Yoshiro Asakuma (朝隈 善郎, Asakuma Yoshirō, 7 January 1914 – 22 December 2008) was a Japanese athlete. He competed in the men's high jump at the 1936 Summer Olympics

A sports event unlike any other

The Olympic Games are unique. Athletes from the entire world take part.

Their achievements are watched from both near and far by hundreds

of millions of spectators.

The five rings on the Olympic flag represent the international nature

of the Games.

What makes the Olympic Games different from other sports events?

The Games are held every four years. They are the largest sporting celebration

in the number of sports on the programme, the number of athletes present

and the number of people from different nations gathered together at the same

time in the same place.

The Games are held at intervals, but are part of a broader framework which

is that of the Olympic Movement. The purpose of the Olympic Movement

is to promote the practice of sport all over the world and disseminate

the Olympic values. It is in this spirit that the Olympic Games are held

and celebrated.

The Summer Games and the Winter Games

The Olympic Games include the Games of the Olympiad (i.e. the Summer

Games) and the Olympic Winter Games. The first edition of the modern

Summer Games was held in 1896 in Athens (Greece), and the first Olympic

Winter Games in 1924 in Chamonix (France).

The word Olympiad designates the four-year period that separates each

edition of the Summer Games.

Until 1992, the Summer and Winter Games were held in the same year,

but since then, the Winter Games were moved two years from the Summer

Games. The Summer and Winter Games continue to be organised once

every four years.

In the Summer Games, athletes compete in a wide variety of competitions

on the track, on the road, on grass, in the water, on the water, in the open

air and indoors, in a total of 28 sports.

The Winter Games feature 7 sports practised on snow and ice, both indoors

and outdoors.

The Modern Olympic Games Introduction 3

The London 2012 Olympic

Games were broadcast

all over the world, via the

traditional media as well as

online and mobile platforms.

They reached a record audience

estimated at 4.8 billion people.

© The Olympic Museum

The Modern Olympic Games Introduction 4

History

It was Pierre de Coubertin of France who dreamt up this ambitious project,

although others before him had tried in vain to revive these Games. Drawing

inspiration from the ancient Olympic Games, he decided to create the modern

Olympic Games. With this purpose, he founded the International Olympic

Committee (IOC) in 1894 in Paris. The new committee set itself the objective

of organising the first Olympic Games of modern times.

The date of the first Games, 1896, marked the beginning of an extraordinary

adventure that has now lasted for over a century!

1

1. OG Athenes 1896. Athletics.

Discus Men – Robert GARRETT

(USA) 1st.

© 1896 / International Olympic

Committee (IOC)

© The Olympic Museum

The characteristics

of the modern Olympic

Games

Elements of the past

The roots of the Olympic Games are to be found in Ancient Greece [see sheet

“The Olympic Games in Antiquity”], and the first modern Games, in 1896, featured

many references to this legacy of Greek Antiquity:

› The Games were held in Athens, in Greece, the country where the ancient Games

were held.

› Most of the competitions were held in the ancient stadium (the Panathinaiko

Stadium), which had been restored for the occasion.

› Most of the sports on the programme of the ancient Games were included

in the first modern Games.

› The organisers invented a race inspired by an event in antiquity: the marathon.

Generally speaking, the modern Games strive towards a more peaceful world.

The Olympic Truce calling for a halt to all conflicts recalls the concept of the truce

observed during the Ancient Games.

Sacred and respected throughout Ancient Greece, the Olympic Truce announced

by messengers before the Games allowed spectators, athletes and officials

to travel to and from Olympia in safety through the numerous battle zones.

Today, the Olympic Truce is the subject of a United Nations resolution calling

for a halt to hostilities during the period of the Games and the search for means

of peaceful resolution in areas of tension. The athletes who support this initiative

are invited to sign a “Truce Wall” in the Olympic Village.

Innovations

While the modern Games draw their inspiration from the past, they are also

quite different.

From the outset, Coubertin proposed:

› Secular Games

The modern Games are secular, unlike the ancient Games which were dedicated

to the gods.

The Modern Olympic Games The characteristics

of the modern Olympic Games 5

In antiquity, the Panathinaiko

Stadium in Athens hosted the

sports competitions known as

the Panathenaea.

The marathon

This race commemorates the

exploit of a soldier who, in 490

BC, ran from Marathon to tell

the people of Athens of their

victory in the battle against the

Persians, a distance of roughly

34.5 kilometres.

© The Olympic Museum

The Modern Olympic Games 6

› Games around the globe

In contrast with the Olympic Games of Antiquity, each edition of the modern

Games takes place in principle in a different city and country.

› Longer Games

In ancient times, the Games were held first on one day, and finally over five days.

Today the official duration is no more than 16 days.

The Games are also evolving constantly:

› Since 1896, athletes from all over the world

The ancient Olympic Games were the preserve of free male Greek citizens,

whereas the modern Games have always been open to athletes from

all over the world. The 245 participants in Athens in 1896 came from

14 different countries.

The 1912 Games in Stockholm (Sweden) were the first to boast the presence

of national delegations from the five continents. The universality of the modern

Olympic Games was assured.

Today, the Summer Games welcome athletes from every country of the world,

without exception.

› Since 1900, women join in

As in Ancient Greece, there were no female athletes at the first edition of the modern

Olympic Games. In Athens in 1896, only men competed. At that time, female athletes

faced many prejudices. People worried that they would lose their femininity,

over-develop their muscles or become sterile. They therefore had to overcome

this kind of attitude and gradually take their place at the Games. Women made

their Olympic debut at the 1900 Games in Paris (France), in tennis and golf.

Subsequently, over the course of the century, they gained access to more and more

sports (e.g. swimming in 1912, athletics in 1928, volleyball in 1964, rowing in 1976,

cycling in 1984 and football in 1996), but it was not until the 2012 Games in London,

with the introduction of women’s boxing, that women could compete in all the sports

on the programme. Since the 2004 Games in Athens, more than 40 per cent

of the athletes at the Games have been women.

› Since 1924, Games for winter sports

When Coubertin revived the Olympic Games, only summer sports were included.

In the 1920s, however, snow and ice sports began to enjoy soaring popularity.

A number of IOC members decided to react to this, and, in 1924, it was decided

1

1. OG Paris 1900. Tennis, singles

Women – Hélène PREVOS

© 1900 / International Olympic

Committee (IOC)

The characteristics

of the modern Olympic Games

© The Olympic Museum

to hold an International Winter Sports Week in Chamonix (France): 258 athletes

from 16 countries (mainly in Europe and North America) attended.

This proved a great success and, two years later, this “Week” was officially recognised

as the first Olympic Winter Games. The future of an Olympic event dedicated

exclusively to snow and ice sports was assured.

At the 2010 Games in Vancouver (Canada), a total of 2,566 athletes came

together from 82 countries as diverse as Ghana, Brazil, New Zealand

and Pakistan.

› Since 1984, professional athletes at the Games

The modern Olympic Games were long open only to amateur athletes, in line with

Pierre de Coubertin’s wishes. The IOC abolished this rule in 1984 (for the Games

in Los Angeles), and since then professional athletes have also been able to take part.

The rituals of the Opening and Closing Ceremonies

The Olympic Games begin and end with big celebrations, important ceremonies

in which various rituals express the identity of the Games. Today, these rituals are part

of the protocol of the Games. They include the following elements:

The Modern Olympic Games

Opening of the Games

› the entry of the athletes into the stadium

with their delegations (in alphabetical

order, except for Greece which goes

first, and the host country which brings

up the rear)

› the declaration of the opening of the

Games by the Head of State of the host

country

› the address by the Games Organising

Committee President

› the speech by the IOC President

› the entry of the Olympic flag into

the stadium

› the Olympic anthem

› the symbolic release of doves (a symbol

of peace)

› the oath sworn by an athlete and

an official from the host country (respect

for the rules)

› the entrance of the flame and lighting

of the cauldron

Closing of the Games

› handing over of the Olympic flag

to the next Olympic host city (continuity

of the Games)

› gathering of the athletes in the stadium

(brotherhood)

› the extinguishing of the flame

› the declaration of the closing

of the Games by the IOC President

7

Most of this protocol had been

established by the time

of the 1920 Games in Antwerp

(Belgium). It has been added

to over the years as the Games

have evolved.

1. OG London 2012. Opening

Ceremony.

© 2012 / International Olympic

Committee (IOC) / FURLONG,

Christopher

1

The characteristics

of the modern Olympic Games

© The Olympic Museum

The Modern Olympic Games 8

The protocol forms part of a much broader scenography and programme. The opening

and closing ceremonies are an invitation to discover the culture of the country hosting

the Games, through music, song, dance, etc.

Sport, art and culture

In Ancient Greece, art and sport were seen as perfect partners. The ideal was to achieve

harmony by exercising both the body and the mind.

Pierre de Coubertin adopted this ideal for the modern Olympic Games and proposed

including art and culture in the programme of the Games.

On his initiative, architecture, sculpture, painting, literature and music competitions

were part of the Olympic Games from 1912 to 1948.

Nowadays, the competitions have been replaced with cultural programmes

that are completely separate from the sports competitions. Plays, concerts, ballets

and exhibitions are held in the city, region and even the country hosting the Games.

Numerous artists, designers, architects, choreographers and musicians play an active

part in the success of the Games, be it through the construction of stadiums and

other competition venues, the Look of the Games (logos, pictograms and mascots)

or the opening and closing ceremonies.

Whether through sport, art or culture,

everyone can take part in the great

celebration of the Olympic Games,

which offer an opportunity to open

up to and better understand

other people.

The characteristics

of the modern Olympic Games

© The Olympic Museum

Olympic sports 9

Olympic sports

The Olympic programme includes all the sports in the Olympic Games. The IOC

sets the programme and decides which sports will be included. The IOC also

has the right to add or remove any sport, discipline or event.

Sport − For a sport to be made an Olympic sport it has to be governed

by an International Federation recognised by the IOC

Exemples:

Swimming at the Games is governed by the International Swimming Federation (FINA);

Skating by the International Skating Union (ISU).

Discipline − An Olympic sport comprises one or several disciplines.

Exemples:

Water polo and diving are disciplines of swimming.

Speed skating and figure skating are disciplines of skating.

Event − A discipline includes one or more events or competitions.

An event gives rise to a result for which medals and diplomas are awarded.

Exemples:

The 10m platform for women is a diving event.

The men’s 500m is a speed skating event.

Criteria for being an Olympic sport

In order to be included in the Olympic programme, a sport must be governed

by an International Federation which complies with the Olympic Charter

and applies the World Anti-Doping Code.

If it is widely practised around the world and satisfies a number of criteria

established by the IOC Session, a recognised sport may be added to the Olympic

programme.

Since 2000, there has been little change to the number of sports on the programme

of the Summer and Winter Games, but rather changes to events in order to limit the size

of the Games.

Summer Games sports

In Athens in 1896, nine sports were on the programme: athletics, cycling, fencing,

The Modern Olympic Games

1

1. OG Beijing 2008. Athletics,

pole vault – final. Elena

ISINBAEVA (RUS) 1st.

© 2008 / International Olympic

Committee (IOC) / KISHIMOTO,

Tsutomu

© The Olympic Museum

10

gymnastics, weightlifting, wrestling, swimming, tennis and shooting.

The Olympic programme has come a long way since then: some sports have been

discontinued (e.g. polo and baseball); others were dropped and then reintroduced

(e.g. archery and tennis), while several new sports have been added (e.g. triathlon

and taekwondo).

At the 2004 Games in Athens, the programme included the nine original sports

plus a further 19: rowing, badminton, baseball, basketball, boxing, canoe/kayak,

equestrian sports, football, handball, hockey, judo, modern pentathlon, softball,

taekwondo, table tennis, archery, triathlon, sailing and volleyball. This represented

a total of 301 events!

The two major sports on the programme of the Summer Games are athletics

and swimming. These are the most widely followed Olympic sports in the world.

They also have the largest number of events and greatest number of participants

from different countries.

Athletics consists of a wide range of events: jumping, throwing, and sprint,

middle-distance and long-distance races. Some of these were performed

at the ancient Olympic Games: foot races (varying distances), the javelin throw,

the discus throw and the long jump.

The first swimming competitions at the Olympic Games took place in the sea or

 in a river. Today competitions take place in a 50m swimming pool, usually indoors.

The current programme includes the following disciplines: swimming (freestyle,

breaststroke, backstroke and butterfly), water polo, diving and synchronised

swimming.

Winter Games sports

Winter sports made their Olympic debut at … the Summer Games in London

in 1908! Figure skating competitions were organised for men, women and pairs.

The experience was repeated at the Antwerp Games in 1920, along with an ice

hockey tournament.

It was in Chamonix in 1924 that winter sports finally got their own Olympic

Games. Six sports were on the programme: bobsleigh, curling, ice hockey, figure

and speed skating, skiing (cross-country and ski jumping) and the military patrol

race.

Some sports were missing from the official programme for several editions

of the Games before being reintroduced. One example is skeleton, which featured

at the 1928 and 1948 Games in St Moritz, before returning to the programme

for the 2002 Games in Salt Lake City.

The number of sports at the Winter Games has remained relatively stable over

the years. At the Vancouver Games in 2010, there were seven sports – biathlon,

bobsleigh, curling, ice hockey, luge, skating and skiing. However, the number

The Modern Olympic Games Olympic sports

1. OG London 2012, Swimming

– Michael PHELPS (USA),

© 2012 / International Olympic

Committee (IOC) / FURLONG,

Christopher

2. OG Vancouver 2010, Men

ice-hockey – Game for the

bronze medal, Finland (FIN)

3rd – Slovakia (SLO)

© 2010 / International Olympic

Committee (IOC) / EVANS,

Jason

1

2 © The Olympic Museum

11

of events has increased considerably: in 2010, there were 86 on the programme!

Of the 15 disciplines in the 2014 Olympic Winter Games in Sochi, only Nordic

combined is not yet open to women.

The three main sports on the Winter Games programme are skating, skiing

and ice hockey.

Skating has the longest Olympic history, having figured for the first time

on the programme of the London Games in 1908. Women made their debut

in figure skating at the Olympic Winter Games, but speed skating was not open

to them until 1960. Held in the open air until 1956, the skating events now take

place indoors.

Skiing is the sport with the largest number of disciplines. Cross-country skiing

is the oldest discipline and snowboarding is the newest one (1998 Games

in Nagano, Japan). Alpine skiing appeared relatively late: it was on the

programme of the 1936 Games, but it was not until the 1948 Games in

St Moritz (Switzerland) that a more complete programme for men and women

was organised. In 1952, giant slalom was added to the programme. Introduced

in 1988, the super-G is the newest Olympic Alpine skiing event.

Ice hockey, like skating and skiing, is one of the sports that helped launching

the Olympic Winter Games. Hockey is very popular and attracts large audiences.

It is a spectacular sport in which the puck travels at speeds up to 180km/h.

Demonstration sports

Thanks to their popularity, the Games have provided a showcase for a number

of sports. These were known as demonstration sports, which featured as

an addition to the Olympic programme until 1992, when this concept was

abandoned.

› At the 1956 Games in Melbourne, there was Australian football, one of the national

sports;

› At the 1988 Games in Seoul, it was bowling, a sport unknown in the host country,

Korea.

› At the 1992 Games in Barcelona, it was Basque pelota, roller hockey and

taekwondo.

There have been many different sports at the Winter Games. Some have been

featured as demonstration sports (e.g. skijoring, bandy, winter pentathlon and

freestyle skiing).

For more information about the Olympic sports, go to the IOC website

The Modern Olympic Games Olympic sports

1

1. OG Chamonix 1924,

Figure skating.

© 1924/ International Olympic

Committee (IOC)

© The Olympic Museum

12

1

1. OG Beijing 2008. Athletics,

100m Men – semi final, start.

© 2008 / International Olympic

Committee (IOC) / KISHIMOTO,

Tsutomu

© The Olympic Museum

13 The Modern Olympic Games Athletes at the Olympic Games

Athletes atthe Olympic

Games

The challenge of the Games

The prospect of being selected for the Olympic Games is the dream of the majority

of athletes. Enormous reserves of willpower and many years of dedicated training

are required to achieve such a goal. The athletes that qualify for the Games

can consider themselves as being among the world’s best. They will become

Olympians, whether or not they win a medal.

Taking part in the Games is what matters to the majority of the competitors:

having the honour of representing their country and marching behind their flag

at the Opening Ceremony, mixing with elite athletes, and having the opportunity

to give their best. That is what the spirit of the Olympic Games is all about!

Pierre de Coubertin knew this already at the start of the 20th century:

“ […] In these Olympiads, the important thing is not winning but taking part.

[…] What counts in life is not the victory but the struggle; the essential thing

is not to conquer but to fight well.” 2

Almost a century later, at the Olympic Games in Sydney, the spirit was the same.

Canadian athlete Perdita Felicien explains why taking part in the Games was

so important to her:

“Even though I was eliminated in the preliminary round of the 100m hurdles,

I would do it all over again in a heartbeat. Even though the months of religious

training and the exhausting 30 hours of flight to Sydney only meant exactly

13.21 seconds of running on the hottest track in the world that day, it was

beyond worth it.” 3

In order to participate in the Olympic Games, athletes have to abide by

the Olympic Charter and the rules of the International Federation (IF)

responsible for their sport. The IFs organise qualification events, while the National

Olympic Committee (NOC) of the athlete’s country is responsible for entering

athletes to the Games.

Athletes with more than one nationality may compete for the country of their

choice. However, if they have already represented one country either at the Games

or another major sports event, they may not compete for a different country

before three years have elapsed.

There is no age limit for competing in the Olympic Games, except for the one

What is the Olympic Charter?

It is an official document

containing all the rules to be

followed and explaining the role

and mission of each Olympic

Movement stakeholder.

1. OG London 2012, Opening

Ceremony, Athletes Parade

of the Costa Rica delegation.

© 2012 / International Olympic

Committee (IOC) / EVANS,

Jason

2. Olympic Review, July 1908,

p. 110. (Extract from a speech

given at the Olympic Games

in London in 1908).

3. Comments made on her

athletics team’s website,

27 November 2000.

1 © The Olympic Museum

14 The Modern Olympic Games Athletes at the Olympic Games

imposed by individual IFs for health reasons. In some sports, such as equestrian,

fencing and sailing, athletes can enjoy very long Olympic careers, sometimes

as long as 40 years!

By entering the Olympic Games, athletes are making a commitment to respect

the Olympic values and agree to undergo doping tests. Throughout the Games,

tests are carried out under the authority of the IOC and its Medical Commission.

Tests may be conducted before or during the Games.

For individual sports, tests are performed on each athlete who places among

the top five in each event, plus two other athletes (in the heats or the final)

chosen at random.

For team sports, or other sports in which teams are rewarded, testing

is performed throughout the period of the Olympic Games.

Life in the Olympic Village

Upon their arrival in the host city, athletes stay in the Olympic Village. While at

the Games, their time is not devoted exclusively to competing: it is also

an opportunity for them to meet other athletes from different countries

and cultures. Communal life is good for encouraging contact between athletes

from different sports or representatives from remote countries. All inhabitants

of the Village agree: it is not about the comfort of the surroundings or the quality

of services, what counts is the relationships created between athletes

of the entire world.

Anita L. De Frantz, Olympian and IOC member, said of her experience in the Village:

“For two to four weeks, the Village becomes the home for the elite athletes

of the world. It was there that I realised that excellence comes in every shape,

size, race and sex. It was there that I realised that an Olympian is one who

can respect every individual based on the effort that it takes to become

an Olympian. It was there that I learned that each sport takes special skills

and determination for a person to ascend to the top.” 2

Today’s Olympic Village is almost a city! It is usually located close to the

competition venues and its construction is taken very seriously during preparations

for the Games. In London in 2012, for example, the Village accommodated

over 17,000 athletes and officials!

Inhabitants of the village benefit from many advantages. They can eat in the Village

restaurant 24 hours a day, have their hair cut, go clubbing or attend evening

concerts.

When the Games have finished, the Olympic Village becomes a new residential

area for the city, and the housing is sold or rented to the local population.

Athletes have not always benefitted from this type of accommodation.

1. OG London 2012, Athletes

while jogging in the Olympic

Village.

© 2012 / International Olympic

Committee (IOC) / EVANS,

Jason

2. Olympic Message, no. 33,

July 1992.

1 © The Olympic Museum

15 The Modern Olympic Games Athletes at the Olympic Games

Before the Los Angeles Games in 1932 they stayed in a variety of places:

Shipshape accommodation

There was no Olympic Village for the athletes at the first few Olympic Games.

Some of them stayed in hotels or hostels. Others chose cheaper accommodation

in schools or barracks.

And some slept in the boats they had taken to the Olympic city. This was the case

at the Amsterdam Games in 1928, when the Americans, Italians and Finns stayed

in the harbour!

All in the same village

The first true Olympic Village was built for the 1932 Games in Los Angeles.

Athletes (men only) from 37 countries ate, slept and trained together.

For the first time certain community services were provided: a hospital, a fire station

and a post office.

In the early days women stayed in hotels, not the Olympic Village. It was not until

the 1956 Games in Melbourne that the Olympic Village was open to both sexes.

© The Olympic Museum

16 The Modern Olympic Games VICTORY

Victory

The moment of victory is symbolised by the athlete stepping onto the podium

to receive his or her medal. Yet this ceremony has not always existed!

The various elements of the ceremony entered Olympic history at different times.

THE MEDAL’S ICONOGRAPHY

The Summer Games medals

In the beginning, Olympic medals varied from one Olympiad to the next. At the first

modern Games in Athens in 1896, winners were rewarded with an olive wreath

and a silver medal, while the runners-up received a bronze medal and a laurel

wreath. Gold, silver and bronze medals were not awarded until 1904.

From the Amsterdam Games in 1928, when the medals were standardised,

until the 2000 Games in Sydney, the medals remained almost unchanged.

The obverse showed a seated, wingless figure of Victory holding a wreath in one

hand and a palm frond in the other. In the background appeared an arena similar

to the Coliseum in Rome. The reverse had to show a victorious athlete being

borne upon the shoulders of the crowd. Since 1972, only the obverse of the medal

remained the same. The reverse was modified for each Olympiad.

Then, in 2004, the iconography changed dramatically. A representation of Nike

from the Olympia Museum now features on the obverse of the summer Games

medals. She appears to be descending from the sky to land in the Panathinaiko

Stadium, recalling the place where the first modern Games were held in Athens

in 1896. In the background the Acropolis can be seen.

The Winter Games medals

The Winter Games medals are not subject to the same constraints. There are

no rules stipulating a particular shape or design. Even the materials may vary:

the medals of the Albertville Games (France) included a crystal disc;

the Lillehammer (Norway) medals had a granite element, and the medals

of the Nagano Games (Japan) were partially worked in lacquer. In fact,

every Olympic Winter Games has seen an original medal designed.

Medal ceremonies

Since the Olympic Winter Games in Lake Placid (USA) in 1932, the medals have

been awarded on a podium. The winner takes the centre spot, on the highest

step. He or she receives a gold medal and the title of Olympic champion.

The second placed athlete is to the winner’s right and receives a silver medal. The

1. Athenes 2004, winner’s

medal (gold)

© IOC

1 © The Olympic Museum

17

third placed athlete is to the winner’s left and receives a bronze medal.

The national flags of the three winners are hoisted and the national anthem

of the Olympic champion is played.

The first eight in each event receive a diploma and their names are read out.

Only the first three receive a medal in addition.

Celebrity of the champions

After the Olympic Games, the champions often become superstars and role

models for many people. The Olympic Charter stipulates that the names

of the athletes who win a gold medal must be engraved on the walls

of the main stadium in the city hosting the Games.

However, a medal is not always a guarantee of celebrity. If it is won in a little known

sport with low media coverage, a medal alone will not suffice to attract the interest

of the sponsors or the general public.

But whether or not they are winners, everyone who takes part in the Games

takes home with them the memory of an exceptional human experience.

The Modern Olympic Games VICTORY

1

1. OG Vancouver 2010,

Medal ceremony for crosscountry ski, 50km Men mass

start free.

© 2010 / International Olympic

Committee (IOC)

© The Olympic Museum

18 The Modern Olympic Games The Games and their era

The Games and their era

The Olympic Games are much more than just a series of sports competitions.

Technological progress in the last century helped turn them into an international

event eagerly awaited and followed by people all over the world. Everything that

happens during the Games is reported and analysed by thousands of journalists

and experts. So it is quite understandable that, at certain points in recent

history, governments have exploited the Games for political or diplomatic ends

(sometimes, sadly, to the detriment of sport).

Developments in technology

In little over a century, the Olympic Games have become a global event. Two major

technological revolutions have contributed to this: in transport and the media.

Improved transport – easier access to the Games

Depending on the city and country hosting the Games, athletes are obliged

to travel greater or lesser distances. For the 1904 Games in St Louis and the

1932 Games in Los Angeles, in the USA, the number of participants was much

lower because many athletes were unable to make and afford such a long journey.

The majority of host cities prior to World War II were European, and the

athletes who took part in the Games were mostly Westerners.

In 1956, the Games took place in Oceania (Australia). For the first time, most

of the 3,178 competitors travelled by plane to Melbourne. This novel

development, which was possible thanks to the growth of air transport, quickly

became essential to the organisation of the Olympic Games.

In 1964 it was the turn of the Asian continent to host the Games, which

were held in the city of Tokyo in Japan; then, in 1968, it was Latin America,

with the Games in Mexico City.

The Olympic Games have now been held on every continent except Africa.

Development of the media - Games accessible to everyone

Television made an enormous contribution to the growing popularity of the

Olympic Games. The first tests were carried out in 1936 and 1948. And the first

live television broadcast of the competitions was in 1956, at the Winter Games

in Cortina d’Ampezzo (Italy). Beginning with the 1960 Games in Rome (Italy),

the majority of the European continent benefited from live broadcasts of the

competitions. For the United States, Canada and Japan, a tape was flown out

every day, which meant that the competitions could be screened with just a few

hours’ delay. With a couple of weeks’ delay, the images were transferred onto

A long journey − For the 1932

Games in Los Angeles, European

athletes first had to travel to New

York by boat. They then crossed

the American continent by train

to Los Angeles (a total travel time

of three weeks!). They returned

the same way.

Some competitors had to save

up their holiday entitlement for

three years in order to have the

10 weeks’ leave they needed for

the Olympic adventure!

© The Olympic Museum

19 The Modern Olympic Games The Games and their era

film and sent to Asia, Africa, Oceania and South America. The Olympic audience

ended up being far larger than just the spectators present in the stadium.

Since the 1964 Games in Tokyo (Japan), satellites have transmitted images

with just a few seconds’ delay. Today, viewers all over the world can follow

the champions’ achievements live. In 1968, the Olympic Winter Games in

Grenoble (France) were the first to be broadcast live on colour television.

Thanks to further technological developments, picture quality has improved

enormously and has reached a high level of perfection. Slow motion shots mean

that an athlete’s movements can be seen in great detail and underwater cameras

even take the audience into the swimming pool with the competitors.

Television networks buy broadcasting rights for the Games, thus providing

approximately half of the Olympic Movement’s income. The IOC nonenetheless

enables less well-off broadcasters to show coverage of the Olympic Games.

This means that sports lovers all over the world can follow the performances

of the champions.

This has helped the Olympic Games to become one of the most watched

sporting events in the world!

Political and diplomatic exploitation of the Games

Being at the forefront of the international stage, the Olympic Games have

the potential to be used as a propaganda tool and an instrument

of political interests.

Here are some of the better-known examples

› 1936 in Berlin (Germany): the Nazi regime appropriated the Games. In the years

leading up to 1936, several governments and sports organisations expressed

their concerns about the regime and its policies. The threat of a boycott hung

over the Games. In the end, it was more individual convictions that prevented

certain athletes from attending.

› 1956 in Melbourne (Australia): the Suez crisis and Soviet oppression

in Hungary provoked a strong reaction from some countries, which refused

to send their athletes to the Games.

› 1968 in Mexico City (Mexico): American athletes Tommy Smith and John Carlos

demonstrated against the racism in the USA. As they stood on the podium

to receive their medals for the 200m, they raised black-gloved fists and bowed

their heads when the American flag was raised. This gesture was their way

of showing their support for the “Black Power” movement which was fighting

the discrimination against black people in the USA. As a result, they were

disqualified.

› 1972 in Munich (Germany): Palestinian terrorists took Israeli athletes hostage.

What is a boycott? −

It is the voluntary severing

of relations with a person,

country or other group

in order to exert pressure.

Boycotts at the Olympic Games

occur when a government

refuses to allow its athletes

to attend the Games.

1

1. OG London 2012,

Photographers at the Women

Triathlon

© 2012 / International Olympic

Committee (IOC) / FURLONG,

Christopher

© The Olympic Museum

20 The Modern Olympic Games The Games and their era

The event ended in tragedy, with nine hostages executed and the death

of a policeman and two other members of the Israeli delegation. The terrorists

were killed by the police.

› 1976 in Montreal (Canada): 22 countries (mostly African) boycotted the Games

to protest against a recent tour of South Africa, which imposed apartheid,

by the New Zealand rugby team.

› 1980 in Moscow (Soviet Union): the United States called for a global boycott

in response to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. American athletes were

forbidden to take part in the Games under threat of having their passports

confiscated. Other countries followed the US example and stayed away

from Moscow.

› 1984 in Los Angeles (USA): in response to the American boycott of 1980,

the Soviet Union refused to attend the Games. The official reasons given

were the commercialisation of the Games and insufficient guarantees

of athletes’ safety.

The diplomatic role of the Games

If the Games are used for political ends, the Olympic ideal is placed under threat.

Nevertheless, the Olympic Games can be used to improve relations between

countries and communities.

› Since the 1950s, the Olympic Games have provided an opportunity for

newly created countries to show the world they exist. Their appearance

at the Games has often led to more widespread international recognition

(e.g. certain African countries, republics of the former Soviet Union).

It has even been the case that the participation of certain athletes in the Games

has preceded the political creation of their country (e.g. Timor Leste, a small

country located next to Indonesia, which has been independent since 2002).

› The end of the apartheid regime allowed South Africa to participate again

in the Olympic Games at the 1992 Games in Barcelona (Spain). The victory lap,

hand-in-hand, of Ethiopia’s Derartu Tulu, who won the women’s 10,000 metres,

and her South African rival Elana Meyer symbolised this change and became

one of the highlights of these Games.

› At the Opening Ceremony of the 2000 Games in Sydney (Australia), South

Korea and North Korea paraded together under a single flag. This act was

unprecedented since the breakdown in diplomatic relations between

the two countries after the Korean War (1950-1953).

› Also in Sydney, the status of the Aborigines was front page news, and several

events were organised to make their claims known. The final stage of the torch

relay was entrusted to Aboriginal athlete Cathy Freeman, and the culture

of the Aboriginal people was a highlight of the Opening Ceremony.

1

1. OG Barcelona 1992

Athletics. 10000m Women –

final, Derartu TULU (ETH) 1st

and Elana MEYER (RSA) 2nd.

© 1992 / IOPP / SASAHARA,

Koji

© The Olympic Museum

21 The Modern Olympic Games The Games and their era

The Geography of the Games

Games of the Olympiad (Summer Games)

Olympiad Year City Country Continent

I 1896 Athens Greece Europe

II 1900 Paris France Europe

III 1904 St Louis USA North America

IV 1908 London United Kingdom Europe

V 1912 Stockholm Sweden Europe

VI 1916 World War I: The Olympiad was not celebrated

VII 1920 Antwerp Belgium Europe

VIII 1924 Paris France Europe

IX 1928 Amsterdam The Netherlands Europe

X 1932 Los Angeles USA North America

XI 1936 Berlin Germany Europe

XII 1940 World War II: The Olympiad was not celebrated

XIII 1944 World War II: The Olympiad was not celebrated

XIV 1948 London United Kingdom Europe

XV 1952 Helsinki Finland Europe

XVI 1956 Melbourne

Stockholm (Equestrian Games

Australia

Sweden

Oceania

Europe

XVII 1960 Rome Italy Europe

XVIII 1964 Tokyo Japan Asia

XIX 1968 Mexico City Mexico Latin America

XX 1972 Munich Germany Europe

XXI 1976 Montreal Canada North America

XXII 1980 Moscow USSR Europe

XXIII 1984 Los Angeles USA North America

XXIV 1988 Seoul South Korea Asia

XXV 1992 Barcelona Spain Europe

XXVI 1996 Atlanta USA North America

XXVII 2000 Sydney Australia Oceania

XXVIII 2004 Athens Greece Europe

XXIX 2008 Beijing China Asia

XXX 2012 London United Kingdom Europe

XXXI 2016 Rio de Janeiro Brazil Latin America

1. OG Helsinki 1952

Men’s 10km walk: medal

ceremony

© 1952 / International Olympic

Committee (IOC)

1 © The Olympic Museum

22 The Modern Olympic Games The Games and their era

Winter Games

Number Year City Country Continent

1st 1924 Chamonix France Europe

2nd 1928 St Moritz Switzerland Europe

3rd 1932 Lake Placid USA North America

4th 1936 Garmisch-Partenkirchen Germany Europe

1940 World War II: The Olympiad was not celebrated

1944 World War II: The Olympiad was not celebrated

5th 1948 St Moritz Switzerland Europe

6th 1952 Oslo Norway Europe

7th 1956 Cortina d’Ampezzo Italy Europe

8th 1960 Squaw Valley USA North America

9th 1964 Innsbruck Austria Europe

10th 1968 Grenoble France Europe

11th 1972 Sapporo Japan Asia

12th 1976 Innsbruck Austria Europe

13th 1980 Lake Placid USA North America

14th 1984 Sarajevo Yugoslavia Europe

15th 1988 Calgary Canada North America

16th 1992 Albertville France Europe

17th 1994 Lillehammer Norway Europe

18th 1998 Nagano Japan Asia

19th 2002 Salt Lake City USA North America

20th 2006 Turin Italy Europe

21th 2010 Vancouver Canada North America

22th 2014 Sotchi Russia Europe

23th 2018 PyeongChang South Korea Asia

1. OG Sydney 2000, Closing

Ceremony – Gathering

of athletes in the stadium.

© 2000 / Kishimoto / IOC /

NAGAYA, Yo

1

The Olympiads are counted even if the Games do not take place!

© The Olympic Museum

23 The Modern Olympic Games Activities - Selective Bibliography

Activities

Schools – subject area: human and social sciences

Look at a globe or a map of the world and locate the Olympic Games host cities.

Discuss the geographical distribution of the Summer and Winter Games.

Write an article on an athlete who has taken part in the Games but who did

not win a medal: describe his/her feelings, emotions and experience.

Find out about an Olympic sport. Pick a sport you don’t know from

the list of sports on the programme of the Summer or Winter Games. Do some research

and prepare a fact sheet on it, including the names of some athletes who practise

the sport.

Imagine some costumes that could be used at the opening ceremony

of the next Olympic Games. Choose a theme and sketch some designs.

Identify some other major events that bring people together like the Olympic

Games. Make a list of them and identify their similarities and differences.

Find some other examples of the interplay between the Olympic Games

and the historical, political or cultural situation of the time.

Selective Bibliography

Young readers

› The Olympic Museum. How well do you know the Olympic Games?

Lausanne: The Olympic Museum, 3rd edition, 2011

› Clive Gifford.Summer Olympics: the definitive guide to the world's greatest

sports celebration

Boston: Kingfisher, 2004

› David Fischer. The encyclopedia of the summer Olympics

New York [etc.]: Franklin Watts, 2003

› Middleton, Haydn. Modern Olympic Games

Chicago: Heinemann Library, 2000

© The Olympic Museum

24 The Modern Olympic Games

Teachers

› David Miller. The official history of the Olympic Games and the IOC: Athens

to London 1984-2012 / by David Miller

Edinburgh: Mainstream, 2012