. Voted back into power in 1980, the Congress saw a change in leadership in 1984, when Indira Gandhi was assassinated; she was succeeded by her son Rajiv Gandhi, who won an easy victory in the general elections later that year. The Congress was voted out again in 1989 when a National Front coalition, led by the newly formed Janata Dal in alliance with the Left Front, won the elections; that government too proved relatively short-lived, lasting just under two years. There were two prime ministers during this period; V.P. Singh and Chandra Shekhar.[237] Elections were held again in 1991; no party won an absolute majority. The Congress, as the largest single party, was able to form a minority government led by P. V. Narasimha Rao.[238]


US president Barack Obama addresses the members of the Parliament of India in New Delhi in November 2010.
A two-year period of political turmoil followed the general election of 1996. Several short-lived alliances shared power at the centre. The BJP formed a government briefly in 1996; it was followed by two comparatively long-lasting United Front coalitions, which depended on external support. There were two prime ministers during this period; H.D. Deve Gowda and I.K. Gujral. In 1998, the BJP was able to form a successful coalition, the National Democratic Alliance (NDA). Led by Atal Bihari Vajpayee, the NDA became the first non-Congress, coalition government to complete a five-year term.[239] Again in the 2004 Indian general elections, no party won an absolute majority, but the Congress emerged as the largest single party, forming another successful coalition: the United Progressive Alliance (UPA). It had the support of left-leaning parties and MPs who opposed the BJP. The UPA returned to power in the 2009 general election with increased numbers, and it no longer required external support from India's communist parties.[240] That year, Manmohan Singh became the first prime minister since Jawaharlal Nehru in 1957 and 1962 to be re-elected to a consecutive five-year term.[241] In the 2014 general election, the BJP became the first political party since 1984 to win a majority and govern without the support of other parties.[242] In the 2019 general election, the BJP was victorious again. The incumbent prime minister is Narendra Modi, a former chief minister of Gujarat. On 22 July 2022, Droupadi Murmu was elected India's 15th president and took the oath of office on 25 July 2022.[243]

Government
Main articles: Government of India and Constitution of India

Rashtrapati Bhavan, the official residence of the President of India, was designed by British architects Edwin Lutyens and Herbert Baker for the Viceroy of India, and constructed between 1911 and 1931 during the British Raj.[244]
India is a federation with a parliamentary system governed under the Constitution of India—the country's supreme legal document. It is a constitutional republic. Its democratic functioning has come into question in recent years, with some stating that it has become a mixed regime or electoral autocracy.[245]

Federalism in India defines the power distribution between the union and the states. The Constitution of India, which came into effect on 26 January 1950,[246] originally stated India to be a "sovereign, democratic republic;" this characterisation was amended in 1971 to "a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic".[247] India's form of government, traditionally described as "quasi-federal" with a strong centre and weak states,[248] has grown increasingly federal since the late 1990s as a result of political, economic, and social changes.[249][250]

National symbols[1]

Flag of India
Emblem Sarnath Lion Capital
Anthem Jana Gana Mana
Song "Vande Mataram"
Language None[9][10][11]
Currency ₹ (Indian rupee)
Calendar Saka
Bird Indian peafowl
Flower Lotus
Fruit Mango
Mammal
Bengal tiger
River dolphin
Tree Banyan
River Ganges
The Government of India comprises three branches:[251]

Executive: The President of India is the ceremonial head of state,[252] who is elected indirectly for a five-year term by an electoral college comprising members of national and state legislatures.[253][254] The Prime Minister of India is the head of government and exercises most executive power.[255] Appointed by the president,[256] the prime minister is by convention supported by the party or political alliance having a majority of seats in the lower house of parliament.[255] The executive of the Indian government consists of the president, the vice president, and the Union Council of Ministers—with the cabinet being its executive committee—headed by the prime minister. Any minister holding a portfolio must be a member of one of the houses of parliament.[252] In the Indian parliamentary system, the executive is subordinate to the legislature; the prime minister and their council are directly responsible to the lower house of the parliament. Civil servants act as permanent executives and all decisions of the executive are implemented by them.[257]
Legislature: The legislature of India is the bicameral parliament. Operating under a Westminster-style parliamentary system, it comprises an upper house called the Rajya Sabha (Council of States) and a lower house called the Lok Sabha (House of the People).[258] The Rajya Sabha is a permanent body of 245 members who serve staggered six-year terms.[259] Most are elected indirectly by the state and union territorial legislatures in numbers proportional to their state's share of the national population.[256] All but two of the Lok Sabha's 545 members are elected directly by popular vote; they represent single-member constituencies for five-year terms.[260] Two seats of parliament, reserved for Anglo-Indians in the article 331, have been scrapped.[261][262]
Judiciary: India has a three-tier unitary independent judiciary[263] comprising the supreme court, headed by the Chief Justice of India, 25 high courts, and a large number of trial courts.[263] The supreme court has original jurisdiction over cases involving fundamental rights and over disputes between states and the centre and has appellate jurisdiction over the high courts.[264] It has the power to both strike down union or state laws which contravene the constitution[265] and invalidate any government action it deems unconstitutional.[266]
Administrative divisions
Main article: Administrative divisions of India
See also: Political integration of India
India is a federal union comprising 28 states and 8 union territories.[16] All states, as well as the union territories of Jammu and Kashmir, Puducherry and the National Capital Territory of Delhi, have elected legislatures and governments following the Westminster system of governance. The remaining five union territories are directly ruled by the central government through appointed administrators. In 1956, under the States Reorganisation Act, states were reorganised on a linguistic basis.[267] There are over a quarter of a million local government bodies at city, town, block, district and village levels.[268]


A clickable map of the 28 states and 8 union territories of India

States
Andhra Pradesh
Arunachal Pradesh
Assam
Bihar
Chhattisgarh
Goa
Gujarat
Haryana
Himachal Pradesh
Jharkhand
Karnataka
Kerala
Madhya Pradesh
Maharashtra
Manipur
Meghalaya
Mizoram
Nagaland
Odisha
Punjab
Rajasthan
Sikkim
Tamil Nadu
Telangana
Tripura
Uttar Pradesh
Uttarakhand
West Bengal
Union territories
Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Chandigarh
Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu
Jammu and Kashmir
Ladakh
Lakshadweep
National Capital Territory of Delhi
Puducherry
Foreign, economic and strategic relations
Main articles: Foreign relations of India and Indian Armed Forces

During the 1950s and 60s, India played a pivotal role in the Non-Aligned Movement.[269] From left to right: Gamal Abdel Nasser of United Arab Republic (now Egypt), Josip Broz Tito of Yugoslavia and Jawaharlal Nehru in Belgrade, September 1961.
In the 1950s, India strongly supported decolonisation in Africa and Asia and played a leading role in the Non-Aligned Movement.[270] After initially cordial relations with neighbouring China, India went to war with China in 1962 and was widely thought to have been humiliated.[271] This was followed by another military conflict in 1967 in which India successfully repelled Chinese attack.[272] India has had tense relations with neighbouring Pakistan; the two nations have gone to war four times: in 1947, 1965, 1971, and 1999. Three of these wars were fought over the disputed territory of Kashmir, while the third, the 1971 war, followed from India's support for the independence of Bangladesh.[273] In the late 1980s, the Indian military twice intervened abroad at the invitation of the host country: a peace-keeping operation in Sri Lanka between 1987 and 1990; and an armed intervention to prevent a 1988 coup d'état attempt in the Maldives. After the 1965 war with Pakistan, India began to pursue close military and economic ties with the Soviet Union; by the late 1960s, the Soviet Union was its largest arms supplier.[274]

Aside from ongoing its special relationship with Russia,[275] India has wide-ranging defence relations with Israel and France. In recent years, it has played key roles in the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation and the World Trade Organization. The nation has provided 100,000 military and police personnel to serve in 35 UN peacekeeping operations across four continents. It participates in the East Asia Summit, the G8+5, and other multilateral forums.[276] India has close economic ties with countries in South America,[277] Asia, and Africa; it pursues a "Look East" policy that seeks to strengthen partnerships with the ASEAN nations, Japan, and South Korea that revolve around many issues, but especially those involving economic investment and regional security.[278][279]


The Indian Air Force contingent marching at the 221st Bastille Day military parade in Paris, on 14 July 2009. The parade at which India was the foreign guest was led by India's oldest regiment, the Maratha Light Infantry, founded in 1768.[280]
China's nuclear test of 1964, as well as its repeated threats to intervene in support of Pakistan in the 1965 war, convinced India to develop nuclear weapons.[281] India conducted its first nuclear weapons test in 1974 and carried out additional underground testing in 1998. Despite criticism and military sanctions, India has signed neither the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty nor the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, considering both to be flawed and discriminatory.[282] India maintains a "no first use" nuclear policy and is developing a nuclear triad capability as a part of its "Minimum Credible Deterrence" doctrine.[283][284] It is developing a ballistic missile defence shield and, a fifth-generation fighter jet.[285][286] Other indigenous military projects involve the design and implementation of Vikrant-class aircraft carriers and Arihant-class nuclear submarines.[287]

Since the end of the Cold War, India has increased its economic, strategic, and military co-operation with the United States and the European Union.[288] In 2008, a civilian nuclear agreement was signed between India and the United States. Although India possessed nuclear weapons at the time and was not a party to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, it received waivers from the International Atomic Energy Agency and the Nuclear Suppliers Group, ending earlier restrictions on India's nuclear technology and commerce. As a consequence, India became the sixth de facto nuclear weapons state.[289] India subsequently signed co-operation agreements involving civilian nuclear energy with Russia,[290] France,[291] the United Kingdom,[292] and Canada.[293]


Prime Minister Narendra Modi of India (left, background) in talks with President Enrique Peña Nieto of Mexico during a visit to Mexico, 2016
The President of India is the supreme commander of the nation's armed forces; with 1.45 million active troops, they compose the world's second-largest military. It comprises the Indian Army, the Indian Navy, the Indian Air Force, and the Indian Coast Guard.[294] The official Indian defence budget for 2011 was US$36.03 billion, or 1.83% of GDP.[295] Defence expenditure was pegged at US$70.12 billion for fiscal year 2022–23 and, increased 9.8% than previous fiscal year.[296][297] India is the world's second largest arms importer; between 2016 and 2020, it accounted for 9.5% of the total global arms imports.[298] Much of the military expenditure was focused on defence against Pakistan and countering growing Chinese influence in the Indian Ocean.[299] In May 2017, the Indian Space Research Organisation launched the South Asia Satellite, a gift from India to its neighbouring SAARC countries.[300] In October 2018, India signed a US$5.43 billion (over ₹400 billion) agreement with Russia to procure four S-400 Triumf surface-to-air missile defence systems, Russia's most advanced long-range missile defence system.[301]

Economy
Main article: Economy of India

A farmer in northwestern Karnataka ploughs his field with a tractor even as another in a field beyond does the same with a pair of oxen. In 2019, 43% of India's total workforce was employed in agriculture.[302]

India is the world's largest producer of milk, with the largest population of cattle. In 2018, nearly 80% of India's milk was sourced from small farms with herd size between one and two, the milk harvested by hand milking.[304]

Women tend to a recently planted rice field in Junagadh district in Gujarat. 55% of India's female workforce was employed in agriculture in 2019.[303]
According to the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the Indian economy in 2022 was nominally worth $3.46 trillion; it was the fifth-largest economy by market exchange rates, and is around $11.6 trillion, the third-largest by purchasing power parity (PPP).[305] With its average annual GDP growth rate of 5.8% over the past two decades, and reaching 6.1% during 2011–2012,[306] India is one of the world's fastest-growing economies.[307] However, the country ranks 139th in the world in nominal GDP per capita and 118th in GDP per capita at PPP.[308] Until 1991, all Indian governments followed protectionist policies that were influenced by socialist economics. Widespread state intervention and regulation largely walled the economy off from the outside world. An acute balance of payments crisis in 1991 forced the nation to liberalise its economy;[309] since then, it has moved increasingly towards a free-market system[310][311] by emphasising both foreign trade and direct investment inflows.[312] India has been a member of World Trade Organization since 1 January 1995.[313]

The 522-million-worker Indian labour force is the world's second-largest, as of 2017.[294] The service sector makes up 55.6% of GDP, the industrial sector 26.3% and the agricultural sector 18.1%. India's foreign exchange remittances of US$100 billion in 2022,[314] highest in the world, were contributed to its economy by 32 million Indians working in foreign countries.[315] Major agricultural products include: rice, wheat, oilseed, cotton, jute, tea, sugarcane, and potatoes.[16] Major industries include: textiles, telecommunications, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, biotechnology, food processing, steel, transport equipment, cement, mining, petroleum, machinery, and software.[16] In 2006, the share of external trade in India's GDP stood at 24%, up from 6% in 1985.[310] In 2008, India's share of world trade was 1.68%;[316] In 2021, India was the world's ninth-largest importer and the sixteenth-largest exporter.[317] Major exports include: petroleum products, textile goods, jewellery, software, engineering goods, chemicals, and manufactured leather goods.[16] Major imports include: crude oil, machinery, gems, fertiliser, and chemicals.[16] Between 2001 and 2011, the contribution of petrochemical and engineering goods to total exports grew from 14% to 42%.[318] India was the world's second largest textile exporter after China in the 2013 calendar year.[319]

Averaging an economic growth rate of 7.5% for several years prior to 2007,[310] India has more than doubled its hourly wage rates during the first decade of the 21st century.[320] Some 431 million Indians have left poverty since 1985; India's middle classes are projected to number around 580 million by 2030.[321] Though ranking 68th in global competitiveness,[322] as of 2010, India ranks 17th in financial market sophistication, 24th in the banking sector, 44th in business sophistication, and 39th in innovation, ahead of several advanced economies.[323] With seven of the world's top 15 information technology outsourcing companies based in India, as of 2009, the country is viewed as the second-most favourable outsourcing destination after the United States.[324] India is ranked 40th in the Global Innovation Index in 2022.[325] India's consumer market, the world's eleventh-largest, is expected to become fifth-largest by 2030.[321]

Driven by growth, India's nominal GDP per capita increased steadily from US$308 in 1991, when economic liberalisation began, to US$1,380 in 2010, to an estimated US$1,730 in 2016. It is expected to grow to US$2,466 by 2022.[20] However, it has remained lower than those of other Asian developing countries such as Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Sri Lanka, and Thailand, and is expected to remain so in the near future.


A panorama of Bangalore, the centre of India's software development economy. In the 1980s, when the first multinational corporations began to set up centres in India, they chose Bangalore because of the large pool of skilled graduates in the area, in turn due to the many science and engineering colleges in the surrounding region.[326]
According to a 2011 PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC) report, India's GDP at purchasing power parity could overtake that of the United States by 2045.[327] During the next four decades, Indian GDP is expected to grow at an annualised average of 8%, making it potentially the world's fastest-growing major economy until 2050.[327] The report highlights key growth factors: a young and rapidly growing working-age population; growth in the manufacturing sector because of rising education and engineering skill levels; and sustained growth of the consumer market driven by a rapidly growing middle-class.[327] The World Bank cautions that, for India to achieve its economic potential, it must continue to focus on public sector reform, transport infrastructure, agricultural and rural development, removal of labour regulations, education, energy security, and public health and nutrition.[328]

According to the Worldwide Cost of Living Report 2017 released by the Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU) which was created by comparing more than 400 individual prices across 160 products and services, four of the cheapest cities were in India: Bangalore (3rd), Mumbai (5th), Chennai (5th) and New Delhi (8th).[329]

Industries

A tea garden in Sikkim. India, the world's second largest-producer of tea, is a nation of one billion tea drinkers, who consume 70% of India's tea output.
India's telecommunication industry is the second-largest in the world with over 1.2 billion subscribers. It contributes 6.5% to India's GDP.[330] After the third quarter of 2017, India surpassed the US to become the second largest smartphone market in the world after China.[331]

The Indian automotive industry, the world's second-fastest growing, increased domestic sales by 26% during 2009–2010,[332] and exports by 36% during 2008–2009.[333] In 2022, India became the world's third-largest vehicle market after China and the United States, surpassing Japan.[334] At the end of 2011, the Indian IT industry employed 2.8 million professionals, generated revenues close to US$100 billion equalling 7.5% of Indian GDP, and contributed 26% of India's merchandise exports.[335]

The pharmaceutical industry in India emerged as a global player. As of 2021, with 3000 pharmaceutical companies and 10,500 manufacturing units India is the world's third-largest pharmaceutical producer, largest producer of generic medicines and supply up to 50—60% of global vaccines demand, these all contribute up to US$24.44 billions in exports and India's local pharmaceutical market is estimated up to US$42 billion.[336][337] India is among the top 12 biotech destinations in the world.[338][339] The Indian biotech industry grew by 15.1% in 2012–2013, increasing its revenues from ₹204.4 billion (Indian rupees) to ₹235.24 billion (US$3.94 billion at June 2013 exchange rates).[340]

Energy
Main articles: Energy in India and Energy policy of India
India's capacity to generate electrical power is 300 gigawatts, of which 42 gigawatts is renewable.[341] The country's usage of coal is a major cause of greenhouse gas emissions by India but its renewable energy is competing strongly.[342] India emits about 7% of global greenhouse gas emissions. This equates to about 2.5 tons of carbon dioxide per person per year, which is half the world average.[343][344] Increasing access to electricity and clean cooking with liquefied petroleum gas have been priorities for energy in India.[345]

Socio-economic challenges

Health workers about to begin another day of immunisation against infectious diseases in 2006. Eight years later, and three years after India's last case of polio, the World Health Organization declared India to be polio-free.[346]
Despite economic growth during recent decades, India continues to face socio-economic challenges. In 2006, India contained the largest number of people living below the World Bank's international poverty line of US$1.25 per day.[347] The proportion decreased from 60% in 1981 to 42% in 2005.[348] Under the World Bank's later revised poverty line, it was 21% in 2011.[p][350] 30.7% of India's children under the age of five are underweight.[351] According to a Food and Agriculture Organization report in 2015, 15% of the population is undernourished.[352][353] The Mid-Day Meal Scheme attempts to lower these rates.[354]

A 2018 Walk Free Foundation report estimated that nearly 8 million people in India were living in different forms of modern slavery, such as bonded labour, child labour, human trafficking, and forced begging, among others.[355] According to the 2011 census, there were 10.1 million child labourers in the country, a decline of 2.6 million from 12.6 million in 2001.[356]

Since 1991, economic inequality between India's states has consistently grown: the per-capita net state domestic product of the richest states in 2007 was 3.2 times that of the poorest.[357] Corruption in India is perceived to have decreased. According to the Corruption Perceptions Index, India ranked 78th out of 180 countries in 2018 with a score of 41 out of 100, an improvement from 85th in 2014.[358][359]

Epidemic and pandemic diseases have long been a major factor, including COVID-19 recently.[360]

Demographics, languages, and religion
Main articles: Demographics of India, Languages of India, and Religion in India
See also: South Asian ethnic groups
India by language

The language families of South Asia
With 1,210,193,422 residents reported in the 2011 provisional census report,[361] India was the world's second-most populous country.[q] Its population grew by 17.64% from 2001 to 2011,[363] compared to 21.54% growth in the previous decade (1991–2001).[363] The human sex ratio, according to the 2011 census, is 940 females per 1,000 males.[361] The median age was 28.7 as of 2020.[294] The first post-colonial census, conducted in 1951, counted 361 million people.[364] Medical advances made in the last 50 years as well as increased agricultural productivity brought about by the "Green Revolution" have caused India's population to grow rapidly.[365]

The life expectancy in India is at 70 years—71.5 years for women, 68.7 years for men.[294] There are around 93 physicians per 100,000 people.[366] Migration from rural to urban areas has been an important dynamic in India's recent history. The number of people living in urban areas grew by 31.2% between 1991 and 2001.[367] Yet, in 2001, over 70% still lived in rural areas.[368][369] The level of urbanisation increased further from 27.81% in the 2001 Census to 31.16% in the 2011 Census. The slowing down of the overall population growth rate was due to the sharp decline in the growth rate in rural areas since 1991.[370] According to the 2011 census, there are 53 million-plus urban agglomerations in India; among them Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkata, Chennai, Bangalore, Hyderabad and Ahmedabad, in decreasing order by population.[371] The literacy rate in 2011 was 74.04%: 65.46% among females and 82.14% among males.[372] The rural-urban literacy gap, which was 21.2 percentage points in 2001, dropped to 16.1 percentage points in 2011. The improvement in the rural literacy rate is twice that of urban areas.[370] Kerala is the most literate state with 93.91% literacy; while Bihar the least with 63.82%.[372]


The interior of San Thome Basilica, Chennai, Tamil Nadu. Christianity is believed to have been introduced to India by the late 2nd century by Syriac-speaking Christians.
Among speakers of the Indian languages, 74% speak Indo-Aryan languages, the easternmost branch of the Indo-European languages; 24% speak Dravidian languages, indigenous to South Asia and spoken widely before the spread of Indo-Aryan languages and 2% speak Austroasiatic languages or the Sino-Tibetan languages. India has no national language.[373] Hindi, with the largest number of speakers, is the official language of the government.[374][375] English is used extensively in business and administration and has the status of a "subsidiary official language";[6] it is important in education, especially as a medium of higher education. Each state and union territory has one or more official languages, and the constitution recognises in particular 22 "scheduled languages".

The 2011 census reported the religion in India with the largest number of followers was Hinduism (79.80% of the population), followed by Islam (14.23%); the remaining were Christianity (2.30%), Sikhism (1.72%), Buddhism (0.70%), Jainism (0.36%) and others[r] (0.9%).[15] India has the third-largest Muslim population—the largest for a non-Muslim majority country.[376][377]

Culture
Main article: Culture of India

A Sikh pilgrim at the Harmandir Sahib, or Golden Temple, in Amritsar, Punjab
Indian cultural history spans more than 4,500 years.[378] During the Vedic period (c. 1700 BCE – c. 500 BCE), the foundations of Hindu philosophy, mythology, theology and literature were laid, and many beliefs and practices which still exist today, such as dhárma, kárma, yóga, and mokṣa, were established.[78] India is notable for its religious diversity, with Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, Islam, Christianity, and Jainism among the nation's major religions.[379] The predominant religion, Hinduism, has been shaped by various historical schools of thought, including those of the Upanishads,[380] the Yoga Sutras, the Bhakti movement,[379] and by Buddhist philosophy.[381]

Visual art
Main article: Indian art
India has a very ancient tradition of art, which has exchanged many influences with the rest of Eurasia, especially in the first millennium, when Buddhist art spread with Indian religions to Central, East and South-East Asia, the last also greatly influenced by Hindu art.[382] Thousands of seals from the Indus Valley Civilization of the third millennium BCE have been found, usually carved with animals, but a few with human figures. The "Pashupati" seal, excavated in Mohenjo-daro, Pakistan, in 1928–29, is the best known.[383][384] After this there is a long period with virtually nothing surviving.[384][385] Almost all surviving ancient Indian art thereafter is in various forms of religious sculpture in durable materials, or coins. There was probably originally far more in wood, which is lost. In north India Mauryan art is the first imperial movement.[386][387][388] In the first millennium CE, Buddhist art spread with Indian religions to Central, East and South-East Asia, the last also greatly influenced by Hindu art.[389] Over the following centuries a distinctly Indian style of sculpting the human figure developed, with less interest in articulating precise anatomy than ancient Greek sculpture but showing smoothly-flowing forms expressing prana ("breath" or life-force).[390][391] This is often complicated by the need to give figures multiple arms or heads, or represent different genders on the left and right of figures, as with the Ardhanarishvara form of Shiva and Parvati.[392][393]

Most of the earliest large sculpture is Buddhist, either excavated from Buddhist stupas such as Sanchi, Sarnath and Amaravati,[394] or is rock cut reliefs at sites such as Ajanta, Karla and Ellora. Hindu and Jain sites appear rather later.[395][396] In spite of this complex mixture of religious traditions, generally, the prevailing artistic style at any time and place has been shared by the major religious groups, and sculptors probably usually served all communities.[397] Gupta art, at its peak c. 300 CE – c. 500 CE, is often regarded as a classical period whose influence lingered for many centuries after; it saw a new dominance of Hindu sculpture, as at the Elephanta Caves.[398][399] Across the north, this became rather stiff and formulaic after c. 800 CE, though rich with finely carved detail in the surrounds of statues.[400] But in the South, under the Pallava and Chola dynasties, sculpture in both stone and bronze had a sustained period of great achievement; the large bronzes with Shiva as Nataraja have become an iconic symbol of India.[401][402]

Ancient painting has only survived at a few sites, of which the crowded scenes of court life in the Ajanta Caves are by far the most important, but it was evidently highly developed, and is mentioned as a courtly accomplishment in Gupta times.[403][404] Painted manuscripts of religious texts survive from Eastern India about the 10th century onwards, most of the earliest being Buddhist and later Jain. No doubt the style of these was used in larger paintings.[405] The Persian-derived Deccan painting, starting just before the Mughal miniature, between them give the first large body of secular painting, with an emphasis on portraits, and the recording of princely pleasures and wars.[406][407] The style spread to Hindu courts, especially among the Rajputs, and developed a variety of styles, with the smaller courts often the most innovative, with figures such as Nihâl Chand and Nainsukh.[408][409] As a market developed among European residents, it was supplied by Company painting by Indian artists with considerable Western influence.[410][411] In the 19th century, cheap Kalighat paintings of gods and everyday life, done on paper, were urban folk art from Calcutta, which later saw the Bengal School of Art, reflecting the art colleges founded by the British, the first movement in modern Indian painting.[412][413]

Bhutesvara Yakshis, Buddhist reliefs from Mathura, 2nd century CE
Bhutesvara Yakshis, Buddhist reliefs from Mathura, 2nd century CE

 
Gupta terracotta relief, Krishna Killing the Horse Demon Keshi, 5th century
Gupta terracotta relief, Krishna Killing the Horse Demon Keshi, 5th century

 
Elephanta Caves, triple-bust (trimurti) of Shiva, 18 feet (5.5 m) tall, c. 550
Elephanta Caves, triple-bust (trimurti) of Shiva, 18 feet (5.5 m) tall, c. 550

 
Chola bronze of Shiva as Nataraja ("Lord of Dance"), Tamil Nadu, 10th or 11th century
Chola bronze of Shiva as Nataraja ("Lord of Dance"), Tamil Nadu, 10th or 11th century

 
Jahangir Receives Prince Khurram at Ajmer on His Return from the Mewar Campaign, Balchand, c. 1635
Jahangir Receives Prince Khurram at Ajmer on His Return from the Mewar Campaign, Balchand, c. 1635

 
Krishna Fluting to the Milkmaids, Kangra painting, 1775–1785
Krishna Fluting to the Milkmaids, Kangra painting, 1775–1785

Architecture
Main article: Architecture of India

The Taj Mahal from across the Yamuna river showing two outlying red sandstone buildings, a mosque on the right (west) and a jawab (response) thought to have been built for architectural balance
Much of Indian architecture, including the Taj Mahal, other works of Indo-Islamic Mughal architecture, and South Indian architecture, blends ancient local traditions with imported styles.[414] Vernacular architecture is also regional in its flavours. Vastu shastra, literally "science of construction" or "architecture" and ascribed to Mamuni Mayan,[415] explores how the laws of nature affect human dwellings;[416] it employs precise geometry and directional alignments to reflect perceived cosmic constructs.[417] As applied in Hindu temple architecture, it is influenced by the Shilpa Shastras, a series of foundational texts whose basic mythological form is the Vastu-Purusha mandala, a square that embodied the "absolute".[418] The Taj Mahal, built in Agra between 1631 and 1648 by orders of Mughal emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his wife, has been described in the UNESCO World Heritage List as "the jewel of Muslim art in India and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the world's heritage".[419] Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture, developed by the British in the late 19th century, drew on Indo-Islamic architecture.[420]

Literature
Main article: Indian literature
The earliest literature in India, composed between 1500 BCE and 1200 CE, was in the Sanskrit language.[421] Major works of Sanskrit literature include the Rigveda (c. 1500 BCE – c. 1200 BCE), the epics: Mahābhārata (c. 400 BCE – c. 400 CE) and the Ramayana (c. 300 BCE and later); Abhijñānaśākuntalam (The Recognition of Śakuntalā, and other dramas of Kālidāsa (c. 5th century CE) and Mahākāvya poetry.[422][423][424] In Tamil literature, the Sangam literature (c. 600 BCE – c. 300 BCE) consisting of 2,381 poems, composed by 473 poets, is the earliest work.[425][426][427][428] From the 14th to the 18th centuries, India's literary traditions went through a period of drastic change because of the emergence of devotional poets like Kabīr, Tulsīdās, and Guru Nānak. This period was characterised by a varied and wide spectrum of thought and expression; as a consequence, medieval Indian literary works differed significantly from classical traditions.[429] In the 19th century, Indian writers took a new interest in social questions and psychological descriptions. In the 20th century, Indian literature was influenced by the works of the Bengali poet, author and philosopher Rabindranath Tagore,[430] who was a recipient of the Nobel Prize in Literature.

Performing arts and media
Main articles: Music of India, Dance in India, Cinema of India, and Television in India

India's National Academy of Performance Arts has recognised eight Indian dance styles to be classical. One such is Kuchipudi shown here.
Indian music ranges over various traditions and regional styles. Classical music encompasses two genres and their various folk offshoots: the northern Hindustani and the southern Carnatic schools.[431] Regionalised popular forms include filmi and folk music; the syncretic tradition of the bauls is a well-known form of the latter. Indian dance also features diverse folk and classical forms. Among the better-known folk dances are: bhangra of Punjab, bihu of Assam, Jhumair and chhau of Jharkhand, Odisha and West Bengal, garba and dandiya of Gujarat, ghoomar of Rajasthan, and lavani of Maharashtra. Eight dance forms, many with narrative forms and mythological elements, have been accorded classical dance status by India's National Academy of Music, Dance, and Drama. These are: bharatanatyam of the state of Tamil Nadu, kathak of Uttar Pradesh, kathakali and mohiniyattam of Kerala, kuchipudi of Andhra Pradesh, manipuri of Manipur, odissi of Odisha, and the sattriya of Assam.[432]

Theatre in India melds music, dance, and improvised or written dialogue.[433] Often based on Hindu mythology, but also borrowing from medieval romances or social and political events, Indian theatre includes: the bhavai of Gujarat, the jatra of West Bengal, the nautanki and ramlila of North India, tamasha of Maharashtra, burrakatha of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, terukkuttu of Tamil Nadu, and the yakshagana of Karnataka.[434] India has a theatre training institute the National School of Drama (NSD) that is situated at New Delhi It is an autonomous organisation under the Ministry of culture, Government of India.[435] The Indian film industry produces the world's most-watched cinema.[436] Established regional cinematic traditions exist in the Assamese, Bengali, Bhojpuri, Hindi, Kannada, Malayalam, Punjabi, Gujarati, Marathi, Odia, Tamil, and Telugu languages.[437] The Hindi language film industry (Bollywood) is the largest sector representing 43% of box office revenue, followed by the South Indian Telugu and Tamil film industries which represent 36% combined.[438]

Television broadcasting began in India in 1959 as a state-run medium of communication and expanded slowly for more than two decades.[439][440] The state monopoly on television broadcast ended in the 1990s. Since then, satellite channels have increasingly shaped the popular culture of Indian society.[441] Today, television is the most penetrative media in India; industry estimates indicate that as of 2012 there are over 554 million TV consumers, 462 million with satellite or cable connections compared to other forms of mass media such as the press (350 million), radio (156 million) or internet (37 million).[442]

Society

Muslims offer namaz at a mosque in Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir.
Traditional Indian society is sometimes defined by social hierarchy. The Indian caste system embodies much of the social stratification and many of the social restrictions found on the Indian subcontinent. Social classes are defined by thousands of endogamous hereditary groups, often termed as jātis, or "castes".[443] India abolished untouchability in 1950 with the adoption of the constitution and has since enacted other anti-discriminatory laws and social welfare initiatives.

Family values are important in the Indian tradition, and multi-generational patrilineal joint families have been the norm in India, though nuclear families are becoming common in urban areas.[444] An overwhelming majority of Indians, with their consent, have their marriages arranged by their parents or other family elders.[445] Marriage is thought to be for life,[445] and the divorce rate is extremely low,[446] with less than one in a thousand marriages ending in divorce.[447] Child marriages are common, especially in rural areas; many women wed before reaching 18, which is their legal marriageable age.[448] Female infanticide in India, and lately female foeticide, have created skewed gender ratios; the number of missing women in the country quadrupled from 15 million to 63 million in the 50-year period ending in 2014, faster than the population growth during the same period, and constituting 20 percent of India's female electorate.[449] According to an Indian government study, an additional 21 million girls are unwanted and do not receive adequate care.[450] Despite a government ban on sex-selective foeticide, the practice remains commonplace in India, the result of a preference for boys in a patriarchal society.[451] The payment of dowry, although illegal, remains widespread across class lines.[452] Deaths resulting from dowry, mostly from bride burning, are on the rise, despite stringent anti-dowry laws.[453]

Many Indian festivals are religious in origin. The best known include: Diwali, Ganesh Chaturthi, Thai Pongal, Holi, Durga Puja, Eid ul-Fitr, Bakr-Id, Christmas, and Vaisakhi.[454][455]

Education
Main articles: Education in India, Literacy in India, and History of education in the Indian subcontinent

Children awaiting school lunch in Rayka (also Raika), a village in rural Gujarat. The salutation Jai Bhim written on the blackboard honours the jurist, social reformer, and Dalit leader B. R. Ambedkar.
In the 2011 census, about 73% of the population was literate, with 81% for men and 65% for women. This compares to 1981 when the respective rates were 41%, 53% and 29%. In 1951 the rates were 18%, 27% and 9%. In 1921 the rates 7%, 12% and 2%. In 1891 they were 5%, 9% and 1%,[456][457] According to Latika Chaudhary, in 1911 there were under three primary schools for every ten villages. Statistically, more caste and religious diversity reduced private spending. Primary schools taught literacy, so local diversity limited its growth.[458]

The education system of India is the world's second-largest.[459] India has over 900 universities, 40,000 colleges[460] and 1.5 million schools.[461] In India's higher education system, a significant number of seats are reserved under affirmative action policies for the historically disadvantaged. In recent decades India's improved education system is often cited as one of the main contributors to its economic development.[462][463]

Clothing
Main article: Clothing in India

Women in sari at an adult literacy class in Tamil Nadu

A man in dhoti and wearing a woollen shawl, in Varanasi
From ancient times until the advent of the modern, the most widely worn traditional dress in India was draped.[464] For women it took the form of a sari, a single piece of cloth many yards long.[464] The sari was traditionally wrapped around the lower body and the shoulder.[464] In its modern form, it is combined with an underskirt, or Indian petticoat, and tucked in the waist band for more secure fastening. It is also commonly worn with an Indian blouse, or choli, which serves as the primary upper-body garment, the sari's end—passing over the shoulder—serving to cover the midriff and obscure the upper body's contours.[464] For men, a similar but shorter length of cloth, the dhoti, has served as a lower-body garment.[465]


Women (from left to right) in churidars and kameez (with back to the camera), jeans and sweater, and pink Shalwar kameez
The use of stitched clothes became widespread after Muslim rule was established at first by the Delhi sultanate (c. 1300 CE) and then continued by the Mughal Empire (c. 1525 CE).[466] Among the garments introduced during this time and still commonly worn are: the shalwars and pyjamas, both styles of trousers, and the tunics kurta and kameez.[466] In southern India, the traditional draped garments were to see much longer continuous use.[466]

Shalwars are atypically wide at the waist but narrow to a cuffed bottom. They are held up by a drawstring, which causes them to become pleated around the waist.[467] The pants can be wide and baggy, or they can be cut quite narrow, on the bias, in which case they are called churidars. When they are ordinarily wide at the waist and their bottoms are hemmed but not cuffed, they are called pyjamas. The kameez is a long shirt or tunic,[468] its side seams left open below the waist-line.[469] The kurta is traditionally collarless and made of cotton or silk; it is worn plain or with embroidered decoration, such as chikan; and typically falls to either just above or just below the wearer's knees.[470]

In the last 50 years, fashions have changed a great deal in India. Increasingly, in urban northern India, the sari is no longer the apparel of everyday wear, though they remain popular on formal occasions.[471] The traditional shalwar kameez is rarely worn by younger urban women, who favour churidars or jeans.[471] In white-collar office settings, ubiquitous air conditioning allows men to wear sports jackets year-round.[471] For weddings and formal occasions, men in the middle- and upper classes often wear bandgala, or short Nehru jackets, with pants, with the groom and his groomsmen sporting sherwanis and churidars.[471] The dhoti, once the universal garment of Hindu males, the wearing of which in the homespun and handwoven khadi allowed Gandhi to bring Indian nationalism to the millions,[472] is seldom seen in the cities.[471]

Cuisine
Main article: Indian cuisine

South Indian vegetarian thali, or platter

Railway mutton curry from Odisha
The foundation of a typical Indian meal is a cereal cooked in a plain fashion and complemented with flavourful savoury dishes.[473] The cooked cereal could be steamed rice; chapati, a thin unleavened bread made from wheat flour, or occasionally cornmeal, and griddle-cooked dry;[474] the idli, a steamed breakfast cake, or dosa, a griddled pancake, both leavened and made from a batter of rice- and gram meal.[475] The savoury dishes might include lentils, pulses and vegetables commonly spiced with ginger and garlic, but also with a combination of spices that may include coriander, cumin, turmeric, cinnamon, cardamon and others as informed by culinary conventions.[473] They might also include poultry, fish, or meat dishes. In some instances, the ingredients might be mixed during the process of cooking.[476]

A platter, or thali, used for eating usually has a central place reserved for the cooked cereal, and peripheral ones for the flavourful accompaniments, which are often served in small bowls. The cereal and its accompaniments are eaten simultaneously rather than a piecemeal manner. This is accomplished by mixing—for example of rice and lentils—or folding, wrapping, scooping or dipping—such as chapati and cooked vegetables or lentils.[473]

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A tandoor chef in the Turkman Gate, Old Delhi, makes Khameeri roti (a Muslim-influenced style of leavened bread).[477]
India has distinctive vegetarian cuisines, each a feature of the geographical and cultural histories of its adherents.[478] The appearance of ahimsa, or the avoidance of violence toward all forms of life in many religious orders early in Indian history, especially Upanishadic Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism, is thought to have contributed to the predominance of vegetarianism among a large segment of India's Hindu population, especially in southern India, Gujarat, the Hindi-speaking belt of north-central India, as well as among Jains.[478] Although meat is eaten widely in India, the proportional consumption of meat in the overall diet is low.[479] Unlike China, which has increased its per capita meat consumption substantially in its years of increased economic growth, in India the strong dietary traditions have contributed to dairy, rather than meat, becoming the preferred form of animal protein consumption.[480]

The most significant import of cooking techniques into India during the last millennium occurred during the Mughal Empire. Dishes such as the pilaf,[481] developed in the Abbasid caliphate,[482] and cooking techniques such as the marinating of meat in yogurt, spread into northern India from regions to its northwest.[483] To the simple yogurt marinade of Persia, onions, garlic, almonds, and spices began to be added in India.[483] Rice was partially cooked and layered alternately with the sauteed meat, the pot sealed tightly, and slow cooked according to another Persian cooking technique, to produce what has today become the Indian biryani,[483] a feature of festive dining in many parts of India.[484] In the food served in Indian restaurants worldwide the diversity of Indian food has been partially concealed by the dominance of Punjabi cuisine. The popularity of tandoori chicken—cooked in the tandoor oven, which had traditionally been used for baking bread in the rural Punjab and the Delhi region, especially among Muslims, but which is originally from Central Asia—dates to the 1950s, and was caused in large part by an entrepreneurial response among people from the Punjab who had been displaced by the 1947 partition of India.[478]

Sports and recreation
Main article: Sport in India

Girls play hopscotch in Jaora, Madhya Pradesh. Hopscotch has been commonly played by girls in rural India.[485]
Several traditional indigenous sports such as kabaddi, kho kho, pehlwani and gilli-danda, and also martial arts such as Kalarippayattu and marma adi, remain popular. Chess is commonly held to have originated in India as chaturaṅga;[486] in recent years, there has been a rise in the number of Indian grandmasters.[487] Viswanathan Anand became the Chess World Champion in 2007 and held the status until 2013.[488] Parcheesi is derived from Pachisi, another traditional Indian pastime, which in early modern times was played on a giant marble court by Mughal emperor Akbar the Great.[489]

Cricket is the most popular sport in India.[490] Major domestic competitions include the Indian Premier League, which is the most-watched cricket league in the world and ranks sixth among all sports leagues.[491] Other professional leagues include the Indian Super League (football) and the Pro Kabaddi league.[492][493][494]


Indian cricketer Sachin Tendulkar about to score a record 14,000 runs in Test cricket while playing against Australia in Bangalore, 2010
India has won two ODI Cricket world cups, the 1983 edition and the 2011 edition, as well as becoming the inaugural Twenty20 International Cricket Champions in 2007. India also has eight field hockey gold medals in the summer olympics[495] The improved results garnered by the Indian Davis Cup team and other Indian tennis players in the early 2010s have made tennis increasingly popular in the country.[496] India has a comparatively strong presence in shooting sports, and has won several medals at the Olympics, the World Shooting Championships, and the Commonwealth Games.[497][498] Other sports in which Indians have succeeded internationally include badminton[499] (Saina Nehwal and P. V. Sindhu are two of the top-ranked female badminton players in the world), boxing,[500] and wrestling.[501] Football is popular in West Bengal, Goa, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and the north-eastern states.[502] India has hosted or co-hosted several international sporting events: the 1951 and 1982 Asian Games; the 1987, 1996, and 2011 Cricket World Cup tournaments; the 2003 Afro-Asian Games; the 2006 ICC Champions Trophy; the 2009 World Badminton Championships; the 2010 Hockey World Cup; the 2010 Commonwealth Games; and the 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup. Major international sporting events held annually in India include the Maharashtra Open, the Mumbai Marathon, the Delhi Half Marathon, and the Indian Masters. The first Formula 1 Indian Grand Prix featured in late 2011 but has been discontinued from the F1 season calendar since 2014.[503] India has traditionally been the dominant country at the South Asian Games. An example of this dominance is the basketball competition where the Indian team won four out of five tournaments to date.[504]

See also
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Administrative divisions of India
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