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Congressman from India:

The Remarkable Story of Dalip Singh Saund

What we would like is not to be considered foreigners or strangers at all, but to be accepted by

Americans as friends. . . . We would like to be merely members of the family and not feel we are

strangers or foreigners. D.S. Saund

In 1956, Dalip Singh Saund, a lettuce farmer in Imperial Valley and local judge,

originally from India, ran against Jacqueline Cochran Odlum, a world famous aviator,

winner of many aviation prizes, leader of women aviators during World War II, and wife

of a multimillionaire, for Congress from the 29th District of California. And he won by

3,300 votes—the first Indian and Asian to be elected to the United States Congress.

He narrates his eventful life in his autobiography Congressman from India (1960), which

offers a fascinating account of post-War California on the edge of dramatic

transformation and just before the great migrations from Asia and other parts of the

world. Saund was born in Amritsar, India, in 1899 during the British Raj, received his

undergraduate education in India. After graduating from the University of Punjab (A.B.,

1919), he came to the United States in 1920 to attend the University of California,

Berkeley, and graduated in 1922 receiving M.A. and Ph.D. degrees. He settled down as

a lettuce farmer in the Imperial Valley of California in 1930 and became a citizen of the

United States in 1949. Elected as a judge of the Justice Court, Westmorland Judicial

District, Imperial County, he served from 1952-1957. He was elected as a Democrat

Congressman to the Eighty-fifth, Eighty-sixth, and Eighty-seventh Congresses (January

3, 1957-January 3, 1963).

His life, public service, and achievements are a remarkable chapter in the richly varied

history of this global village called California and provide a fascinating insight into the

ongoing narrative of diversity, assimilation, and coexistence that informs the very fiber

of California culture and society.

In the last several decades, a great deal of attention has been devoted to the Chinese

and Japanese immigrants in California—understandably so. Stories like that of Saund

reveal that Indians from India have also played an important role in the development of

California and have enriched the life of the state but have not received the same

attention. Such a study is therefore necessary and timely.

This research project is only the first step towards a more detailed and comprehensive

study of the role and contributions of Indians in California. In this project, I will focus only

on the life and career of Dalip Singh Saund.

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For this project, I propose to study Saund’s autobiography, the Congressional Record,

local newspapers, and histories of southern California to learn about his life and

achievements and about the relationships among some of the prominent ethnic groups

during Saund’s professional and public life.

This research will lead to the following tangible and specific results:

1. A unit on the role of Indians in the culture of California in the Literature of

California course (English 9) that I regularly teach.

2. Revision of the unit on Indians in American culture in the Asian American

Literature course (English 41), the next time I offer the course.

3. A database of Indian-Americans, like Saund, who have played a significant role

in the culture of California. This database will be the foundation of a website on

Indian-Americans in California that I plan to create for students and the general

public.

This research project will proceed according to the following schedule.

Winter 2018: Objective 1: Overview and Review

Activity 1: Re-read Saund’s autobiography and compile a working bibliography of

primary and secondary sources, including Karen Leonard’s Making Ethnic Choices:

California's Punjabi Mexican Americans (1992) and Jayasri Majumdar Hart’s Roots in

the Sand (2000).

Spring 2018: Objective 2: Study Saund’s life—professional and public. (FebruaryApril)

Activity 2.1: Take detailed notes from his autobiography; websites, such as

www.saund.org and www.pbs.org/roots in the sand.

Activity 2.2: Read and take additional notes about his career as a judge and his

congressional campaign and career in newspapers, such as the Los Angeles Times,

and in historical records of southern California available at the Huntington Library and in

the public records of the city of Westmorland, CA.

Objective 3: More study of the historical context and preparation of a lesson plan

(April-May)

Activity 3.1: Continuing to read histories of some of the ethnic groups of southern

California.

Activity 3.2: Preparation of a one or two-week unit on Saund and Asian Indians in

southern California for use in my Literature of California course (English 9).

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Activity 3.3 (June-July): Preparation of presentations on this subject to professional

organizations (local and statewide) and the report to be submitted to the Sabbaticals

and Fellowships Committee. Revision of the unit on Indians in the Asian American

Literature course (English 41).

Fall 2018-: Compiling the database of Indian-Americans who have played a significant

role and beginning work on the creation of the website.

2. Benefits to Students: I regularly teach a course in Literature of California that

transfers to UC, CSU, and other colleges. A historical survey of the literature of

California from indigenous beginnings to the 1970s, the course does pay attention to the

various ethnic groups who have made significant contributions to California culture,

especially in the decades before and after World War II. Thus, this study will be directly

relevant to the curriculum and will open a fascinating window into a relatively neglected

area of California culture.

In addition, my study of primary and archival materials will provide interesting lessons

about research methodology for my students in English 1, which I also regularly teach.

As a result, this research will satisfy the following three ILOs:

The students will acquire the self-confidence and self-discipline to pursue their

intellectual curiosities with integrity in both their personal and professional lives.

Obtain the knowledge and skills necessary to access, evaluate, and interpret

ideas, images, and information critically in order to communicate effectively,

reach conclusions, and solve problems.

Respect the inter-relatedness of the global environment, engage with diverse

peoples, and acknowledge the significance of their daily actions relative to

broader issues and events

3. Sharing the research with the SMC community: I plan to present my findings and

share the story of Dalip Singh Saund with students and colleagues in a lecture during

the Activity Hour on a Tuesday or Thursday in Fall 2018 or Spring 2019. I am also

willing to visit any classes to discuss my research if any of my colleagues would like me

to.

Thus, the project is consistent with one of the Supporting Goals of the institution:

Innovative and Responsive Academic Environment

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Continuously develop curricular programs, learning strategies, and services to

meet the evolving needs of students and the community.

4. Documenting and disseminating the research: I would like to present my research

in talks to professional organizations (local and statewide) as well as to community

groups organized by local public libraries. In addition, I hope to write a short article on

Saund for popular magazines, such as Los Angeles Magazine. An important goal is to

compile a database of significant Indian-Americans in California, such as Dalip Singh

Saund and Bhagat Singh Thind, and create a website to make information about their

role in and contributions to California history and culture available to students and the

general public.

On September 27, 2014, an estimated crowd of 19,000 Indian Americans

filled Madison Square Garden in New York City.1 The crowd that assembled

were not necessarily NBA fans of the New York Knicks or NHL afficionados of

the New York Rangers. Instead, they arrived at the venue for a political event

very much out of the ordinary – an address by the then Indian Prime Ministerelect, Narendra Modi. Old and young, Indian-born and U.S. born, the crowd had

travelled from all corners of the nation to hear the new Indian Prime Minister

speak. Also, among those gathered to see Modi were Senate minority leader

Chuck Schumer, and the Democratic senators from New Jersey, Bob Menendez

and Cory Booker, but also the then Indian American Republican Governor of

South Carolina Nikki Haley and numerous other members of Congress from both

sides of the political divide. In India itself, news networks also beamed live

coverage of Modi’s speech in Hindi from a revolving platform to Indians across

the country from Punjab in the north to Kerala in the south. 2

Admittedly a surreal event, Modi’s address in New York City did not just

reflect the growing visibility of Indian Americans in the United States. Indeed,

Modi’s appearance also highlighted the increasing importance of Indian

Americans as a political constituency in U.S. society. Indian Americans constitute

less than one percent of the U.S. population, yet the median annual income of

Indian-headed households is more than twice that of the U.S. median. Seventy-six

percent of Indian immigrants in the country aged twenty-five or older possess at

least a bachelor’s degree thus making the immigrant community one of the most

educated and affluent in the nation.3 Given Californian Democrat Kamala Harris’s

status as the U.S. Vice-President-Elect and the not so distant Bobby Jindal and

Haley governorships of two of the nation’s most conservative Southern states,

Indian Americans have therefore emerged onto the U.S. political scene as a

powerful transnational force. Rudyard Kipling once remarked: “[e]ast is East and

West is West, and never the twain shall meet.” 4 Yet Modi’s raucous address

drawing on politicians, rhetoric and themes from both East and West clearly

proved the famed British novelist and poet wrong.

Bhadrajee S. Hewage is affiliated with Princeton University’s Department of History and

the Programs in African Studies, Latin American Studies, and South Asian Studies. He

will become a Clarendon Scholar at the University of Oxford pursuing a DPhil in History

in 2021 following his graduation.

1

“At Madison Square Garden, Chants, Cheers and Roars for Modi,” The New York Times,

September 28, 2014.

2 Sangay K. Mishra, Desis Divided: The Political Lives of South Asian Americans (Minneapolis:

University of Minnesota Press, 2016), 1.

3

“Indian immigrants make it obvious that the American dream is alive and well,” The Washington

Post, August 24, 2015.

4

“The Ballad of East and West” (1889) featured in Rudyard Kipling, Rudyard Kipling's Verse:

Definitive Edition (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1940), 234-38.

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Hewage: An “Indian” American Congressman

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However, the political potential and visibility of Indian Americans within

the United States was not always like this. Indeed, when Judge Dalip Singh Saund

became the Democratic Representative for California’s 29th district in 1956, he

became the first Asian American and first member from a non-Abrahamic faith

ever elected to Congress. In an electoral district which had never before sent a

Democrat to Congress, Saund won thanks to a margin of roughly 3,000 votes

from a total of 110,000 cast.5 The stature of his Republican opponent Jacqueline

Cochran Odlum made Saund’s stunning electoral victory all the more impressive.

A world-renowned aviatrix, Odlum had won numerous prizes for her feats, had

marshalled female fliers during the Second World War, and had married the

multi-millionaire financier, Floyd Odlum. As reporter Richard Dyer MacCann

noted: “[s]elf-made woman vs. naturalized Sikh – certainly this has never

happened before in American politics.”6 Furthermore, Odlum was a Caucasian.

Four years earlier, Saund had achieved prominence through winning the

Justice of the Peace election in his hometown of Westmorland in California’s

Imperial County by a mere thirteen votes.7 Again, the incumbent whom Saund

defeated was Caucasian. More than half a century before the appearance of Indian

American politicians such as Harris, Haley, or Jindal on the national U.S. political

scene, Saund’s electoral successes were as remarkable as they were improbable.

One of seven children born to illiterate parents in 1899, Saund’s journey to the

upper echelons of U.S. political power certainly deserves further examination.

Indeed, how did Saund’s Indian heritage feature in his successful journey to

Congress in 1956? Using material from Saund’s memoir and media coverage of

Saund’s campaigns, I will explain in this paper how Saund managed to achieve

electoral success despite his status as a naturalized U.S. citizen of Indian origin. I

argue that his outward appearance as an amenable, educated, and canny politician

who embodied U.S. values helped Saund achieve political success despite the

significant obstacle posed by his Indian heritage.

Given national attitudes towards immigration at the time Saund arrived in

the United States, his later successes are even more remarkable. Saund’s story

was certainly not one of the standard rags-to-riches lore. While his parents may

have been illiterate, they were well-off agriculturalists from Amritsar in the

Punjab and were able to provide for Saund’s U.S. education.8 Yet Saund arrived

for graduate study at the University of California, Berkeley a mere three years

after the nation had passed the 1917 Immigration Act. Creating a “Pacific Barred

Zone,” the Act severely restricted the admission of Asians to the United States

and further declared individuals of Asian descent ineligible for U.S. citizenship.

Historian David Gerber notes how “frustrated efforts at piecemeal proscription of

Asian immigration and citizenship” finally resulted in the 1917 Act which

5 Dalip S. Saund, Congressman from India (New York: E.P. Dutton and Company, 1960), 98.

6

“Democracy Seen in Action,” The Christian Science Monitor, May 16, 1956.

7 Saund, Congressman from India, 83.

8

“First India Native Goes to Congress,” The Atlanta Constitution, November 11, 1956.

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“declar[ed] all of Asia, exclusive of the Philippines… ‘the barred Asiatic zone,’

from which immigration must cease completely.”9

Indian demographer Sripati Chandrasekhar highlighted the two ways in

which the 1917 Act especially affected those of Indian descent. He claimed firstly

that “the United States Government, having discriminated against two important

countries, China and Japan, did not wish these countries to feel that they had been

singled out for discrimination, and so they added India and the rest [other Asian

nations] for fairness!” According to Chandrasekhar, the second justification

involved Britain’s relationship with the U.S. since there was the concern that “any

national of [Britain’s] colonial empire in Asia, and particularly the educated and

articulate Indians, if admitted to the U.S. would certainly carry-on propaganda

against British rule.”10

Despite the tough immigration rhetoric in the years which preceded his

arrival in the U.S., Saund had nevertheless developed an affectionate fascination

with the United States while still in India. Scholar Rajni Srikanth writes that

“Asian Americans have a more urgent reason to exhibit interest in their ancestral

nations, however: they never know when their membership in the United States

will be called into question.”11 Yet for Saund, the primary interest was never in

his ancestral country of India but rather in his adopted U.S. homeland. He

admitted that he had first developed his own notions of who constituted and

American and what constituted American values while still a college student in

the Punjab. He wrote: “I must confess as late as 1917, when I was a junior in

college, despite my interest in political affairs, my knowledge of the United States

of America was next to nothing.”12 Yet this began to change when the U.S.

entered the First World War.

Following U.S. attempts to create a League of Nations in the aftermath of

the conflict, Saund started reading the speeches of President Woodrow Wilson in

Indian newspapers. He noted how “[Wilson’s] inspiring ideas and ideals – ‘make

the world safe for democracy’, ‘the war to end war,’ and ‘self-determination for

all peoples’ – appealed to my young heart.”13 Through his engagement with

Wilson’s oratory, Saund further became acquainted with the words of Abraham

Lincoln. The discovery of Lincoln and his role in U.S. history changed the

direction of Saund’s life. He remarked: “Lincoln changed the entire course of my

life.” He added: “[d]efiant of the wishes of my parents, who wanted me to join the

service of the British Government in India, I said to myself and to them, I must go

to the United States of America, come what may.”14

9 David A. Gerber, American Immigration: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University

Press, 2011), 32. The Philippines remained a U.S. possession until 1946 following the conclusion

of the Spanish-American War of 1898.

10 Sripati Chandrasekhar, From India to America: A Brief History of Immigration, Problems of

Discrimination, Admission and Assimilation (La Jolla, California: Population Review

Publications, 1982), 18.

11 Rajini Srikanth, The World Next Door: South Asian American Literature and the Idea of

America (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2004), 51.

12 Saund, Congressman from India, 31.

13 Ibid.

14 Saund, Congressman from India, 31.

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Coming to Berkeley in 1920 to study viticulture, Saund quickly saw how

erroneously the U.S. viewed India and those of Indian descent and so he started

the process of adapting to what he believed the U.S. wanted of new arrivals like

him. Author Vivek Bald noted that “[t]oday, when we think of U.S. fads and

fashions for India, we tend to focus on the recent mass popularity of yoga and

Bollywood films or on narratives of self-discovery in the East such as Elizabeth

Gilbert’s best-selling Eat, Pray Love.” Yet Bald notes that “[i]t is largely

forgotten that at the turn of the twentieth century the United States was in the

grips of a craze over India and ‘the Orient’ that was, in some ways, larger and

more pervasive than anything that has occurred since.”15 Indeed, Saund himself

observed that “[i]n those days the picture of India which most of the American

people carried in their minds had little basis in reality…It was a confused jumble

of yogis, snake charmers, and maharajas.”16

Yet, despite the romantic depictions and imaginations of India, Saud knew

that prejudice against Asians was intense, and that those of Asian descent were

unwelcome. He realized that to become accepted in U.S. society, he needed to act

and behave as a “true American.” He wrote: “I vowed to myself that if I was

going to acquire any of the characteristics of the American people, one of the

most important ones would be to learn to be a good sport.”17 Only then, he

believed, would others in the U.S. come to accept him as an American who

happened to be of Indian descent rather an Indian who happened to reside in the

United States.

Once on the path to becoming an American “good sport,” Saund still had

one formidable obstacle to overcome. Finishing his graduate degrees at Berkeley,

Saund became intimately familiar with U.S. life. Yet he had not managed to

achieve U.S. citizenship. As a non-citizen, Saund faced the same problems

experienced by countless other South Asians who had immigrated to the United

States in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Journalist Kathryn

Schulz describes the similar citizenship struggle of Pathan tamale seller Zarif

Khan who had his U.S. citizenship revoked a mere four months after obtaining it

in 1926 on the realization that he had fallen foul of the 1917 Act.18 Saund himself

lamented: “I had married an American [Caucasian] girl, and was the father of

three American children …. I was making America my home.” He continued:

“thus it was only natural that I felt very uncomfortable not being able to become a

citizen of the United States.”19

In fact, it was only after the U.S. had come to terms with the efforts of

non-citizen minority communities to the U.S. effort during the Second World War

did citizenship restrictions change. Only July 2, 1946, President Truman

eventually passed the Immigration Act of 1946 which, according to

Chandrasekhar, for the first time authorized “the admission into the United States

15 Vivek Bald, Bengali Harlem and the Lost Histories of South Asian America (Cambridge,

Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2013), 16. [Emphasis original].

16 Saund, Congressman from India, 40.

17 Ibid., 41.

18 “Citizen Khan,” The New Yorker, June 2016. Khan finally regained his citizenship twenty-eight

years later in 1954.

19 Saund, Congressman from India, 72.

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of persons or races indigenous to India…to make them racially eligible for

naturalization and other purposes.”20 Following the passing of the 1946 Act, as

many as 3,000 Indians who had been resident in the United States became U.S.

citizens.21 Indeed, Saund finally became a U.S. citizen himself three years after

the passing of this Act and twenty-nine years after he first arrived in the United

States.

22

Receiving his doctorate in Mathematics from Berkeley, Saund had moved

to the town of Westmorland in California’s Imperial County. Marrying Marian

Kosa, the daughter of a Los Angeles painter of Czech origin, Saund began raising

alfalfa and sugar beet in the Imperial Valley.23 There, the Justice of the Peace,

who happened to be a close friend, drew Saund into local Democratic Party

affairs. Having fulfilled U.S. citizenship residency requirements and become

wealthy through his agricultural enterprises, Saund contested this judicial post

following the death of his friend in 1952. Here began Saund’s first electoral battle

and the first time where his Indian heritage was seriously called into question. He

remembered an exchange he had with a friend who advised him against becoming

the town’s Justice of the Peace. To emphasize his point, Saund’s friend informed

him: “[w]ell you’re kind of an American I suppose, but I can trace my own origin

to a family that came over on the Mayflower.”24 Another resident attacked him

asking “Doc, tell us, if you’re elected, will you furnish the turbans or will we have

to buy them ourselves in order to come into your court?”25 Another town dweller

remarked: “I agree that Saund would make a good judge, but I just can’t go for a

Hindu for a judge.” While that particular Westmorland resident did not vote for

him, Saund later learned that ten younger members of his family did.26

The traces of the prejudice and discrimination that had fuelled the

implementation of the 1917 Act remained among the older generation, but Saund

noticed how they were largely absent among those from the younger generation.

For the latter, Saund’s actions and good works in the town community held much

more weight than his ethnic or racial origins. Saund noted how in the run-up to

the election, he had worked in support of Community Chest drives and the Boy

Scouts and had also acted as the chairman of the March for Dimes for two years.

He further described how he had been appointed as the chairman of a drive to

complete a swimming pool for the town. While covering his Congressional race

four years later, several media outlets noted how he had successfully helped the

town to dispel its associations with gambling and prostitution.27 His reputation as

an educated man had also begun to precede him with the townsfolk affectionately

referring to him as “Doc.” His responses to racists such as “I don’t care what a

20 Chandrasekhar, From India to America, 22.

21 “Hindu Is Trying to Ground Jackie Cochran at The Polls,” The Courier-Journal, May 9, 1956.

22 Saund, Congressman from India, 76.

23 “Jackie Cochran Vies for Votes with a Hindu,” Detroit Free Press, May 6, 1956.

24 Saund, Congressman from India, 80. [Emphasis original].

25 Ibid.

26 Ibid.

27 “A Sikh in Congress: Dalip Singh Saund,” The New York Times, November 10, 1956; “Jackie

Cochran Vies for Votes with a Hindu,” Detroit Free Press, May 6, 1956.

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Hewage: An “Indian” American Congressman

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man has on top of his head …. All I’m interested in is what he’s got inside it”, all

helped his personality and charm appeal to voters rather than his Indian heritage.28

Saund’s decision to contest the 1956 Congressional election for

California’s 29th district again played host to discussions regarding his Indian

background. In the district’s Democratic primary, Saund’s opponent repeatedly

racially attacked him yet Saund refused to acknowledge the assaults against his

character. He wrote: “I had positively and definitely made up my mind to present

myself as a candidate for the high office of congressman on my own merits and

not say a word against my opponent.” He added: “I thus never felt the need nor

the desire to answer his charges.” His Democratic challenger Carl Kegley even

unsuccessfully took Saund to court in his belief that Saund did not meet the

citizenship requirements to run for the seat.29 Saund trusted that the district’s

constituents would judge his candidacy based on his work as Westmoreland’s

Justice of the Peace rather than his Asian or immigrant background. Securing the

Democratic nomination, he noted that the results “have confirmed my faith in the

good sense and fair play on the part of the American people.”30

Yet, defeating Kegley did not make the seat race any easier. Following the

retirement of the district’s seven-term Republican congressman John Phillips,

Saund indeed faced an uphill, often race-based battle to secure the seat.

Campaigning against Odlum, Saund noted: “[e]very effort was made to make it

appear that I was an Indian, not an American …. In newspaper ads I was not

called D.S. Saund, but Dalip Singh in big letters and Saund in small letters.”31

Furthermore, Odlum, a personal friend of President Eisenhower, had a wellfinanced campaign. Saund had struggled to find any rich supporters for his cause.

Despite lacking in financial clout, he nevertheless managed a campaign built on

strong volunteer support and ingenuity. Priced out of buying commercial

billboards, his campaign furnished their own homemade plywood billboards.

Scores of volunteers canvassed the towns and cities in the district for Saund.

Family members campaigning on his behalf also worked wonders for Saund with

many constituents deciding to vote for him after meeting them. Furthermore,

campaigning in a largely agricultural and conservative rural district, Saund

advocated for federal aid for farmers, regional water rights and higher pay for the

armed forces.32 This hard work coupled with his own farming background helped

Saund reap benefits which overcame his campaign’s financial struggles.

Saund had always tried to deflect attention away from his Indian heritage.

Yet he eventually realized that his ethnic and racial background could be used as

an instrument to definitively prove his assimilation into U.S. society. Scholar

Seema Sohi writes that “[t]he experiences of Indian workers, intellectuals, and

students as they moved across the globe …. [enabled them] to see themselves not

simply as migrants seeking economic opportunity.” 33 Sohi argues that many of

28 Saund, Congressman from India, 80-82.

29

“Appellate Court Refuses to Act in Election Case,” Los Angeles Times, April 27, 1956.

30 “Aviatrix and Hindi Win Nominations,” The Hartford Courant, June 7, 1956.

31 Saund, Congressman from India, 101-102.

32 “First India Native Goes to Congress,” The Atlanta Constitution, November 11, 1956.

33 Seema Sohi, Echoes of Mutiny: Race, Surveillance, and Indian Anticolonialism In North

America (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), 16.

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these Indians actively became involved “as politicized workers” who were

determined to make their own impact on the political systems in the nations to

which they migrated. Saund certainly declared himself first and foremost to be

working for the best interests of his constituents. He remembered how Odlum

dragged Indian Prime Minister Nehru into the election by claiming that he was a

Communist-sympathizer and “would certainly like to have a man from India

elected to the Congress of the United States.”34 According to Saund, he replied to

her that: “I was presenting myself to the people of the 29th Congressional District

as an American candidate for Congress and not as anyone owing allegiance to any

foreign country.”35

Saund further promised to his constituents that if he were to be elected,

one of the first items on his agenda would be to travel to India and the Middle

East to showcase the wonders of U.S. democracy.

36 Once there, he pledged to

appear before the appeal and claim: “[y]ou have been listening to the insidious

propaganda of the Communists that there is prejudice and discrimination in the

United States against your people.” Saund believed that his election would prove

to ordinary Asians that he was a “living example of American democracy in

action” as would be “elected by the free vote of the people in a very conservative

district of the state of California to membership in the most powerful legislative

body on earth.”37 For Saund, his Indian heritage thus had the potential to function

not just as a marker of his national and racial origins but also as a reminder of the

distance he had covered on his path to assimilation in U.S. society.

Saund’s vigorous campaign paid off. Narrowly defeating Odlum, he took

office as the Democratic congressman from California’s 29th district in January

1957. Authors Sanjoy Chakravorty, Devesh Kapur, and Nirvikar Singh wrote that

“[h]aving worked as a farmer in the Imperial Valley, [Saund] understood the daily

lives of his neighbours.”

38 Covering the elections, The Minneapolis Morning

Tribune noted how “Saund appears to be on first name terms with half the people

in Imperial County …. Because of his dark skin, he has a natural appeal to the

region’s Negroes, Mexicans, Japanese, and Hindus” who together formed around

three percent of the total electorate.39 Marrying the daughter of Czech immigrants

and serving in local civic organizations, Saund had also formed several bonds

with the majority of the Caucasians in his town and California county. He had

managed to use his Indian heritage to highlight how despite his foreign origins, he

remained committed to improving the lives and welfare of those in the country

where he became a naturalized citizen. His candidacy as a hard-working,

personable, and educated Democrat in a Republican stronghold appeared to

matter much more than his Indian national origins.

34 Saund, Congressman from India, 108.

35 Ibid.

36 “Jackie Cochran Vies for Votes with a Hindu,” Detroit Free Press, May 6, 1956.

37 Saund, Congressman from India, 108-110.

38 Sanjoy Chakravorty, Devesh Kapur, and Nirvikar Singh, The Other One Percent: Indians In

America (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2016), 20.

39 “Hindu Battles Woman Flier in California Congress Race,” The Minneapolis Morning Tribune,

May 6, 1956.

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Hewage: An “Indian” American Congressman

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Despite Saund’s election to Congress in 1956, his victory did not

immediately pave the way for other Indian Americans to join Congress. Indeed, it

would be another forty-eight years before Bobby Jindal took his place in Congress

as a Representative from Louisiana. Like Saund, Jindal again had to overcome

obstacles based on his ethnic and racial origins to appeal to his electorate. Jindal

had converted from his family’s Hinduism to Roman Catholicism, but even

religious conversion did not prevent him from facing questions over his

“Americanness.”40 However, in recent years, Indian American politicians have

become more comfortable in publicly embracing their various ethnic and religious

origins. Today, both Rep. Ro Khanna and Rep. Pramila Jayapal play a key role in

fostering dialogue between India and the U.S. through the Congressional India

Caucus, and Vice-President-Elect Harris has even publicly cooked Indian food

with Indian American celebrity Mindy Kaling while out on the campaign trail.41

Saund may have broken ground in becoming the first Indian American

Congressman, but it is only now that the wider American public can begin to see

and indeed appreciate the national role of Indian American politicians in

representing them. Indeed, the raucous welcome afforded to Modi at a packed-out

Madison Square Garden in 2014 highlights the important position of Indian

Americans in U.S. political life today.

Referencing his heritage, Saund was correct when he lamented: “I have

found it impossible to malign or belittle my opponents.”42 Almost half a century

before Indian Americans began playing a larger role in U.S. politics, Saund was

able to legitimize himself as a regular U.S. citizen who simply happened to come

from an Indian background due to his work as a determined politician with an

established track record in his community. One of the statements of Abraham

Lincoln that most appealed to Saund was his advice: “[b]e satisfied with skim

milk if you cannot get cream.”43 Saund certainly was forced to live with skim

milk on several occasions throughout his life, yet he had managed to find it both

sweet and nourishing. Kipling may have remarked that East could never meet

West. Through his journey from Punjab to California and Washington, Saund

decisively proved him wrong.

40 “Must Sikhs, Hindus convert to get elected,” Na

Sikhs (singular Sikh: /sɪk/ (like "sick") or /siːk/ (like "seek"); Punjabi: ਸਿੱਖ, sikkh [sɪkkʰ]; Devanagari: सिख) are an ethnoreligious group[74] who adhere to Sikhi or Sikhism,[75] a Dharmic religion that originated in the late 15th century in the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent, based on the revelation of Guru Nanak.[76] The term Sikh has its origin in the Sanskrit word śiṣya (शिष्य), meaning 'disciple' or 'student'.[77][78][79]

Male Sikhs generally have Singh ('lion') as their last name, though not all Singhs are necessarily Sikhs; likewise, female Sikhs have Kaur ('princess') as their last name. These unique last names were given by the Gurus to allow Sikhs to stand out and also as an act of defiance to India's caste system, which the Gurus were always against. Sikhs strongly believe in the idea of sarbat da bhala (welfare of all) and are often seen on the frontline to provide humanitarian aid across the world.

Sikhs who have undergone the Amrit Sanchar ('baptism by Khanda'), an initiation ceremony, are known as Khalsa from the day of their initiation, and they must at all times have on their bodies the five Ks:

kesh, uncut hair usually kept covered by a dastār, also known as a turban;

kara, an iron or steel bracelet;

kirpan, a dagger-like sword tucked into a gatra strap or a kamar kasa waistband;

kachera, a cotton undergarment; and

kanga, a small wooden comb.

Tarn Taran Sahib - The World's Largest Sarovar (sacred pool)

The Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent has been the historic homeland of the Sikhs, having even been ruled by the Sikhs for significant parts of the 18th and 19th centuries. Today, Canada has the largest national Sikh proportion (2.1%) in the world,[13] while the Punjab state in India has the largest Sikh proportion (58%) amongst all administrative divisions in the world. Many countries, such as Canada and the United Kingdom, recognize Sikhs as a designated religion on their censuses,[80] and, as of 2020, Sikhs are considered as a separate ethnic group in the United States.[81] The UK also considers Sikhs to be an ethno-religious people, as a direct result of the Mandla v Dowell-Lee case in 1982.[82][83]

History

Main article: History of Sikhism

Gurdwara Janam Asthan, the birthplace of Guru Nanak

Guru Nanak (1469–1539), the founder of Sikhism, was born in a Khatri family to Mehta Kalu and Mata Tripta in the village of Talwandi, present-day Nankana Sahib, near Lahore.[84] Throughout his life, Guru Nanak was a religious leader and social reformer. However, Sikh political history may be said to begin in 1606, with the death of the fifth Sikh guru, Guru Arjan Dev.[85] Religious practices were formalised by Guru Gobind Singh on 30 March 1699, when the Guru initiated five people from a variety of social backgrounds, known as the Panj Piare ("beloved five"), to form a collective body of initiated Sikhs, known as the Khalsa ("pure").[86]

The early followers of Guru Nanak were Khatris, but later a large number of Jats joined the faith.[87] Khatris and Brahmins opposed "the demand that the Sikhs set aside the distinctive customs of their castes and families, including the older rituals."[88]

Pashaura Singh analyzed references made within the 11th ballad of the Varan of Bhai Gurdas to form a picture of the caste-makeup of the early Sikh community.[89] At the time of the writing the Vaar, the early Sikh community was composed of various castes and backgrounds, such as:[89]

Khatris (particularly the Sehgal, Ohri, Uppal, Julka, Bhalla, Passi, Khullar, Vohra, Vij, Kapur, Chaddha, Behl, Kohli, Marwah, Mehra, Soni, Jhanjhi, Sodhi, Beri, Nanda, Wadhawan, Tulli, and Puri gotras)[89]

Brahmins (such as the Bhardwaj gotra)[89]

Jats (particularly the Randhawa, Khehra, Dhillon, and Pannu gotras)[89]

Tarkhans ('carpenters')[89]

Lohars ('blacksmiths')[89]

Nais ('barbers')[89]

Chhimbas ('cotton-printers')[89]

Machhis ('water-carriers')[89]

Dhobis ('washermen')[89]

Kumhars ('potters')[89]

Telis ('oil pressers")[89]

masons[89]

goldsmiths[89]

Outcastes (such as Chandals)[89]

Muslims[89]

The early Sikhs varied widely in their occupations and position in society's hierarchy: some were rich merchants (Seths and Sarrafs), others were heads of villages (Chowdhury), some were labourers, others were enslaved, whilst others still were artisans, craftsmen, shopkeepers, or simple peasants.[89]

The Sikh Empire at its greatest extent

During the rule of the Mughal Empire in India, two Sikh gurus were martyred. (Guru Arjan was martyred on suspicion of helping in betrayal of Mughal Emperor Jahangir and Guru Tegh Bahadur was martyred by the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb)[90] As the Sikh faith grew, the Sikhs subsequently militarized to oppose Mughal rule.[citation needed]

The Samadhi of Emperor Ranjit Singh in Lahore, Pakistan

The Golden Temple

Metal helmet in a museum

A Sikh Khalsa Army sowar's battle helmet

Max Arthur Macauliffe (1841-1913), a senior British administrator who was posted to India during the British rule of Punjab, converted to Sikhism in the 1860s

After defeating the Afghans and Mughals, sovereign states called Misls were formed under Jassa Singh Ahluwalia. The Confederacy of these states was unified and transformed into the Sikh Empire under Maharaja Ranjit Singh. This era was characterised by religious tolerance and pluralism, including Christians, Muslims, and Hindus in positions of power. Its secular administration implemented military, economic, and governmental reforms. The empire is considered the zenith of political Sikhism,[91] encompassing Kashmir, Ladakh, and Peshawar. Hari Singh Nalwa, the commander-in-chief of the Sikh Khalsa Army in the North-West Frontier, expanded the confederacy to the Khyber Pass.

British rule in India

Sikh armour and weapons

“Sikh Sardar”, photograph by John McCosh taken in circa 1848-49

After the annexation of the Sikh/Punjabi kingdom by the British, the British Army began recruiting significant numbers of Sikhs and Punjabis.[citation needed] During the 1857 Indian mutiny, the Sikhs stayed loyal to the British, resulting in heavy recruitment from Punjab to the British Indian Army for the next 90 years of the British Raj in colonial India.[92] The distinct turban that differentiates a Sikh from other turban wearers is a relic of the rules of the British Indian Army.[93] The British colonial rule saw the emergence of many reform movements in India, including Punjab, such as the formation of the First and Second Singh Sabha in 1873 and 1879 respectively. The Sikh leaders of the Singh Sabha worked to offer a clear definition of Sikh identity and tried to purify Sikh belief and practice.[94]

The later years of British colonial rule saw the emergence of the Akali movement to bring reform in the gurdwaras during the early 1920s. The movement led to the introduction of Sikh Gurdwara Bill in 1925, which placed all the historical Sikh shrines in India under the control of the Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee.[95]

Partition and post-Partition

At the time of the Indian independence movement, the Sikh ruler of the Kapurthala State fought to oppose the partition of India and advocated for a united, secular country.[96] Sikh organizations, including the Chief Khalsa Dewan and Shiromani Akali Dal led by Master Tara Singh, condemned the Lahore Resolution and the movement to create Pakistan, viewing it as inviting possible persecution, with Akali Dal instead favouring an undivided Azad Punjab as an independent Sikh State or Khalistan, having passed the Sikh State Resolution in 1946. The Sikhs therefore strongly fought against the partition of Punjab.[97] The months leading up to the 1947 partition of Punjab were marked by conflict in the Punjab between Sikhs and Muslims.[98] This caused the religious migration of Punjabi Sikhs and Hindus from West Punjab to the east (modern India), mirroring a simultaneous religious migration of Punjabi Muslims from East Punjab to the west (modern Pakistan).[99]

Following partition, the Government of India had begun to redraw states corresponding to demographic and linguistic boundaries. However, this was not effective in the northern part of the country,[100] as the government reconsidered redrawing states in the north. [101] While states across the country were extensively redrawn on linguistic lines at the behest of linguistic groups, the only languages not considered for statehood were Punjabi, Sindhi and Urdu. [102] Leading to the launch of the Punjabi Suba movement and the presentation for a Punjabi Suba as a policy in April 1948 by Master Tara Singh. Also, on 26 January 1950 Sikh representatives refused to sign the Indian constitution. As Sikhs were recognized as Hindus and Sikhs were not provided with scheduled castes concessions given to Hindu scheduled castes.

The Punjab Suba experienced heavy government crackdown with the Congress Government arresting as many as 21,000 people. Attempted negotiations with Congress-led the agitation to be adjourned twice, though Jawaharlal Nehru continued to reject the demand.[103][104] On 4 July 1955, government police forces, led by DIG Ashwini Kumar,[105] forced entry into the Golden Temple premises and heavy-handedly arrested protestors and took them into custody, along with the head granthis of the Akal Takht and Golden Temple, volunteer protestors, and even cooks of the temple's langar.[106] The Guru Ram Das Serai and Shiromani Akali Dal offices were also raided, and batons used and tear gas and shells were fired to disperse the protestors gathered on the periphery of the temple, damaging the periphery and Sarovar, or pool, of the temple.[106][107] The government stopped volunteers on the way to the Golden Temple, and troops were ordered to flag-march through the bazaars and streets surrounding the site.[107] Over 200 protestors were killed, thousands arrested,[107] and thousands, including women and children, were injured.

The Congress government agreed to the Punjab Suba in 1966 after protests and recommendation of the States Reorganisation Commission.[108] The state of East Punjab was later split into the states of Himachal Pradesh, the new state Haryana and current day Punjab.[109] However, there was a growing alienation between Punjabi Sikh and Hindu populations. The latter of which reported Hindi rather than Punjabi as their primary language. The result was that Punjabi-speaking areas were left out of the new state and given to Haryana and Himachal Pradesh[110] resulting in the state of Punjab to be roughly 35,000 square miles smaller than the Punjabi-speaking areas based on pre-1947 census figures. Moreover, the 1966 reorganization left Sikhs highly dissatisfied, with the capital Chandigarh being made into a shared a union territory and the capital of Punjab and Haryana.

In the late 1960s, the Green Revolution in India was first introduced in Punjab as part of a development program issued by international donor agencies and the Government of India.[111] While, Green Revolution in Punjab had several positive impacts, the introduction of the mechanised agricultural techniques led to uneven distribution of wealth. The industrial development was not done at the same pace as agricultural development, the Indian government had been reluctant to set up heavy industries in Punjab due to its status as a high-risk border state with Pakistan.[112] The rapid increase in the higher education opportunities without an adequate rise in the jobs resulted in the increase in the unemployment of educated youth.[108]

In 1973 as a result, of unaddressed grievances and increasing inequality the Akali Dal put forward the Anandpur Sahib Resolution.[113] The resolution included both religious and political issues. It asked for recognising Sikhism as a religion, it also demanded the devolution of power from the Central to state governments.[108] The Anandpur Resolution was rejected by the government as a secessionist document. Thousands of people joined the movement, feeling that it represented a real solution to demands such as a larger share of water for irrigation and the return of Chandigarh to Punjab.[114]

After unsuccessful negotiations the Dharam Yuddh Morcha ("righteous campaign")[115] was launched on 4 August 1982,[citation needed] by the Akali Dal in partnership with Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale, with its stated aim being the fulfillment of a set of devolutionary objectives based on the Anandpur Sahib Resolution.[115] Indian police responded to protestors with high-handed police methods creating state repression affecting a very large segment of Punjab's population. Police brutality resulted in retaliatory violence from a section of the Sikh population, widening the scope of the conflict by the use of violence of the state on its own people. [116] A "state of chaos and repressive police methods" combined to create "a mood of overwhelming anger and resentment in the Sikh masses against the authorities". Leading to Sikh leader Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale gaining prominence and demands of independence gain currency, even amongst moderates and Sikh intellectuals.[116] In 1982 and early 1983, extrajudicial killings by the police of orthodox Sikh youth in rural areas in Punjab provoked reprisals.[117] Over 190 Sikhs had been killed in the first 19 months of the protest movement.[118]

In May 1984, a Grain Roko morcha was planned and to be initiated on 3 June[119] with protestors practising civil disobedience by refusing to pay land revenue, water or electricity bills, and blocking the flow of grain out of Punjab. Indian Prime minister Indira Gandhi launched Operation Blue Star on 1 June prior to the Grain Roko morcha in order to remove Bhindranwale from the Golden Temple. This subsequently lead to Gandhi's assassination by her Sikh bodyguards.[120] Her assassination was followed by government-sponsored pogroms against Sikh communities across India and the killing of thousands of Sikhs throughout India. These events triggered an Insurgency in Punjab which would consume Punjab until the early 1990s.

During the day of Vaisakhi in 1999, Sikhs worldwide celebrated the 300th anniversary of the creation of the Khalsa. Canada Post honoured Sikh Canadians with a commemorative stamp in conjunction with the anniversary. Likewise, on 9 April 1999, Indian president K. R. Narayanan issued a stamp commemorating the 300th anniversary of the Khalsa as well.[121]

Culture and religious observations

According to Article I of Chapter 1 of the Sikh Rehat Maryada ('code of conduct'), the definition of Sikh is:[122]

Any human being who faithfully believes in i. One Immortal Being, ii. Ten Gurus, from Guru Nanak Sahib to Guru Gobind Singh Sahib, iii. The Guru Granth Sahib, iv. The utterances and teachings of the ten Gurus and

v. the baptism bequeathed by the tenth Guru, and who does not owe allegiance to any other religion, is a Sikh.

Daily routine

From the Guru Granth Sahib:[123]

One who calls themself a Sikh of the Guru, the True Guru, shall rise in the early morning hours and meditate on the Lord's Name. Upon arising early in the morning, he is to bathe and cleanse himself in the pool of nectar. Following the Instructions of the Guru, he is to chant the Name of the Lord, "Har, Har." All sins, misdeeds, and negativity shall be then erased. Then, at the rising of the sun, he is to sing Gurbani; whether sitting down or standing up, he is to meditate on the Lord's Name. One who meditates on my Lord, Har, Har, with every breath and every morsel of food and – that GurSikh becomes pleasing to the Guru's Mind. That person, unto whom my Lord and Master is kind and compassionate – upon that GurSikh, the Guru's Teachings are bestowed. Servant Nanak begs for the dust of the feet of that GurSikh, who himself chants the Naam, and inspires others to chant it.

— Fourth Mehl (Guru Ram Das), Guru Granth Sahib, p. 305

The Sikh Rahit Maryada (Code of Conduct) clearly states that baptized Amritdhari Khalsa Sikhs must recite or listen to the recitation of Japji Sahib, Jaap Sahib, the 10 Sawayyas, Sodar Rehraas, and Sohila.[124][125] Every Sikh is also supposed take the Hukam (divine order) from the Guru Granth Sahib after awakening in the ambrosial hours of the morning (three hours before the dawn) before eating.[126]

In his 52 Hukams, Guru Gobind Singh orders his followers to arise during Amritvela (early morning) and to recite the late evening prayer "Sohila" and the verse "Pavan guru pani pita..." before sleeping.

Five Ks

Main articles: The Five Ks, Khalsa, and Sahajdhari

Wooden comb, iron bracelet and curved, gold-coloured dagger

Kanga, Kara and Kirpan: three of the five Sikh articles of faith

The five Ks (panj kakaar) are five articles of faith which all baptized (Amritdhari) Sikhs are obliged to wear. The symbols represent the ideals of Sikhism: honesty, equality, fidelity, meditating on Waheguru, and never bowing to tyranny.[127] The five symbols are:

Kesh: Uncut hair, usually tied and wrapped in a turban.

Kanga: A wooden comb, usually worn under a turban to always also keep one's hair clean and well-groomed.

Kachera: Cotton undergarments, worn by both sexes; the kachera is a symbol of chastity, and also a symbol of cleanliness. It is also historically appropriate in battle due to increased mobility and comfort when compared to a dhoti.

Kara: An iron bracelet, a symbol of eternity, strength, and a constant reminder of the strength of will to keep hands away from any kind of unethical practices.

Kirpan: An iron blade in different sizes. In the UK, Sikhs can wear a small dagger, but in Punjab, they might wear a traditional curved sword from one to three feet in length. Kirpan is only a weapon of defense and religious protection, used to serve humanity and to be used against oppression.

Music and instruments

Woman in yellow scarf bowing an instrument

Woman playing the dilruba

Main article: Sikh music

The Sikhs have a number of musical instruments, including the rebab, dilruba, taus, jori, and sarinda. Playing the sarangi was encouraged by Guru Hargobind. The rebab was played by Bhai Mardana as he accompanied Guru Nanak on his journeys. The jori and sarinda were introduced to Sikh devotional music by Guru Arjan. The taus (Persian for "peacock") was designed by Guru Hargobind, who supposedly heard a peacock singing and wanted to create an instrument mimicking its sounds. The dilruba was designed by Guru Gobind Singh at the request of his followers, who wanted a smaller instrument than the taus. After Japji Sahib, all of the shabad in the Guru Granth Sahib were composed as raags. This type of singing is known as Gurmat Sangeet.

When they marched into battle, the Sikhs would play a Ranjit nagara ("victory drum") to boost morale. Nagaras (usually two to three feet in diameter, although some were up to five feet in diameter) are played with two sticks. The beat of the large drums, and the raising of the Nishan Sahib, meant that the Singhs were on their way.

Demographics

Main articles: Sikhism by country and Punjabi Sikhs

Global map of Sikh population (estimated 2023)

Sikhs number about 26-30 million worldwide, of whom 24–28 million live in India, which thus represents around 90 percent of the total Sikh population.[128][129][130][131][132][133] About 76 percent of all Indian Sikhs live in the northern Indian state of Punjab, forming a majority of about 58 per cent of the state's population, roughly around 16 million.[134][135] Substantial communities of Sikhs live in the Indian states or union territories of Haryana, where they number around 1.2 million and form 4.91 percent of the population, Rajasthan (872,000 or 1.27 percent of the population), Uttar Pradesh (643,000, 0.32 percent), Delhi (570,000, 3.4 percent), Uttarakhand (236,000, 2.34 percent), Jammu and Kashmir (234,000, 1.87 percent), Chandigarh (138,000, 13.11 percent) and Himachal Pradesh (86,000, 1.16 percent).

Canada is home to the largest national Sikh proportion (2.1 percent of the total population) in the world.[13] A substantial community of Sikhs exist in the western province of British Columbia, numbering nearly 300,000 persons and forming approximately 5.9 percent of the total population. This represents the third-largest Sikh proportion amongst all global administrative divisions, behind only Punjab and Chandigarh in India. Furthermore, British Columbia,[136] Manitoba, and Yukon hold the distinction of being three of the only four administrative divisions in the world with Sikhism as the second most followed religion among the population.[139]

Census Data and Official Statistics

As a religious minority, Sikhs have fought long and hard to get official status and to be counted in many countries across the world. Through the efforts of Sikh organisations and communities in their respective countries, there is now readily available population data on Sikhs as part of the census or official statistics in the following territories:

Census Data / Official Statistics:

Territory Latest Data

 Punjab 16,004,754 2011[140]

 India (Rest of India) 4,828,362

 Canada 771,790 2021[141]

 England 520,092 2021[142]

 Australia 210,400 2021[143]

 New Zealand 40,908 2018[144]

 Singapore 12,051 2020[145]

 Thailand 11,124 2010[146]

 Norway 4,318 2021[147]

 Wales 4,048 2021[142]

 Fiji 2,577 2007[148]

 Ireland 2,183 2022[149]

   Nepal 1,496 2021[150]

 Northern Ireland 389 2021[151]

 Scotland Pending 2022

 Pakistan Pending 2023

2011-2021 Change in Sikh %

Note: Official statistics do not count unregistered arrivals or those who have not completed the census or surveys. However, they do provide for a much more accurate depiction of Sikh communities as opposed to estimates from various Sikh organisations whose estimates can vary vastly with no statistically valuable source. Thus, official statistics and census data is highly important and Sikh communities continue to push for census inclusion in many countries where they are still not counted.

Migration

Sikh migration from British India began in earnest during the second half of the 19th century, when the British completed their annexation of the Punjab, which led to Sikh migration throughout India and the British Empire. During the Raj, semiskilled Sikh artisans were transported from the Punjab to British East Africa to help build railroads. Sikhs emigrated from India after World War II, most going to the United Kingdom but many also to North America. Some Sikhs who had settled in eastern Africa were expelled by Ugandan dictator Idi Amin in 1972.[152] Economics is a major factor in Sikh migration, and significant communities exist in the United Kingdom, the United States, Malaysia, East Africa, Australia, Singapore and Thailand.

After the Partition of India in 1947, many Sikhs from what would become the Punjab of Pakistan migrated to India as well as to Afghanistan due to fear of persecution. Afghanistan was home to hundreds of thousands of Sikhs and Hindus as of the 1970s, but due to the wars in Afghanistan in the 2010s, the vast majority of Afghan Sikhs had migrated to India, Pakistan or the west.[153][154][155]

Although the rate of Sikh migration from the Punjab has remained high, traditional patterns of Sikh migration favouring English-speaking countries (particularly the United Kingdom) have changed during the past decade due to stricter immigration laws. Moliner (2006) wrote that as a consequence of Sikh migration to the UK becoming "virtually impossible since the late 1970s," migration patterns evolved to continental Europe.[156] Italy is a rapidly growing destination for Sikh migration,[157] with Reggio Emilia and Vicenza having significant Sikh population clusters.[158] Italian Sikhs are generally involved in agriculture, agricultural processing, the manufacture of machine tools, and horticulture.[159]

Growth

A group of Sikh people

Johnson and Barrett (2004) estimate that the global Sikh population increases annually by 392,633 (1.7% per year, based on 2004 figures); this percentage includes births, deaths, and conversions. Primarily for socio-economic reasons, Indian Sikhs have the lowest adjusted growth rate of any major religious group in India, at 16.9 percent per decade (estimated from 1991 to 2001) and it have further declined to just 8.4 per cent in 2011 census report.[160][161] Sikhs in the world have the lowest fertility rate of 1.6 children per women as per (2019–20) estimation research.[162][163] The Sikh population has the lowest gender balance in India, with only 903 women per 1,000 men according to the 2011 Indian census.[164] The estimated world's Sikh population was over 30 million in 2020, and it will reach 42 million by 2050. It is expected to increase up to 62 million by 2100, given that the anticipated growth rate of 1.7% per year and adding at least 400,000 followers annually.[165][161]

Since the Sikh growth rate dropped from 1.7% (16.9% in 1991 to 2001 estimate) to 0.84%(8.4% in 2001-2011) in 2011 report,hence based on their growth rate,their population will increase 196,316(0.84% based on 2011 figures) per year and will reach 36 million in 2050,it expected to reach 52 million in 2100 given that the anticipated growth rate of 0.84% and adding at least 200,000 followers annually..[166][167]

Sikhism is the fastest growing religion in Canada, Australia and New Zealand. The growth is mainly contributed by the immigration of Indian Sikhs there over the decades. Sikhism is fourth-largest religion in Canada, fifth-largest religion in Australia and New Zealand. The decadal growth of Sikhs is more in those countries as compared to the decadal growth of Sikh population in India, thus making them the fastest-growing religion there.[168][13][169][170] Canada has the highest proportion of Sikhs in the globe, which stands at 2.12% as of 2021,[13] as compared to India which stands at 1.72% as of 2011 respectively.[171]

Castes

Since Sikhism has never actively sought converts, Sikhs have remained a relatively homogeneous ethnic group. Caste may still be practiced by some Sikhs, despite Guru Nanak's calls for treating everyone equally in Sri Granth Sahib.[172][c]

Along with Guru Nanak, other Sikh gurus had also denounced the hierarchy of the caste system, however, they all belonged to the same caste, the Khatris.[176] Most Sikhs belong to the Jat (Jatt), traditionally agrarian in occupation.[177] Despite being very small in numbers, the Khatri and Arora (Moneylenders) castes also wield considerable influence within the Sikh community. Other common Sikh castes include Ahluwalias (brewers), Kambojs or Kambos (rural caste), Ramgarhias (artisans), Brahmins (Priestly class), Rajputs (kshatriyas), Sainis (agrarian), Rai Sikh (rural caste), Labanas (merchants), Kumhars, Mazhabi and the Ramdasia/Ravidasias(Chamar).[178]

Some Sikhs, especially those belonging to the landowning dominant castes, have not shed all their prejudices against the Dalits. While Dalits were allowed entry into the village gurdwaras, in some gurdwaras, they were not be permitted to cook or serve langar (communal meal). Therefore, wherever they could mobilize resources, the Sikh Dalits of Punjab have tried to construct their own gurdwara and other local level institutions in order to attain a certain degree of cultural autonomy.[172] In 1953, Sikh leader and activist Master Tara Singh succeeded in persuading the Indian government to include Sikh castes of the converted untouchables in the list of scheduled castes.[179] In the Shiromani Gurdwara Prabandhak Committee, 20 of the 140 seats are reserved for low-caste Sikhs.[179]

Other castes (over 1,000 members) include the Arain, Bhatra, Bairagi, Bania, Basith, Bawaria, Bazigar, Bhabra, Chamar, Chhimba (cotton farmers), Darzi, Dhobi, Gujar, Jhinwar, Kahar, Kalal, Kumhar, Lohar, Mahtam, Megh, Mirasi, Mochi, Nai, Ramgharia, Sansi, Sudh, Tarkhan and Kashyap[citation needed]

Karnail Singh Panjoli, member of the Shiromani Gurdwara Prabandhak Committee, says that there are several communities within the term Nanakpanthis too. Apart from Sindhi Hindus, "There are groups like Sikhligarh, Vanjaarey, Nirmaley, Lubaney, Johri, Satnamiye, Udaasiyas, Punjabi Hindus, etc. who call themselves Nanakpanthis despite being Hindus.[180]

Diaspora

As Sikhs wear turbans and keep beards, Sikh men in Western countries have been mistaken for Muslim, Arabic, and/or Afghan since the September 11 attacks and the Iraq War.[181][182] Several days after the 9/11 attacks, Sikh-American gas station owner Balbir Singh Sodhi was murdered in Arizona by a man who took Sodhi to be a member of al-Qaeda, marking the first recorded hate-crime in America motivated by 9/11. CNN would go on to suggest an increase in hate crimes against Sikh men in the US and the UK after the 9/11 attacks.[181][182]

In an attempt to foster Sikh leaders in the Western world, youth initiatives by a number of organisations exist. The Sikh Youth Alliance of North America sponsors an annual Sikh Youth Symposium.

The Sikh diaspora has been most successful in the UK, and UK Sikhs have the highest percentage of home ownership (82%) of any religious community.[183] UK Sikhs are the second-wealthiest religious group in the UK (after the Jewish community), with a median total household wealth of £229,000.[184]

In May 2019, the UK government exempted "Kirpan" from the list of banned knives. The U.K. government passed an amendment by which Sikhs in the country would be allowed to carry kirpans and use them during religious and cultural functions. The bill was amended to ensure that it would not impact the right of the British Sikh community to possess and supply kirpans, or religious swords.[185][186] Similarly, the Sikh American Legal Defense and Education Fund overturned a 1925 Oregon law banning the wearing of turbans by teachers and government officials in 2010.[187]

Agriculture

Historically, most Indians have been farmers and 66 per cent of the Indian population are engaged in agriculture.[188] Indian Sikhs are employed in agriculture to a lesser extent; India's 2001 census found 39 per cent of the working population of the Punjab employed in this sector.[189] According to the Swedish political scientist Ishtiaq Ahmad, a factor in the success of the Indian green revolution was the "Sikh cultivator, often the Jat and Kamboj or Kamboh, whose courage, perseverance, spirit of enterprise and muscle prowess proved crucial."[190] However, Indian physicist Vandana Shiva[191] wrote that the green revolution made the "negative and destructive impacts of science (i.e. the green revolution) on nature and society" invisible, and was a catalyst for Punjabi Sikh and Hindu tensions despite a growth in material wealth.

Sikhs in modern history

Main article: List of Sikhs

Manmohan Singh is an Indian economist, academic, and politician who served as the 13th Prime Minister of India from 2004 to 2014. The first and only Sikh and non-Hindu in office, Singh was also the first prime minister since Jawaharlal Nehru to be re-elected after completing a full five-year term.

Notable Sikhs in science include nuclear scientist Piara Singh Gill, fibre-optics pioneer Narinder Singh Kapany; and physicist, science writer and broadcaster Simon Singh.

In business, the UK-based clothing retailers New Look and the Thai-based JASPAL[192] were founded by Sikhs. India's largest pharmaceutical company, Ranbaxy Laboratories, is headed by Sikhs.[193] Apollo Tyres is headed by Onkar Singh Kanwar. In Singapore, Kartar Singh Thakral expanded his family's trading business, Thakral Holdings,[194] into assets totalling almost US$1.4 billion and is Singapore's 25th-richest person. Sikh Bob Singh Dhillon is the first Indo-Canadian billionaire. Mastercard's CEO was a Sikh named Ajaypal Singh Banga.

In sports, Sikhs include England cricketer Monty Panesar; former 400-metre runner Milkha Singh; his son, professional golfer Jeev Milkha Singh; Indian wrestler and actor Dara Singh; former Indian hockey team captains Sandeep Singh, Ajitpal Singh and Balbir Singh Sr.; former Indian cricket captain Bishen Singh Bedi; Harbhajan Singh, India's most successful off spin cricket bowler; Yuvraj Singh, World Cup winning allrounder; Maninder Singh, World Cup winning off spinner; and Navjot Singh Sidhu, former Indian cricketer-turned-politician.

Sikhs in Bollywood, in the arts in general, include poet and lyricist Rajkavi Inderjeet Singh Tulsi; Gulzar; Jagjit Singh; Dharmendra; Sunny Deol; writer Khushwant Singh; actresses Neetu Singh, Simran Judge, Poonam Dhillon, Mahi Gill, Esha Deol, Parminder Nagra, Gul Panag, Mona Singh, Namrata Singh Gujral; and directors Gurinder Chadha and Parminder Gill.

Sikhs in Punjabi Music industry include Sidhu Moosewala, Diljit Dosanjh, Babu Singh Maan, Surjit Bindrakhia, Ammy Virk, Karan Aujla, Jazzy B, Miss Pooja.

In the Indian and British armies

Main article: Sikhs in the British Indian Army

According to a 1994 estimate, Punjabi Sikhs and Hindus comprised 10 to 15% of all ranks in the Indian Army. The Indian government does not release religious or ethnic origins of a military personnel, but a 1991 report by Tim McGirk estimated that 20% of Indian Army officers were Sikhs.[195] Together with the Gurkhas recruited from Nepal, the Maratha Light Infantry from Maharashtra and the Jat Regiment, the Sikhs are one of the few communities to have exclusive regiments in the Indian Army.[195] The Sikh Regiment is one of the most-decorated regiments in the army, with 73 Battle Honours, 14 Victoria Crosses,[196] 21 first-class Indian Orders of Merit (equivalent to the Victoria Cross),[197] 15 Theatre Honours, 5 COAS Unit Citations, two Param Vir Chakras, 14 Maha Vir Chakras, 5 Kirti Chakras, 67 Vir Chakras, and 1,596 other awards. The highest-ranking general in the history of the Indian Air Force is a Punjabi Sikh, Marshal of the Air Force Arjan Singh.[198] Plans by the United Kingdom Ministry of Defence for a Sikh infantry regiment were scrapped in June 2007.[199]

Sikhs supported the British during the Indian Rebellion of 1857.[200] By the beginning of World War I, Sikhs in the British Indian Army totaled over 100,000 (20 per cent of the force). Until 1945, fourteen Victoria Crosses (VC) were awarded to Sikhs, a per-capita regimental record.[196] In 2002, the names of all Sikh VC and George Cross recipients were inscribed on the monument of the Memorial Gates[201] on Constitution Hill, next to Buckingham Palace.[202] Chanan Singh Dhillon was instrumental in campaigning for the memorial.

During World War I, Sikh battalions fought in Egypt, Palestine, Mesopotamia, Gallipoli and France. Six battalions of the Sikh Regiment were raised during World War II, serving in the Second Battle of El Alamein, the Burma and Italian campaigns and in Iraq, receiving 27 battle honours. Around the world, Sikhs are commemorated in Commonwealth cemeteries.[203]

Sikhs in the First World War, marching with their scripture, Guru Granth Sahib

Sikhs in the First World War, marching with their scripture, Guru Granth Sahib

 

Postcard of marching Sikhs with rifles

French postcard depicting the arrival of the 15th Sikh Regiment in France during World War I; the bilingual postcard reads, "Gentlemen of India marching to chasten the German hooligans"

 

Indian Sikh soldiers in the Italian campaign

Indian Sikh soldiers in the Italian campaign

 

Sikh soldier with captured Swastika flag of Nazi Germany

Sikh soldier with captured Swastika flag of Nazi Germany

 

See caption

Japanese soldiers shooting blindfolded Sikh prisoners in World War II

Khalistan movement

Sikhs in London protesting against Indian government actions

The Khalistan movement is a Sikh separatist movement, which seeks to create a separate country called Khalistān ("The Land of the Khalsa") in the Punjab region of South Asia to serve as a homeland for Sikhs.[204] The territorial definition of the proposed country Khalistan consists of both the Punjab, India, along with Punjab, Pakistan, and includes parts of Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, and Rajasthan.[205][206][207]

Khalistan movement began as an expatriate venture.[208] In 1971, the first explicit call for Khalistan was made in an advertisement published in the New York Times by an expat (Jagjit Singh Chohan).[209] By proclaiming the formation of Khalistan, he was able to collect millions of dollars from the Sikh diaspora.[210] On 12 April 1980, he declared the formation of the "National Council of Khalistan", at Anandpur Sahib.[211] He declared himself as the President of the council, and named Balbir Singh Sandhu as its Secretary General. In May 1980, Chohan traveled to London and announced the formation of Khalistan. A similar announcement was made by Balbir Singh Sandhu in Amritsar, where he began releasing stamps and currency of Khalistan. The inaction of the authorities in Amritsar and elsewhere was decried as a political stunt by the Congress(I) party of Indira Gandhi by the Akali Dal, headed by the Sikh leader Harchand Singh Longowal.[212]

The movement flourished in the Indian state of Punjab following Operation Blue Star and the Anti-Sikh Pogroms. As proponents were able to generate funding from a grieving diaspora. In June 1985, Air India Flight 182 was bombed by Babbar Khalsa, a pro-Khalistani terrorist organization.[213] In January 1986, the Golden Temple was occupied by militants belonging to All India Sikh Students Federation and Damdami Taksal.[214] On 26 January 1986, a gathering known as the Sarbat Khalsa (a de facto parliament) passed a resolution (gurmattā) favouring the creation of Khalistan. Subsequently, a number of rebel militant groups in favour of Khalistan waged a major insurgency against the government of India. Indian security forces suppressed the insurgency in the early 1990s, but Sikh political groups such as the Khalsa Raj Party and SAD (A) continued to pursue an independent Khalistan through non-violent means.[215][216][217] Pro-Khalistan organisations such as Dal Khalsa (International) are also active outside India, supported by a section of the Sikh diaspora.[218]

In the 1990s, the insurgency abated,[219] and the movement failed to reach its objective due to multiple reasons including a heavy police crackdown on separatists, divisions among the Sikhs and loss of support from the Sikh population.[220] However, various pro-Khalistan groups, both political and militant, remain committed to the separatist movement. There are claims of funding from Sikhs outside India to attract young people into militant groups.[221] There have also been multiple claims that the movement is motivated and supported by the Pakistan's external intelligence agency, the ISI.[222][223]

Art and culture

Main articles: Sikh art and culture and Punjabi culture

Intricate design

Opaque watercolour-on-paper Nakashi art; about 1880, by an unknown artist from Lahore or Amritsar, and used to decorate the walls of Harmandir Sahib

Large building on the water

Darbar Sahib, circa 1870

Sikh art and culture are nearly synonymous with that of Punjab, and Sikhs are easily recognised by their distinctive turban (Dastar). Punjab has been called India's melting pot, due to the confluence of invading cultures from the rivers from which the region gets its name. Sikh culture is therefore a synthesis of cultures. Sikhism has forged a unique architecture, which S. S. Bhatti described as "inspired by Guru Nanak's creative mysticism" and "is a mute harbinger of holistic humanism based on pragmatic spirituality".[224] The American non-profit organization United Sikhs has fought to have Sikh included on the U.S. census as well, arguing that Sikhs "self-identify as an ethnic minority" and believe "that they are more than just a religion".[225]

During the Mughal and Afghan persecution of the Sikhs during the 17th and 18th centuries,[226] the latter were concerned with preserving their religion and gave little thought to art and culture. With the rise of Ranjit Singh and the Sikh Raj in Lahore and Delhi, there was a change in the landscape of art and culture in Punjab; Hindus and Sikhs could build decorated shrines without the fear of destruction or looting.[227]

The Sikh Confederacy was the catalyst for a uniquely Sikh form of expression, with Ranjit Singh commissioning forts, palaces, bungas (residential places), and colleges in a Sikh style. Sikh architecture is characterised by gilded fluted domes, cupolas, kiosks, stone lanterns, ornate balusters, and square roofs. A pinnacle of Sikh style is Harmandir Sahib (also known as the Golden Temple) in Amritsar.

Sikh culture is influenced by militaristic motifs (with the Khanda the most obvious), and most Sikh artifacts—except for the relics of the Gurus—have a military theme. This theme is evident in the Sikh festivals of Hola Mohalla and Vaisakhi, which feature marching and displays of valor.

Although the art and culture of the Sikh diaspora have merged with that of other Indo-immigrant groups into categories like "British Asian", "Indo-Canadian" and "Desi-Culture", a minor cultural phenomenon that can be described as "political Sikh" has arisen.[228] The art of diaspora Sikhs like Amarjeet Kaur Nandhra, and Amrit and Rabindra Kaur Singh (The Singh Twins)[229] is influenced by their Sikhism and current affairs in Punjab.

Bhangra and Giddha are two forms of Punjabi folk dancing which have been adapted and pioneered by Sikhs. Punjabi Sikhs have championed these forms of expression worldwide, resulting in Sikh culture becoming linked to Bhangra (although "Bhangra is not a Sikh institution but a Punjabi one").[230]

Painting

Painting of Guru Nanak with companions, Bhai Mardana and Bhai Bala, in debate with the Siddhs

Sikh painting is a direct offshoot of the Kangra school of painting. In 1810, Ranjeet Singh (1780–1839) occupied Kangra Fort and appointed Sardar Desa Singh Majithia his governor of the Punjab hills. In 1813, the Sikh army occupied Guler State, and Raja Bhup Singh became a vassal of the Sikhs. With the Sikh kingdom of Lahore becoming the paramount power, some of the Pahari painters from Guler migrated to Lahore for the patronage of Maharaja Ranjeet Singh and his Sardars.

The Sikh school adapted Kangra painting to Sikh needs and ideals. Its main subjects are the ten Sikh gurus and stories from Guru Nanak's Janamsakhis. The tenth Guru, Gobind Singh, left a deep impression on the followers of the new faith because of his courage and sacrifices. Hunting scenes and portraits are also common in Sikh painting.

Shrines

There is an old Sikh shrine called 'Prachin Guru Nanak Math', which lies at a small hill, just next to Bishnumati bridge at Balaju. Guru Nanak is said to have visited Nepal during his third Udasi while returning from Mount Kailash in Tibet. Nanak is said to have stayed at Balaju and Thapathali in Kathmandu. The Nanak Math shrine at Balaju is managed by the Guru-Ji and the Udasin Akardha, a sect developed by Guru Nanak's son, Sri Chandra.[231][232]

See also

History of Punjab

Ganga Sagar (urn)

Jat Sikh

List of British Sikhs

Mazhabi Sikh

Sects of Sikhism

Sikhism by country

Sikhism in India

Turban training centre

Indian Sikhs number approximately 21 million people and account for 1.7% of India's population as of 2011, forming the country's fourth-largest religious group. The majority of the nation's Sikhs live in the northern state of Punjab, which is the only Sikh-majority administrative division in the world.

India is home to the majority of the global Sikh population, and also has the second-largest Sikh proportion in the world, behind Canada.

History

Main article: History of Sikhism

Partition

Sikh organizations, including the Chief Khalsa Dewan and Shiromani Akali Dal led by Master Tara Singh, strongly opposed the partition of India, viewing the possibility of the creation of Pakistan as inviting persecution.[4]

Demography

The Gurdwara Bangla Sahib

Population

India's Sikh population stands at 20.8 million, which is only 1.72% of the country's total population. Out of approximately 25-30 million Sikhs in the world, the majority of them, 20.8-22 million, live in India that is about (83.2%-84.1%) of the world's Sikh population.[5][6] Sikhs have a fertility rate of 1.6 in India, which is the lowest in the nation as per as according to year 2019-21 estimation.[7] Half a million Sikhs have made Canada their home, and though they constitute 1.4% of the total population, they have had a notable impact on Canadian society and national politics.[8]

Out of the total Sikhs in India, 77% are concentrated in state of Punjab. Sikhism is the dominant religion in Punjab, India, where it is followed by 16 million constituting 57.7% of the population, the only Indian state where Sikhism is the majority faith. By 2050, according to Pew research center based on growth rate of current Sikh population between (2001-2011), India will have 30,012,386 Sikhs by half-century which will be more than that of any country including the west.[9]

National and ethnic origins

Although Punjabi Sikhs form the majority of the Sikh population, the Sikh community is varied and includes people who speak the Pashto language, the Brahui language, the Telugu language, Marathi language, Assamese language, Hindi language, Sindhi language, Bengali language and many more. The many communities following Sikhism is detailed below.

Afghan Sikhs

Main article: Sikhism in Afghanistan

The Sikhs of Afghanistan are primarily Punjabi merchants and immigrants.[10][11] They speak the Punjabi language within themselves but are usually fluent in Dari and occasionally Pashto as well.[12]

Bengali Sikhs

Sikhism in the Bengal region dates back to 1504 but has declined after the partition.[13] Sikhism first emerged in Bengal when Guru Nanak visited Bengal in 1504 and established a number of Gurdwaras.[14]

By the early 18th century, there were a few Sikhs living in the region of Bengal.[15] One famous Sikh who lived during this time period was Omichand, a local Khatri Sikh banker and landlord who participate in the conspiracy against Nawab Siraj ud-Daulah with the East India Company.[15][16] The Flemish artist Frans Baltazard Solvyns arrived in Calcutta in 1791 and observed many Sikhs, whom one could differentiate from the rest of the land's inhabitants by their garbs and traditions.[15] He etched depictions of a Khalsa Sikh and a Nanakpanthi, which was published in 1799.[15]

Gurdwara Nanak Shahi is the principal Sikh Gurdwara (prayer hall) in Dhaka, Bangladesh. It is located at the campus of the University of Dhaka and considered to be the biggest of the 7 Gurdwaras in the country. After the Partition of India, the Sikh community left for India.[14]

After the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 and Bangladesh Liberation War, Indian Sikh soldiers helped renovate the Gurdwaras left in Bangladesh.[citation needed] Shri Guru Tegh Bahadur ji visited Dhaka. There is another Sikh temple known as the Gurudwara Sangat Tola. Many Sikhs also used to visit a well at the ruins of Jafarabad which they believed has waters with curative powers.[17]

There was a presence of Sikhism in Sylhet Division after Guru Nanak's visit in 1508. Kahn Singh Nabha has stated that in memory of Nanak's visit, Gurdwara Sahib Sylhet was established.[citation needed] This Gurdwara was visited twice by Tegh Bahadur and many hukamnamas were issued to this temple by Guru Gobind Singh. In 1897, the gurdwara fell down after the earthquake. Nearly all the Sikhs of Sylhet in the early 18th century were found in North Cachar where they used to work for the Assam Bengal Railway.[18] There are around 1 lakh Bengali people who follow Sikhism as their religion in both West Bengal and Bangladesh.[19]

Assamese Sikhs

The presence of Sikhism has been existing in Assam[20] for over 200 years. The community traces its origins to the times of Maharaja Ranjit Singh who took his army to Assam and put some influence of the religion towards the locals. According to the 2001 census, there were 22,519 Sikhs in Assam,[21] out of which 4,000 are Assamese Sikhs.[19]

Assamese Sikhs follow the Sikh religion and celebrate Sikh festivals as they also celebrate cultural festivals such as Magh Bihu and wear traditional Assamese dress. Their language is the Assamese language.[19][22]

Agrahari Sikhs

Agrahari Sikh is a Sikh community found in Bihar and Jharkhand. Agrahari Sikhs, also known as Bihari Sikhs, have existed for centuries in Bihar and Jharkhand.[23]

Bihari Sikhs share their culture with the local Bihari community. The men generally wear the local dhoti and women wear the Sari. They also celebrate Hindu festivals such as the Chath festival.[24]

Dakhni Sikhs

Dakhni Sikhs are from the Deccan Plateau in India located within the states of Telangana and Andhra Pradesh.[25] The traditional dress of women is the sari. The native language of Dakhni Sikhs is the Telugu language.[26]

Kashmiri Sikhs

Ethnic Kashmiri Sikhs speak the Kashmiri language and observe Kashmiri culture. They trace their religious heritage to the influence of Sikh soldiers who settled in Kashmir under the Maharaja Ranjit Singh rule in 1819. However, the soldiers permanently settled in Kashmir.[27]

Punjabi Sikhs

Punjabi Sikhs are the native Sikhs of undivided Punjab region who speaks the Punjabi language as their mother tongue and practice Punjabi culture. Their traditional dress includes the Punjabi Salwar Suit, Punjabi Tamba and Kurta, Punjabi juti and Patiala salwar.

In addition to the Sikh festivals using the Nanakshahi calendar, Punjabi Sikhs observe traditional Punjabi festivals using the Punjabi calendar.

Sindhi Sikhs

Main article: Sindhis in India

See also: Sikhism in Pakistan

In addition to celebrating Sikh festivals, Sindhi Sikhs celebrate cultural festivals such as Cheti Chand, the Sindhi new year. Sindhi Sikhs speak the Sindhi language. Most of the Sindhi Hindus are Nanak Panthis who believe in 10 Sikh Gurus and regularly go to guru dwara and most of the Marriage also takes place in Gurudwara.[28]

South Indian Sikhs

There are Sikh communities in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra who converted to Sikhism centuries ago.

The Sikhs comprise Banjara and Satnami. The process of blending the religion into southern India for the Sikligars began at the time of 10th Sikh Guru Gobind Singh, who came to the Deccan and died in 1708 at Nanded (Maharashtra).

It all came by the Sikligars as they came to southern India as expert arms-making camp followers of the tenth Guru. Sikligar is a compound of the Persian words `saiqal` and `gar` meaning a polisher of metal.[25] The traditional occupation of the Sikligars is crafting kitchen implements.

Banjaras are a nomadic tribe who traditionally travelled with merchandise and are found across a large swathe of northern India, as well as in the south. Sikh Banjaras too travelled with armies of the past supplying them with provisions.[25]

Geographical distribution

Sikhs as percentage of total population in different districts of India, 2011 Census

Indian Sikhs by state and union territory 

State/U.T. 2011 Indian Census[29]

Pop. %

 Punjab 16,004,754 57.69%

 Haryana 1,243,752 4.91%

 Rajasthan 872,930 1.27%

 Uttar Pradesh 643,500 0.32%

 Delhi 570,581 3.4%

Uttarakhand 236,340 2.34%

 Jammu and Kashmir 232,585 1.9%

 Maharashtra 223,247 0.2%

 Madhya Pradesh 151,412 0.21%

Chandigarh 138,329 13.11%

Himachal Pradesh 79,896 1.16%

 Jharkhand 71,422 0.22%

 Chhattisgarh 70,036 0.27%

 West Bengal 63,523 0.07%

 Gujarat 58,246 0.1%

 Telangana 30,340 0.09%

 Karnataka 28,773 0.05%

 Bihar 23,779 0.02%

 Odisha 21,991 0.05%

 Assam 20,672 0.07%

 Tamil Nadu 14,601 0.02%

Andhra Pradesh 9,904 0.02%

 Kerala 3,814 0.01%

Arunachal Pradesh 3,287 0.24%

 Meghalaya 3,045 0.1%

 Ladakh 2,263 0.83%

 Nagaland 1,890 0.1%

 Sikkim 1,868 0.31%

Manipur 1,527 0.05%

Goa 1,473 0.1%

 Andaman and Nicobar Islands 1,286 0.34%

 Tripura 1,070 0.03%

 Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu 389 0.07%

 Puducherry 297 0.02%

 Mizoram 286 0.03%

 Lakshadweep 8 0.01%

 India 20,833,116 1.72%

Notable Indian Sikhs

Main article: List of Sikhs

Though Sikhs are a minority in India, the community occupies a significant place in the country. The former Chief Justice of India, Jagdish Singh Khehar, and the former Prime Minister of India, Dr. Manmohan Singh[30] are Sikh, as is former President of India Gyani Zail Singh. Almost every council of ministers in India has included Sikh representatives.

Sikhs are also conspicuous in the Indian army, primarily because of their history as defenders of righteousness, they formed the sword arm of the British empire. The Late Indian officer with a 5 star rank, Arjan Singh, is a Sikh. Sikhs have also led the Indian army through JJ Singh and the Indian Air Force was led by Air Chief Marshal Dilbagh Singh. Sikhs have been prominent in Indian sports, with the Indian individual gold medalist in Olympics, Abhinav Bindra, being a Sikh. Similarly they occupy important official positions, like Deputy Chairman of the Planning Commission, Montek Singh Ahluwalia;[31] governor Surjit Singh Barnala.

Sikhs are also known for entrepreneurial business in India. Milkha Singh, also known as The Flying Sikh, is a former Indian track and field sprinter who was introduced to the sport while serving in the Indian Army. One reason for visibility of Sikhs in the Indian spectrum is the disproportionate role played by the Sikh community during the Indian freedom struggle, with Bhagat Singh remaining a youth icon to Indian youth.[32]

See also

flag India portal

List of famous Sikhs

Religion in India

Cochin Sikhs

Sikhism

Sikhism in Pakistan

Sikh culture

The Sikhs are adherents to Sikhism, the fifth largest organized religion in the world, with around 25 million adherents.[1] Sikh History is around 500 years and in that time the Sikhs have developed unique expressions of art and culture which are influenced by their faith and synthesize traditions from many other cultures depending on the locality of the adherents of the religion. Sikhism is the only religion that originated in the Punjab region with all other religions coming from outside Punjab (with the possible exception of Punjabi Hinduism since the oldest Hindu scripture – the Rig Veda – was composed in the Punjab region. Some other religions, like Jainism, may also claim to have originated in Punjab since Jain symbolism has been found among artifacts of the Indus Valley Civilization). All the Sikh gurus, many saints, and many of the martyrs in Sikh history were from Punjab and from the Punjabi people (as well as other parts of the Indian Subcontinent). Punjabi culture and Sikhism are mistakenly considered inseparably intertwined. "Sikh" properly refers to adherents of Sikhism as a religion, strictly not an ethnic group. However, because Sikhism has seldom sought converts, most Sikhs share strong ethno-religious ties, therefore it is a common stereotype that all Sikhs share the same ethnicity. Many countries, such as the U.K., therefore misconcievingly recognize Sikh as a designated ethnicity on their censuses.[2] The American non-profit organization United Sikhs has fought to have Sikhs included on the U.S. census as well, arguing that Sikhs "self-identify as an 'ethnic minority'" and believe "that they are more than just a religion".[3]

Cultural societies of the Sikhs

True-colour photograph - ‘Group of Tibetans at the “Golden Temple” of the Sikhs’, 15 January 1914

There is a common misconception that all Sikhs belong to the Punjab region. The religion's birthplace of Punjab itself has been called "India’s melting pot",[4] and many other parts of Northern India due to the heavy influence of invading cultures, such as Mughal and Persian, that mirrors the confluence of rivers from which the region gets its name(from Persian, "panj" پنج meaning "five" and "-āb" آب meaning water thus meaning land of the five waters). Thus, Sikh culture is to a large extent a result of groups of various cultures uniting together, thus forming a unique one.

Sikhism has forged a unique form of architecture which Bhatti describes as being "inspired by Guru Nanak’s creative mysticism" such that Sikh architecture "is a mute harbinger of holistic humanism based on pragmatic spirituality".[5] The keynote of Sikh architecture is the Gurdwara which is the personification of the "melting pot" of Indian cultures, full of Mughal, Aryan and Persian influences. The reign of the Sikh Empire was the single biggest catalyst in the creation of a uniquely Sikh form of expression, with Maharajah Ranjit Singh patronising the building of forts, palaces, bungs (residential places), colleges, etc. that can be said to be of the Sikh Style. The "jewel in the crown" of the Sikh Style is the Harmandir Sahib.

Sikh culture and identity are heavily influenced by militaristic motifs, with Khanda being the most obvious; thus it is no surprise that the majority of Sikh artifacts, independent of the relics of the Gurus, have a military theme. This motif is again evident in the Sikh festivals of Hola Mohalla and Vasakhi which feature marching and practicing displays of valor, respectively.

The art, culture, identity, and society of the Sikhs have been merged with the different localities and ethnicities of different Sikhs into categories such as 'Agrahari Sikhs', 'Dakhni Sikhs' and 'Assamese Sikhs'; however there has emerged a niche cultural phenomenon that can be described as 'Political Sikh'. The art of prominent diaspora Sikhs such as Amarjeet Kaur Nandhra,[6] and Amrit and Rabindra Kaur Singh (The Singh Twins),[7] is partly informed by their Sikh spirituality and influence.

Culture of Sikh communities

Dusenbery (2014) states that Punjabi Sikhs form the majority of the Sikh population. He notes that "some Sindhis and other South Asians have been affiliated at the margins as Nanakpanthis (‘followers of Nanak’s path’) or Sehajdhari (‘slow adopter’) Sikhs" but in the main, "the Sikh Panth has remained largely a Punjabi affair".[8] However, the Sikh community is varied and includes people who speak the Pashto language, the Sindhi language, the Telugu language and many more. The many communities following Sikhism are detailed below.

Afghani Sikhs

Main article: Sikhism in Afghanistan

The Sikhs of Afghanistan have a unique culture which has elements of the culture of Afghanistan. Tatla (2014) states that there were 3,000 Sikhs in Afghanistan in his book The Sikh Diaspora which was published in 2014.[9]

American Sikhs

Main article: Sikhism in the United States

Yogi Bhajan is credited with raising awareness of Sikhism amongst the non-Asian community of the United States of America. This community is known as the white Sikh community which practices Sikhism and maintains a distinct culture.[10]

Assamese Sikhs

See also: Sikhism_in_India § Assamese_Sikhs

The presence of Sikhism has existed in Assam[11] for over 200 years. The community traces its origins to the times of Maharaja Ranjit Singh who took his army to Assam and put some influence of the religion towards the locals. According to the 2001 census, there were 22,519 Sikhs in Assam,[12] out of which 4,000 are Assamese Sikhs.[13]

Assamese Sikhs follow the Sikh religion and celebrate Sikh festivals. They also celebrate cultural festivals such as Magh Bihu and wear traditional Assamese dress. Their language is the Assamese language.[13][14]

Agrahari Sikhs

Main article: Agrahari Sikh

Agrahari Sikh is a Sikh community found in eastern India including the states of West Bengal, Bihar and Jharkhand. Agrahari Sikhs, also known as Bihari Sikhs, have existed for centuries in Bihar and Jharkhand.[15]

Bihari Sikhs share their culture with the local Bihari community. The men generally wear the local dhoti and women wear the sari. They also celebrate cultural festivals such as the Chath festival.[16]

Dakhni Sikhs

See also: Sikhism_in_India § South_Indian_Sikhs

Painting depicting the wedding of Guru Nanak from a 19th century illustrated manuscript of the Janamsakhi from Maharashtra

Dakhni Sikhs are from the Deccan Plateau in India located within the states of Maharashtra, Telegana and Andhra Pradesh.[17] The traditional dress of women is the sari. The native languages of Dakhni Sikhs include Marathi and Telugu.[18]

Kashmiri Sikhs

Ethnic Kashmiri Sikhs speak the Kashmiri language and observe Kashmiri culture. They trace their religious heritage to the influence of Sikh soldiers who settled in Kashmir under Maharaja Ranjit Singh's rule in 1819. However, the soldiers permanently settled in Kashmir.[19]

Punjabi Sikhs

Main article: Punjabi Sikhs

See also: Punjabis, Sikhism in Pakistan, and Religion in Punjab

Punjabi Sikhs follow the Punjabi culture. Their traditional dress includes the Punjabi Salwar Suit, Punjabi Tamba and Kurta, Punjabi juti and Patiala salwar.

In addition to the Sikh festivals using the Nanakshahi calendar, Punjabi Sikhs observe traditional Punjabi festivals using the Punjabi calendar.

Sindhi Sikhs

Main article: Sindhis in India

See also: Sikhism in Pakistan

In addition to celebrating Sikh festivals, Sindhi Sikhs celebrate cultural festivals such as Cheti Chand, the Sindhi new year. Sindhi Sikhs speak the Sindhi language. Khalsa Sikhs historically had a stronghold in Kandhra, Khairpur during the reign of the Talpur Mirs (1775–1955).[20] However, most Sikhs in Sindh are followers of the Udasi, Sewapanthi, and Nanakpanthi sects.[21][22] Only around 8,000–10,000 people in present-day Sindh are mainstream, orthodox Khalsa Sikh. The vast majority belong to the aforementioned sects whom may practice varying degrees of religious kinship and syncretism with Hinduism and Sufism.[23][24][25][26] Udasis are generally concentrated in northern Sindh whilst Nanakpanthis can be found throughout the region except in areas of the Rajasthani cultural sphere (Dhatki-speaking areas) who practice a more mainstream, non-syncretic, and differentiated form of Hinduism.[27] Nanakpanth and Udasipanth are different sects of Sikhism, with a major difference being that Udasis adopt a life-hood of celibacy whilst Nanakpanthis freely marry and bear children.[22] Another Sikh sect, the Jagiasi, who claim to have been founded by the younger son of Guru Nanak named Lakhmi Das, were also historically prevalent in Sindh, especially during the period of Baba Gurupat, who was a descendant of Guru Nanak.[28][29][30][31] Baba Gurupat conducted missionary works in Sindh and founded many Jagiasu tikanas (seats; a term for a place of worship in many Sikh sects) in the region, specifically in Khairpur, Hyderabad, Halani, and Kandyaro.[28][29][30][31] Sindhis may have been converting to Sikhism ever since the time of Guru Nanak, who traveled to the region.[32] Janamsakhi literature narrate that Guru Nanak traveled to Shikarpur, possibly as far as Sukkur.[32] Sindhi women learnt the Gurmukhi script in-order to understand the Guru Granth Sahib.[32] A lot of converts to Sikhism came from the Amil caste.[32] The Chief Khalsa Diwan sent out orthodox Sikh missionaries to Sindh in the 1930s to preach towards Sehajdharis (literally "slow adopters"), which dominated the landscape of Sikhism in Sindh.[32] The result was the number of Keshdhari (those who keep uncut hair) Sikhs recorded increasing from 1,000 in the 1901 census to over 39,000 in the 1941 census.[32] Sant Thahriya Singh was a prominent Sindhi Sikh saint of the 20th century, and many gurdwaras are constructed in his name in the region.[32]

South Indian Sikhs

See also: Sikhism_in_India § South_Indian_Sikhs

Tanjore-style painting of a Sikh couple from South India, circa 1805

There are Sikh communities in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra who converted to Sikhism centuries ago.

The Sikhs comprise Banjara and Satnami. The process of blending the religion into southern India for the Sikligars began at the time of the 10th Sikh Guru Gobind Singh, who came to the Deccan and died in 1708 at Nanded (Maharashtra).

It all came by the Sikligars as they came to southern India as expert arms-making camp followers of the tenth Guru. Sikligar is a compound of the Persian words `saiqal` and `gar` meaning a polisher of metal.[17] The traditional occupation of the Sikligars is crafting kitchen implements.

Banjaras are a nomadic tribe who traditionally travelled with merchandise and are found across a large swathe of northern India, as well as in the south. Sikh Banjaras too travelled with armies of the past supplying them with provisions.[17]

Gallery

A frontispiece to the Dasam Granth.

A frontispiece to the Dasam Granth.

 

The Bardari of Ranjit Singh, built in the Hazuri Bagh.

The Bardari of Ranjit Singh, built in the Hazuri Bagh.

 

Gateway of the Ram Bagh, North-East of Amritsar; built by Maharajah Ranjit Singh.

Gateway of the Ram Bagh, North-East of Amritsar; built by Maharajah Ranjit Singh.

 

A Sikh helmet from the late 18th century. Note the adaptation on the helmet's crown to allow for a Sikh's uncut hair.

A Sikh helmet from the late 18th century. Note the adaptation on the helmet's crown to allow for a Sikh's uncut hair.

 

One of the gates at the Sikh temple called Gurdwara Bangla Sahib, in Delhi.

One of the gates at the Sikh temple called Gurdwara Bangla Sahib, in Delhi.

 

Illuminated Adi Granth folio with nisan (autograph or signature) of Guru Gobind Singh.

Illuminated Adi Granth folio with nisan (autograph or signature) of Guru Gobind Singh.

 

Detail from Gurdwara Baba Atal.

Detail from Gurdwara Baba Atal.

 

A Opaque Watercolour on paper copy of Nakashi 1880c

A Opaque Watercolour on paper copy of Nakashi 1880c

 

Harmandir Sahib or the Golden Temple, Amritsar, India.

Harmandir Sahib or the Golden Temple, Amritsar, India.

 

Interior of the Akal Takht.

Interior of the Akal Takht.

 

Painting of the durbar of Maharaja Dalip Singh Sukerchakia.

Painting of the durbar of Maharaja Dalip Singh Sukerchakia.

 

Painting of Ranjit Singh and Hira Singh of Nabha.

Painting of Ranjit Singh and Hira Singh of Nabha.

 

The Sikh Order of Merit with a Portrait of Ranjit Singh, directly inspired by the French Légion d'honneur

The Sikh Order of Merit with a Portrait of Ranjit Singh, directly inspired by the French Légion d'honneur

 

Ceiling fresco of female figures from an abandoned Gurdwara located in Mangat village in Pakistan

Ceiling fresco of female figures from an abandoned Gurdwara located in Mangat village in Pakistan

 

Guru Granth Sahib manuscript housed at Sri Keshgarh Sahib, Anandpur and dated to 1803 B.S. (1746 C.E.) beautifully decorated with gold and floral arabesques

Guru Granth Sahib manuscript housed at Sri Keshgarh Sahib, Anandpur and dated to 1803 B.S. (1746 C.E.) beautifully decorated with gold and floral arabesques

 

Equestrian portrait of Guru Gobind Singh attended upon by a Nihang, circa 1850

Equestrian portrait of Guru Gobind Singh attended upon by a Nihang, circa 1850

 

Guru Nanak engaged in an interfaith dialogue, Janamsakhi painting

Guru Nanak engaged in an interfaith dialogue, Janamsakhi painting

 

Holy men visiting Guru Nanak in a mountainous forest, Mewar painting

Holy men visiting Guru Nanak in a mountainous forest, Mewar painting

 

Illustrations of female figures on a chola (chogha) robe that is said to have belonged to Guru Nanak which was made by and given as a gift by his sister, Bebe Nanaki

Illustrations of female figures on a chola (chogha) robe that is said to have belonged to Guru Nanak which was made by and given as a gift by his sister, Bebe Nanaki

See also

Sikh art

Indian art

Turban training centre

Sikh architecture

Sikh scriptures

History of Sikhism

Punjabi culture

Shastar Vidya

Sikh chola

Sikh Ajaibghar

Mehdiana Sahib

Punjabi culture grew out of the settlements along the five rivers (the name Punjab, is derived from two Persian words, Panj meaning "Five" and Âb meaning "Water") which served as an important route to the Near East as early as the ancient Indus Valley civilization, dating back to 3000 BCE.[1] Agriculture has been the major economic feature of the Punjab and has therefore formed the foundation of Punjabi culture, with one's social status being determined by landownership.[1] The Punjab emerged as an important agricultural region, especially following the Green Revolution during the mid-1960's to the mid-1970's, has been described as the "breadbasket of both India and Pakistan".[1] Besides being known for agriculture and trade, the Punjab is also a region that over the centuries has experienced many foreign invasions and consequently has a long-standing history of warfare, as the Punjab is situated on the principal route of invasions through the northwestern frontier of the Indian subcontinent, which promoted to adopt a lifestyle that entailed engaging in warfare to protect the land.[1] Warrior culture typically elevates the value of the community's honour (izzat), which is highly esteemed by Punjabis.[1]

Music

Main article: Music of Punjab

Bhangra is one of the many Punjabi musical art forms that are increasingly listened to in the West and becoming a mainstream favourite.[2] Punjabi music is used by western musicians in many ways, such as mixing with other compositions to produce award-winning music. Sufi music and Qawali, commonly practiced in Pakistani Punjab; are other important genres in the Punjab region.[3][4]

Dance

See also: Punjabi dance

Punjabi dances are performed either by men or by women. The dances range from solo to group dances and also sometimes dances are done along with traditional musical instruments. Bhangra is one of the most famous dances originating in the Punjab by farmers during the harvesting season. It was mainly performed while farmers did agricultural chores. As they did each farming activity they would perform bhangra moves on the spot.[5] This allowed them to finish their job in a pleasurable way. For many years, farmers performed bhangra to showcase a sense of accomplishment and to welcome the new harvesting season.[6] Traditional bhangra is performed in a circle[7] and is performed using traditional dance steps. Traditional bhangra is now also performed on occasions other than during the harvest season.[8][9] Ghidda is also a famous dance from Punjab. This dance is for women and originates thousands of years ago, it resembles femininity and beauty.[citation needed]

Art

Painting in the Punjab developed during the reign of Iltutmish of the Khilji dynasty, who had patronized it.[10] A historical reference to this was made in the Tarikh-I-Ferozeshi.[10] Sikh art, including Sikh painting, is mostly derived from Punjab's art traditions.[10] B.N. Goswamy argues that painting in the Punjab goes back to the 16th century and became influenced by the Mughal school in the early half of the 18th century.[11] Punjabi Sikh forays into painting were mostly limited to wall paintings decorating the walls of religious sites up until the early 19th century.[12] Miniature painting depicting Hindu religious scenes and themes was popular in the Punjab Hills amongst the various Pahari Rajput states.[12]

Between 1810–1830, the Sikhs began to commission these Pahari artists to paint Sikh subjects and settings, mostly Sikh royalty and nobility.[12] After Sikhs began to progressively come into more and more contact with Europeans after 1830, the main influence on Punjabi Sikh art shifted from Pahari styles and methods to European ones.[12] The Punjabi form and localization of Company paintings would be born out of this increased interaction between European and Punjabi artists.[12] Thus, Pahari-influenced traditional miniature paintings began to be surmounted by European-influenced Company school paintings.[12] Lahori and Amritsari artists increasingly abandoned using the traditional Indic medium of gouache for watercolour techniques.[12]

In 1838–39, a British visitor hired local Punjabi artists to produce pictures covering the various kinds of inhabitants of northern India using British-supplied paper and bound into an album.[12] Images of the Sikh royals and military were documented in these British-patronized local paintings.[12] Many Europeans were employed by the Lahore Durbar, such as the Frenchman Jean-François Allard, and were sponsors of the local arts.[12] A few European artists who visited the Sikh court of Lahore and left a deep impact on the local art were: G. T. Vigne (visited in 1837), William G. Osborne (visited in 1838), Emily Eden (visited in 1838 alongside her brother), and August Schoefft (arrived in 1841).[12] Eden had a large impact, as her published work Portraits of the Princes and People of India (which included lithographic depictions of Sikhs and Punjabis) was a big success and many copies of the work made their way to Punjab where they ended up giving further shape to the emerging Punjabi Company School.[12] Schoefft spent over a year in Punjab painting various local scenes and subjects.[12] During the Anglo-Sikh Wars, many of the British officials and soldiers who made their way to Punjab were artists.[12] An example is Henry Lawrence, who painted local residents of various walks of life.[12] Many Indian artists who followed the Company school were hired to paint Punjabi subjects and settings.[12] When the Sikh Empire was annexed in 1849, local Punjabi artists working in the Company style created works based upon stock sets for the purpose of selling them to European tourists in the local bazaars.[12] These Punjabi paintings geared towards a European audience depicted "Sikh rulers, heroes, occupations, and costumes".[12]

Wall paintings

Murals (including frescoes) feature prominently in Punjab and showcase various themes.[13] Punjabi murals differ from Punjabi miniature paintings in that the wall paintings were far more readily accessible and viewable by the general masses rather than being mostly an affair restricted to the privileged classes of the society, as in the case of miniatures.[13] Since murals could be seen by all walks of society, the things depicted in them were commonly understood subjects that required no specialized knowledge.[13] Punjabi murals can depict religious or secular settings.[13]

Religious themes

Mural depicting a scene from Indic mythology, located within the Samadh of Maharaja Ranjit Singh in Lahore, ca.1840's. The mythological scene depicted is likely a Vaishnavist scene from the Mahabharata or Ramayana epics.

Religious-themed murals are often found at religious shrines, such as Hindu and Sikh temples.[13] Scenes from Indic mythology, such as the Mahabharata, are commonly found, an example being the unveiling of Draupadi.[13]

Religious murals depicting female figuratives were often Shaktist in-nature.[13] A prevailing theme of the divine (the Shakti) incarnating in feminine form (these unique forms are given various names, such as Kali) to battle with negative forces (that are hostile to the deities and mankind), including demons (such as Mahishasura) and giants (such as Shumbha and Nishumbha), is a commonly witnessed scene of Punjabi murals.[13] The scenes depicted by this category of wall paintings are seemingly drawn from the Markandeya Purana, which promotes the reverence of Shakti as the divine-mother figure.[13]

Other scenes found in Punjabi wall paintings seem to stem from the stories of the Bhagavata Purana.[13] An example of a type of mural scene derived from it is Radha being surrounded by youthful gopis.[13] Krishna is also commonly depicted alongside gopis in this sort of mural.[13] Krishna is sometimes shown playing his flute whilst the gopis perform the ras-lila around him or he is shown stealing clothes from the gopis, an episode known as chira-harana.[13]

Aside from Hindu themes, there are also depictions based upon Sikh history and themes, such as Sikh gurus, martyrs (shaheeds), and religious figures (an example being bhagats).[13]

Secular themes

Fresco depicting a hunting scene from a Punjabi Muslim khangah (Khangah Dargani Shah at Dhun Dhaewal) located on the right bank of the Beas River near Chola Sahib, Tarn Taran district

Amid the murals based on profane subjects, depictions of scenes from traditional Punjabi folklore are commonplace, such as Heer Ranjha, Mirza Sahiban, Sohni Mahiwal, Sassi Pannu, Laila Majnun, Raja Rasalu, and more.[13] A lot of the depicted stories are ultimately based upon bardic literature, such as the legends of Shah Behram and Husan Banu.[13] There are also paintings based upon traditional folk ballads, such as Puran Bhagat.[13] Additionally, there are paintings of various Nayika themes, including the Ashta-nayika (eight heroines).[13] There also exists wall paintings based upon the Sat Sai of Bihari.[13] There are further depictions of various royal figures, such as Rani Jindan.[13] Many Punjabi wall paintings depict women and girls in the process of a variety of actions, such as feeding parrots, peacocks, or bucks.[13] Women are also depicted fondling pets or writing love letters in these wall paintings.[13]

Fresco depicting a dalliance scene from Jandwal temple in Hoshiarpur district

Usually displayed less conspicuously, there were also wall painting depicting sexual or erotic themes.[13] It was a common practice to decorate the walls of Islamic and Hindu palaces with erotic scenes.[13] The Sikh royality and nobality during the reign of the Sikh Empire had their residences embellished with these erotic wall paintings. General Paolo Avitabile had his private residence quarters decorated with figures of scantily clad dancing girls and Indic deities in the act of making love.[13] At the Rani Mahal of erstwhile Nabha State, there are wall paintings of couples having sex in various positions, settings, and emotions based upon the Koka Shastra treatise.[13] However, it is important to note that these erotic-based murals were limited mostly to the areas frequented by the upper-classes of the Punjabi society at the time.[13]

Weddings

See also: Punjabi wedding traditions

Punjabi wedding traditions and ceremonies are traditionally conducted in Punjabi and are a strong reflection of Punjabi culture. While the actual religious marriage ceremony among Muslims, Hindus, Sikhs, Jains, Buddhists and Christians may be conducted in Arabic, Urdu, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Hindi or Pali by the Qazi, Pundit, Granthi or Priest, there are commonalities in ritual, song, dance, food, and dress. The Punjabi wedding has many rituals and ceremonies that have evolved since traditional times and itself have evolved in Pakistani Punjab and Indian Punjab.

Cuisine

See also: Punjabi cuisine

Tandoori chicken is a popular dish in Punjabi cuisine.

The local cuisine of Punjab is heavily influenced by the agriculture and farming lifestyle prevalent from the times of the ancient Indus Valley civilization. Dishes similar to tandoori chicken may have existed during the Harappan civilization during the Bronze Age of India. According to the archeologist Professor Vasant Shinde, the earliest evidence for a dish similar to tandoori chicken can be found in the Harappan civilization and dates back to 3000 BC. His team has found ancient ovens at Harappan sites which are similar to the tandoors that are used in the state of Punjab. Physical remains of chicken bones with char marks have also been unearthed.[14][15][16] Harappan houses had keyhole ovens with central pillars which was used for roasting meats and baking breads.[17] Sushruta Samhita records meat being cooked in an oven (kandu) after marinating it in spices like black mustard (rai) powder and fragrant spices.[18] According to Ahmed (2014), Harappan oven structures may have operated in a similar manner to the modern tandoors of the Punjab.[19]

Basmati rice is the indigenous variety of Punjab, and various meat- and vegetable-based rice dishes have been developed using it.[20][21][22]

Language and literature

Main articles: Punjabi language and Punjabi literature

Baba Farid, considered the first major Punjabi poet.[23]

The Punjabi language is written with the Gurmukhi alphabet in India and with the Shahmukhi alphabet in Pakistan. Approximately 130 million people speak the Punjabi language.[24]

The earliest writings in Punjabi belong to Nath Yogi era from 9th to 14th century.[25] They referred to God with various names such as "Alakh Nirajan" which are still prevalent in Punjabi vernacular.[25]

The Punjabi literary tradition is popularly seen to commence with Fariduddin Ganjshakar (1173–1266).[23] Roughly from the 12th century to the 19th century, Punjabi Sufi poetry developed under Shah Hussain (1538–1599), Sultan Bahu (1628–1691), Shah Sharaf (1640–1724), Ali Haider (1690–1785), Bulleh Shah (1680–1757), Saleh Muhammad Safoori (1747–1826), Mian Muhammad Baksh (1830–1907) and Khwaja Ghulam Farid (1845–1901). In contrast to Persian poets, who had preferred the ghazal for poetic expression, Punjabi Sufi poets tended to compose in the Kafi.[26]

Punjabi Sufi poetry also influenced other Punjabi literary traditions particularly the Punjabi Qissa, a genre of romantic tragedy which also derived inspiration from Indic, Persian and Quranic sources. The Qissa of Heer Ranjha by Waris Shah (1706–1798) is among the most popular of Punjabi qisse. Other popular stories include Sohni Mahiwal by Fazal Shah, Mirza Sahiba by Hafiz Barkhudar (1658–1707), Sassi Punnun by Hashim Shah (1735?–1843?), and Qissa Puran Bhagat by Qadaryar (1802–1892).

Dress

Main article: Punjabi clothing

Dastar

Main article: Dastar

A Dastar is an proud of headgear associated with Sikhism and is an important part of the Punjabi and Sikh culture. Among the Sikhs, the dastār is an article of faith that represents equality, honour, self-respect, courage, spirituality, and piety. The Khalsa Sikh men and women, who keep the Five Ks, wear the turban to cover their long, uncut hair (kesh). The Sikhs regard the dastār as an important part of the unique Sikh identity. After the ninth Sikh Guru, Tegh Bahadur, was sentenced to death by the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb, Guru Gobind Singh, the tenth Sikh Guru created the Khalsa and gave five articles of faith, one of which is unshorn hair, which the dastār covers.[27] Prior to Sikhi, only kings, royalty, and those of high stature wore turbans, but Sikh Gurus adopted the practice to assert equality and sovereignty among people.[28]

Punjabi suit

Main article: Shalwar kameez

Punjabi traditional dress in India

A Punjabi suit that features two items - a qameez (top), salwar (bottom) is the traditional attire of the Punjabi people.[29][30][31] Shalwars are trousers which are atypically wide at the waist but which narrow to a cuffed bottom. They are held up by a drawstring or elastic belt, which causes them to become pleated around the waist.[32] The trousers can be wide and baggy, or they can be cut quite narrow, on the bias. The kameez is a long shirt or tunic.[33] The side seams are left open below the waist-line (the opening known as the chaak[note 1]), which gives the wearer greater freedom of movement. The kameez is usually cut straight and flat; older kameez use traditional cuts; modern kameez are more likely to have European-inspired set-in sleeves. The combination garment is sometimes called salwar kurta, salwar suit, or Punjabi suit.[35][36] The shalwar-kameez is a widely-worn,[37][38] and national dress,[39] of Pakistan. When women wear the shalwar-kameez in some regions, they usually wear a long scarf or shawl called a dupatta around the head or neck.[40] The dupatta is also employed as a form of modesty—although it is made of delicate material, it obscures the upper body's contours by passing over the shoulders. For Muslim women, the dupatta is a less stringent alternative to the chador or burqa (see hijab and purdah); for Sikh and Hindu women, the dupatta is useful when the head must be covered, as in a temple or the presence of elders.[41] Everywhere in South Asia, modern versions of the attire have evolved; the shalwars are worn lower down on the waist, the kameez have shorter length, with higher splits, lower necklines and backlines, and with cropped sleeves or without sleeves.[42]

Festivals

See also: Punjabi festivals, List of Sikh festivals, List of Hindu festivals in Punjab, and Festivals in Lahore

The Punjabi Muslims typically observe the Islamic festivals.[43][44] The Punjabi Sikhs and Hindus typically do not observe these, and instead observe Lohri, Basant and Vaisakhi as seasonal festivals.[45] The Punjabi Muslim festivals are set according to the lunar Islamic calendar (Hijri), and the date falls earlier by 10 to 13 days from year to year.[46] The Hindu and Sikh Punjabi seasonal festivals are set on specific dates of the luni-solar Bikrami calendar or Punjabi calendar and the date of the festival also typically varies in the Gregorian calendar but stays within the same two Gregorian months.[47]

Some Punjabi Muslims participate in the traditional, seasonal festivals of the Punjab region: Baisakhi, Basant and to a minor scale Lohri, but this is controversial. Islamic clerics and some politicians have attempted to ban this participation because of the religious basis of the Punjabi festivals,[48] and they being declared haram (forbidden in Islam).[49]

Preservation of Punjabi Culture

In recent years, efforts have been made to preserve and promote Punjabi culture and heritage. One notable example is the Panjab Digital Library (PDL), founded by Davinder Pal Singh. The library's mission is to digitize and preserve historical manuscripts, books, and other materials related to Punjabi language, history, and culture. This initiative has helped to safeguard and promote Punjabi culture for future generations.[50]

See also

image Punjab portal

icon Society portal

Punjabi Culture Day

Punjabi calendar

Punjabi festivals

Folk practices in Punjab

Punjab

Punjabi people

British Punjabis

Punjabi Americans

Punjabi Australians

Punjabi Canadians

Punjabi diaspora

Punjab (India)

Punjab (Pakistan)

Punjabi Cultural Society of Chicago

List of Punjabi language poets

Livestock show

Vaisakhi

Sikh art and culture