A VERY RARE VINTAGE ORIGINAL PHOTO FROM 1976 MEASURING APPROXIMATELY 8 1/4 X 5 5/8 INCHEWS OF GURDIP SINGH CHADDER FROM THE DAILY TELEGRAPH IN THE UNITED KINGDOM
Gurdip Singh Chaggar was just eighteen years old when he was brutally stabbed to death in Southall, West London on the night of Friday 4th June 1976. This unprovoked murder of a Sikh engineering student, targeted during a quiet night out with friends by a gang of white youths, had an immediate impact. Over the following weekend hundreds of local Asians took to the streets to express their anger over Chaggar’s death. The scale of this (predominantly peaceful) response highlighted the frustration of a new generation of British Asians whose formative years were being increasingly dominated by the overt racism promoted by Enoch Powell and the National Front (NF), not to mention the institutional prejudices of the police and of the state more generally. By Monday the Southall Youth Movement (SYM) had been formed out of a communal desire for direct action. The SYM would go on to be crucial, both in defending Southall’s Asian population against the threat of racism and in helping to inspire the foundation of other Asian youth organisations across the UK. Together with other anti-racist and anti-fascist organisations, the SYM was at the forefront of opposing the NF when it came to Southall in April 1979.
Gurdip Singh Chaggar was just eighteen years old when he was brutally stabbed to death in Southall, West London on the night of Friday 4th June 1976. This unprovoked murder of a Sikh engineering student, targeted during a quiet night out with friends by a gang of white youths, had an immediate impact. Over the following weekend hundreds of local Asians took to the streets to express their anger over Chaggar’s death. The scale of this (predominantly peaceful) response highlighted the frustration of a new generation of British Asians whose formative years were being increasingly dominated by the overt racism promoted by Enoch Powell and the National Front (NF), not to mention the institutional prejudices of the police and of the state more generally. By Monday the Southall Youth Movement (SYM) had been formed out of a communal desire for direct action. The SYM would go on to be crucial, both in defending Southall’s Asian population against the threat of racism and in helping to inspire the foundation of other Asian youth organisations across the UK. Together with other anti-racist and anti-fascist organisations, the SYM was at the forefront of opposing the NF when it came to Southall in April 1979.
The events of June 1976 were undoubtedly decisive in generating grassroots resistance to the NF in Southall. Equally, however, the nature of media, governmental, and legal responses to Chaggar’s murder can be seen as important in helping the NF to maintain its prominence into the late 1970s. This was, after all, a party that spent much of the 1970s in chaos. It was dogged by its fluctuating membership and by internal divisions (especially over party leadership) as well as by the vocal opposition it faced from anti-racist and anti-fascist groups. That the NF was still in a position of any significance by the 1979 election campaign (which its April meeting in Southall was part of) was down less to its own strength than to the fact that its racist agenda had not been shut down by politicians or by the press. Encouraged by the reluctance of those in positions of power to adequately censure it, the NF increasingly focused its attention in the mid-late 1970s on tactics of street-based provocation, in which it held meetings, marches, or even just paper sales in urban areas with large minority populations in an attempt to stoke fear and unrest. In effect, then, the NF came to Southall in April 1979 precisely because its leaders believed the party could capitalise on tensions that had not been resolved in the aftermath of June 1976.
The clearest way to demonstrate this is by examining the legal fallout from Chaggar’s death. Whilst, unlike in the case of Blair Peach’s death in April 1979, the perpetrators did go to trial, the way in which the police and the judicial system handled the event can still be said to have been problematic. Two white teenagers, Jody Hill (17) and Robert Hackman (18), were found guilty of killing Chaggar in May 1977. They were jailed for four years having admitted manslaughter but pleaded not guilty to murder. Judge Neil Lawson, in delivering the verdict, made sure to emphasise his belief that there had been no racial motivation for Chaggar’s attack. This echoed the line of the local police force. The Monday after the murder Detective Chief Superintendent Jim Sewell was quoted in the Evening Standard as saying that ‘The whole affair has been carried away on a wave of mass hysteria’. He went on to describe interpretations of the attack as having ‘racial undertones’ as ‘a load of nonsense talk’.
Sewell’s remarks were, at best, misguided, and completely ignored the context in which the attack took place. Chaggar’s stabbing came soon after Enoch Powell – in his latest intervention on the issue of immigration – had suggested that racial violence on the streets of England would soon eclipse ongoing disturbances in Northern Ireland. It was also less than a month since two members of the National Party (NP) – an NF breakaway group – had become the first neo-fascists to taste electoral success in Britain by winning two council seats in Blackburn. One of the two NP victors, former NF leader John Kingsley Read, referred to Chaggar’s death at a speech in Newham on 12th June with the words ‘One down, a million to go’. Remarkably, in January 1978, Read would be found not guilty of inciting racial hatred with these remarks.
In essence, then, both the police and the judiciary not only dismissed the possibility that Chaggar’s death was a racist murder but also appeared to deny that racism was a significant problem in British society more generally. This did not tally – even remotely – with the experiences of those who founded the SYM, who had experienced racist abuse (including physical assaults) throughout their youth. Awareness of official unwillingness to take the violent threat of racism seriously was a key factor in driving the SYM’s activity early on. As co-founder Balraj Purewal put it in the documentary Young Rebels: The Story of the Southall Youth Movement, action was necessary because ‘We knew that nobody was going to listen’.
The SYM thus came to perform a vital role in protecting the Asian community, whether on the streets or in, some cases, at homes or businesses. Despite being prepared to speak the truth to the police, however, the intransigence of local authorities on the issue of racism remained a problem. The council’s decision to allow the NF to stage an election meeting at Southall Town Hall on 23rd April 1979 was yet another indicator of how essential the SYM was in fulfilling a role that the police seemed unwilling to perform. As the SYM’s Suresh Grover recalled in Young Rebels, the NF’s decision to come to Southall – especially on St George’s Day – had nothing to do with the electoral justification used in granting them use of the hall: ‘There was no member of the National Front in Southall. It was going to be outsiders coming in, deliberately trying to provoke’.
In this sense, the council had allowed the NF to formalise its pre-existing tactic of shipping in members from other areas to provide a show of strength in areas where it believed minority populations were vulnerable. 23rd April 1979 thus clearly demonstrated the failure of local authorities, and the police force in particular, to learn from the events of June 1976 (as well as from events in other parts of London, notably Lewisham in August 1977). The very fact that the SYM existed, never mind the extent of its activities in defending the Asian community in Southall, was proof that racial violence was a major problem in the area. The denial of racism as a factor in Chaggar’s murder, the ignorance of the wider political context, and the vacation of responsibility that necessitated the SYM’s foundation: all saw those in positions of power embolden the NF by failing in their duty to provide security for Southall’s Asian community. The powerful demonstration of anti-fascism and anti-racism that would be provided on 23rd April 1979 was, therefore, doubly necessary.
London, United Kingdom – On a sunny Saturday in June 1976, teenager Suresh Grover was in Southall chatting with a friend outside the Dominion Cinema when he noticed a police officer standing next to a pool of blood.
“I asked him, ‘Did somebody die there?'” Grover told Al Jazeera. “And he turned to me and said ‘It’s just Indian blood’. He was very rude and left the scene soon after. I was shocked – this was an officer saying it was just Indian blood and not of equal worth.”
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The blood had flowed from the body of Gurdip Singh Chaggar.
The 18-year-old student was killed the night before in a racist attack in the west London district, which had recently become home to a large South Asian population, particularly from India’s northern Punjab state.
Grover, now 62, said: “The next day we went to the police station, surrounded it, made speeches and Southall came to a standstill. By the end of the afternoon around 5,000 people – men, women, Asians, Afro-Caribbeans – had gathered in a show of unity, solidarity and defiance. It was the first time this sort of protest had happened and it had a profound impact on Southall. That day, the Southall Youth Movement was born.”
The Southall Asian Youth Movement was a group of mostly young Asian men from the area.
In the months that followed Chaggar’s murder, they campaigned for more rights and an end to racial hate crimes and police brutality.
The movement led to similar action in other cities, including Bradford, Manchester and Sheffield – together they would come to be known as the Asian Youth Movements (AYMs).
But three years later, little had changed in Southall.
The far-right National Front group announced a meeting in the area on April 23, 1979. Police ignored pleas to cancel the gathering, which the community considered provocative, and a large anti-fascist march was planned for the day.
Various accounts attest to the police violence in clashes that followed.
It has been 40 years since New Zealand teacher Blair Peach died from head injuries during an anti-fascist demo in Southall. No one has ever been charged with his murder [Courtesy: Public Domain]
Hundreds of protesters were arrested, others were hospitalised with serious injuries and New Zealand-born teacher Blair Peach lost his life after sustaining head wounds.
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A report by the Metropolitan Police, which emerged in 2010, stated that Peach was “almost certainly” killed by police but no one has ever been held accountable for his death.
Tuesday marks 40 years since the demonstration and Peach’s death.
Campaigners have called for a new inquiry into his death.
To mark the anniversary, events will be held in Southall and other parts of the country to commemorate Peach, Chaggar and this significant period in Britain’s race relations history.
“For those of us who were part of this lived experience from 1973 onwards, we didn’t know what the history was, we just asserted ourselves because we were born or raised here and were not going back to our motherlands,” said Grover.
“In order to take on the struggles against racism nationally, we realised the need to link up with other communities who were going through similar experiences of racism. The youth movements didn’t last very long, but it was a very pivotal moment.”
We really believed that Britain didn't do us a favour by bringing us here - it exploited our poverty to bring us here, then it exploited our labour when we got here and then made us live in slave-like conditions.
TARIQ MEHMOOD, WRITER
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While figures suggest South Asians have been living in the UK for around 400 years, the community grew significantly in the post-war years as Britain faced a shortage of workers, including in factories and the health service after World War II.
From 1971 to 1981, the estimated number of South Asians more than doubled from 478,000 to 993,000.
“The first wave of workers were men who came without their families. But in the 1970s, as new immigration laws set in and people started to settle, things started to change. There was an increase in racism in the workplace, housing and for young people in schools,” said Anandi Ramamurthy, author of a book on Britain’s Asian Youth Movements and a lecturer in media at Sheffield Hallam University.
Tariq Mehmood, a writer, was one of the founding members of Bradford’s Asian Youth Movement. Born in Pakistan, he arrived in Britain with his father in the late 1960s.
“We grew up with a system of bussing. This meant that we were taken out of the areas where we were living and sent to school five or six miles away because they didn’t want too many non-white children in one area,” he said. “We were subjected to a lot of violence.
“The violence got so bad during secondary school that they used to release all non-white children half an hour before white children so we wouldn’t get attacked. So my very first impression of this country was the intensity of the racist violence against us.”
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Grover had arrived from East Africa at a young age and lived in England’s northwest, but left after he was attacked by a racist gang.
By the mid-1970s, tensions were peaking.
“We were seeing the growth of the far right, a number of racist murders, the calling for the repatriation of black and brown people and protests at airports,” said Grover. “There were scaremongering stories in the tabloid press blaming immigrants for a shortage of jobs and housing, and for bringing diseases into towns.”
The youth movements represented an era of assertiveness, self-organisation and resistance during a significant period in Britain’s racial history [Courtesy: Monitoring Group]
For members of AYMs, being part of a self-organised group was a way to deal with the hostility and violence.
Grover said: “We were setting ourselves apart from our parents’ generation. We were saying we will not tolerate violence against us. We were mostly Sikh, Hindus and Muslim men.
“We began setting an agenda which was more youth-orientated and using music and culture to get our messages out there. There were lots of sit-ins in colleges, meetings with the Home Office and the police, with almost all of them ending with absolutely nothing given to us.”
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Ramamurthy said that while some women were involved, the movements were male-dominated.
“There were gender dynamics within the community and some women weren’t as easily allowed to go out. There were some women, Manchester, for example, had a small women’s group who did a lot of work on immigration but there were degrees of machoism. It wasn’t that they didn’t want women, but many women did find it hard.”
Three years after Peach’s death, in 1981, there were race riots in around 30 cities across the UK and Southall was once again in the news.
“A skinhead band wanted to play at a local pub called the Hambrough Tavern,” Grover said. “Again, we wrote to the police saying we need to deal with this before it gets violent but there was no response and the group still came. We mobilised, there were some scuffles and the pub ended up being burned down.”
That same year saw a groundbreaking case involving Bradford’s youth movement, which was focused on, among other issues, hostile migration laws and family immigration.
Suresh Grover (centre with laptop) and other members of the Southall Resists 40 campaign group prepare for the 40th anniversary commemorations. [Courtesy: Monitoring Group]
“We were heavily influenced by left-wing politics and had very clear principles of anti-racism and anti-imperialism,” Mehmood says. “We really believed that Britain didn’t do us a favour by bringing us here – it exploited our poverty to bring us here, then it exploited our labour when we got here and then made us live in slave-like conditions.”
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In July, another provocative march through the city was being planned by far-right groups.
“We didn’t think the police were going to defend us or our areas, so we made petrol bombs. In the end, the fascists didn’t come but we were arrested on charges of terrorism,” said Mehmood.
During the trial, Mehmood and his 11 co-defendants argued that they had a right to defend themselves against racists coming into their community.
The case drew widespread support and the defendants were eventually acquitted. The case of the Bradford 12 made legal history, enshrining self-defence into English law.
But by the early 1980s, the movements had started to disintegrate.
In Southall, a new police commissioner began a new era of multi-intelligence profiling in areas known for their resistance, according to Grover.
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“This crushed the Southall AYM,” he said.
Other factors such as government funding were also at play.
“What started to emerge was the division of groups into different ethnic categories like Gujarati and Punjabi for government funding. It was a very clear strategy on the part of the government and a deliberate attempt by the state to split the groups up,” said Ramamurthy.
Despite being fractured, the AYMs paved the way for the birth of self-organised groups in the years that followed, including anti-domestic violence organisation Southall Black Sisters and Southall-based anti-racist charity Monitoring Group, of which Grover is the director.
The ‘Bradford 12’ defendants after their acquittal during the landmark 1981 case that enshrined self-defence into English law [Courtesy:Ruth Bundey/www.tandana.org]
The impact of the Bradford 12 also remains strong, with the argument that “self-defence is no offence” being used successfully in cases since.
“I was playing cricket and not really interested in race, but the period totally politicised me,” said Grover.
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“It was a period of youth assertiveness in anti-racist politics and a new defining era in race relations in Britain. What it encapsulates is fearless and audacious self-organising amongst black and Asian communities.
“The far right were a big threat, and the legacy is how we can learn from that past experience to develop resistance in our communities today, especially as we see the same fascist forces re-emerging in Brexit Britain.”
In 1979, on St George’s Day, the National Front organised a meeting at the Town Hall located at the crossroads at the heart of Southall. These found that he had no defence injuries, nor that he fell when hit. Although the National Front was legally within its rights and Ealing Council acted within the letter of the law, many were troubled. Want an ad-free experience?Subscribe to Independent Premium. Provocation manifested itself in the very fact that the National Front were allowed to hold their meeting in Southall and call for the withdrawal of the basic democratic rights to vote and the repatriation of the very inhabitants of this area. Amit Roy As Gurdip Singh Chaggar, an eighteen-yearOld Sikh, lay dying outside the Victory public house in Southall, he could not have known that his death would unleash a flurry of racial, political and diplomatic activity. 1976: Riots during the Notting Hill Carnival. In de wijk staat de grootste gurdwara in Europa. The National Front, whose meeting had sparked off these events, may well have been forgotten. Once it was known that the meeting was under way, there was little point in being around any more and so some of the crowds began to disperse. A lengthy inquest which took place in 1980 concluded that his death had been a result of misadventure and this was condemned by some commentators, including his family. There was also a stewards’ meeting about tactics attended by the younger protestors. The first wave of skinheads stood for one thing: embracing their blue collar status. A three-decade-long campaign followed, yet, far from secure a prosecution, Mr Peach's family and friends have never even been able to ascertain the exact details of the last moments of his life. The politician Ken Livingstone also claimed he knew the names of two officers, one of which was the killer but he refused to say who they were. Het wordt ook wel "Little India" genoemd i.v.m de 55% Indiaas-Pakistaanse etnische bevolking. Blair Peach died of a head wound in Ealing Hospital just after midnight on 24 April. Wanted posters were widely distributed to the effect that these half dozen were guilty. The Chamber of Commerce claimed that the council and the police had an obligation under law to reimburse those whose livelihoods had been damaged, but the council claimed that this was only discretionary, but they agreed to assist with loans. Vehicles and street furniture was also destroyed and damaged. A National Front supporter was found beaten up near Southall railway station. Cops poured into the area and riot vans lined many of the roads. They told other witnesses to say nothing to the police until they had a friendly solicitor present. They also agreed to conceal the presence of a witness. How much longer have I got to stay?". 1976: Southall residents riot following the murder of Gurdip Singh Chaggar. In an interview in 2009 he denied any wrong doing and said he had not seen any of his men attack Peach, though added that it was a very chaotic situation. De Gurdwara in Southall vanbinnen. ... Southall Riots. A forthcoming documentary film about The Battle of Southall, an anti-racist battle in West London in April 1979. His family reached an out of court settlement with the Metropolitan Police in 1989. Some contacted the council and asked them to retract their consent, though this would have been illegal. Over 2700 police involved, including the Special Patrol Group and 2000+ demonstrators. Three years after Peach’s death, in 1981, there were race riots in around 30 cities across the UK and Southall was once again in the news. 1980 - New Mexico State Penitentiary Riot, (Santa Fe, New Mexico, USA) There had been a single blow which had resulted in a closed head injury, which rendered him unconscious but no sign of an external wound. When an ambulance called to collect him arrived at 8.12pm, Mr Peach, perhaps not realising the severity of the situation, told paramedics: "My head hurts". From July into the middle of August, several British cities exploded into violent anger – but each riot had its own distinctive flavour. In that month of June 1976, Southall was in shock, and the grief of the community as a whole was palpable when over 1000 people joined in the funeral services of Gurdeep Singh Chaggar. The far right organised marches and meetings locally, leading to growing tensions and violence, including a racist attack in 1976 that saw 18-year-old student Gurdip Singh Chaggar murdered on Southall High Street. Explore releases from Southall Riot at Discogs. Some officers were in danger of being cut off and others used riot shields. There was debate afterwards as to the composition of the crowd, whether it was a wholly local protest or not. Although free speech had been upheld, it had been at a cost, with 340 arrests having been made, mainly for carrying offensive weapons, for attacking the police and for public disorder; 36 police officers had been injured and 21 needed treatment in Ealing Hospital, as did 24 demonstrators. Violence began to escalate as the crowd began to throw bottles and stones as police took shelter behind riot shields. The National Front said that its meeting was a public meeting but that only 20 non-party members at most would be able to attend (it was a small room). The meeting took place in a very small room in the town hall, one usually used for wedding receptions and parties. Murray resigned from the force in the following year. Several thousand local residents turned out in opposition. There was an Independent Police Inquiry set up to investigate what happened, but there was also another report commissioned by the NCCL led by Professor Dummet, well known for his anti-racism campaigning, as well as trade unionists, liberal clergy and Labour MPs. There has never been a public inquiry and, despite frequent calls for such, for example in 1999, these were turned down, apparently because of the problem of the time lapse.
Around 700 people joined a march to remember Blair Peach and Gurdip Singh Chaggar in Southall, west London, on Saturday.
The unity march was organised around the 40th anniversary of the police murder of teacher Blair.
Blair died after being clubbed on the head at a mobilisation against the fascist National Front (NF) in Southall on 23 April 1979.
The unity march assembled on Dominion Street, near where a racist had killed 18-year old student Gurdip Singh Chaggar on 4 June 1976.
Many residents joined it to remember how working class Asian people had fought back against racism and fascist agitation in the area.
Relatives of Gurdip were among the marchers. Jatinder Singh Chaggar told Socialist Worker, “We enjoy freedoms now, but no one is taught that it came from struggles.
“I remember my parents being so careful just about letting me out of the house.”
He added, “It's important to remember what happened because there was a sense of unity, especially after 1976.Until then people had tolerated racism.”
Charan Singh Chaggar added, “We should remember those who lost their lives so we can walk down the street.”
The march passed through Beachcroft Avenue, where the Special Patrol Group riot squad had clubbed Blair over the head.
Southall ’79, when the police killed Blair Peach
Southall ’79, when the police killed Blair Peach
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It rallied outside Southall Town Hall, where people had fought to stop the NF from holding a public meeting ahead of the 1979 general election. Labour's shadow chancellor John McDonnell, who had been on the counter-demonstration, said, “It was a police riot that night.
“They murdered Blair Peach in a police riot.”
Jaskiran Chohan, a Labour councillor for Southall Broadway, addressed the crowd. “Today we're facing some of the most terrifying moments with the rise of racism and fascism,” she said.
“Just the other week my 14 year old cousin told me about how he was racially abused for being brown and ‘smelling like curry’.
She added, There's so many people here—black, white, brown—standing shoulder to shoulder.
“That's one of the biggest lessons we can take from those 40 years.”
Daniel Kebede, an NEU education union national executive member, came to “offer solidarity from Blair's union”.
“The British state must not and cannot be allowed to get away with murder”, he said.“The demonstrations were in self-defence —and we say self-defence is in no offence.”
He called for an inquiry into Blair's murder.
Suresh Grover, who was part of the Southall Youth Movement, hailed three blue plaques on the town hall that were unveiled on Thursday of last week.
They commemorate Blair, Gurdip, Misty in Roots manager Clarence Baker and the People United community centre that was trashed by cops on the day of the 1979 demonstration.
Paul Holborow was a founder of the Anti Nazi League (ANL), which had supported the mobilisation against the NF in Southall.He said, “Blair was a committed anti-racist and above all he was a socialist—a member of the Socialist Workers Party.
“He came in solidarity with brothers and sisters fighting against the NF, not just in Southall but across the country.”
Paul said the “best tribute” would be to take the fight to Nazi Tommy Robinson who is standing for election in the North West of England in the European elections.
“Stand Up To Racism is calling on every Labour Party member, every trade union, every community to make sure that doesn't happen,” he said.
Forty years ago this week Blair Peach joined a thousands-strong demonstration against the fascist National Front (NF) in Southall, west London. By the evening Blair had been murdered—clubbed on the head by a police officer.
None of the six cops involved in his murder have ever been charged. Michael Freestone, Anthony Lake, James Scottow, Anthony Richardson, Raymond White and Alan Murray were transferred from the Special Patrol Group (SPG), the Metropolitan Police’s riot squad.
And the police only released the findings of their internal inquiry in 2010—which found cops had “almost certainly” killed Blair.
Blair, a teacher from Bow in east London, was a member of the Socialist Workers Party (SWP) and the Anti Nazi League (ANL).
His killing showed how the police and the state can treat protesters and activists—and the brutality they used to protect the Nazis.
The cops ran amok through Southall on Monday 23 April 1979, with 700 arrests, 344 court cases, and hundreds of people injured. The state had deployed some 2,756 officers to make sure the NF could have a rally in the run-up to the general election.
Southall was the heart of the Asian community in London. People from Britain’s former colonies had moved there after the Second World War. It became the site of struggles by Asian workers to organise for trade union recognition and better working conditions—including some major strikes.
It was also a place where people felt keenly the racist attitudes of police. When racists attacked young Asians it was often the victims who were arrested.
In 1970 the police did nothing when a gang of skinheads rampaged through the town.
By holding a meeting right in the heart of Southall, the fascists hoped to intimidate the local Asian population. The area had become a focus for fascist and racist agitation, including the murder of school student Gurdip Singh Chaggar in 1976.
But its Asian working class and the Southall Youth Movement—knowing they couldn’t trust the police—organised to defend themselves against racism.
Balwinder Singh Rana was on the committee that organised the protest against the NF. “The news spread like wild fire,” he remembers. “The NF were being allowed to hold their meeting right in the heart of our town.
“And immediately the Indian Workers Association called a meeting of all the local organisations.”
The meeting resolved to march on Tory-run Ealing council on Sunday 22 April to hand in a petition demanding the meeting be called off.
Refused
And if the council refused, they would hold a sit-down in front of the town hall the following day.
Around 5,000 people assembled at a Southall car park on the Sunday. The police were about to give them a taste of the treatment that was to come the next day.
Balwinder said, “The car park was surrounded by masses of police on horseback and loads of police on foot.
“As the march proceeded the police began to harass us. And outside the Southall police station, a very convenient place for them, they arrested a young black lad for no other reason than just being a bit exuberant.”
The march moved on after Balwinder and Indian Workers Association head Vishnu Sharma went into the police station and successfully demanded the black man’s release. But, soon afterwards, the cops began harassing people again.
“The police proceeded to arrest 15 people, setting the scene for the next day,” Balwinder said.
On the Monday, Southall was in lockdown. Cops poured into the area and riot vans lined many of the roads.
But workers on the buses and from nearby factories struck. Local people were ready to come out to defend themselves against the NF.
Jatinder Chohan, a school student who lived in Southall in 1979, said, “I remember feeling scared and vulnerable, but also realising that something important and momentous was happening.
“Our community—as well as supporters from outside formed from many different races and religions—were rising up in one body.
“They were rising up to confront the hate that was being allowed to hold court on our doorstep.”
In the early afternoon there were rumours that the police were trying to smuggle the NF into the town hall.
Mobilisation
The Southall Youth Movement, which had called its own mobilisation, led a protest outside the building.
Balwinder said, “When more and more people began to arrive the police set up roadblocks, hundreds of metres from the town hall.
“By 5pm thousands of people, young and old, men and women, black, Asian and white, had gathered on those four blocked roads.
They were being prevented from reaching the town hall to make their peaceful protest by the massive presence of the police.”
He added, “People were not even being allowed into their own homes that were within the cordoned area.
“It looked like an occupied town.”
Police on foot and on horseback charged at the protesters.
SPG officers drove vans at high speed towards the crowd, before throwing demonstrators into the back of them. Police dogs chased people who tried to get away into side streets.
People heroically fought back for hours in the pouring rain, throwing bricks and other projectiles at the cops.
At around 6pm the SPG chased people into the medical and legal support station at the People Unite community centre, which was run by the Misty In Roots reggae band. They then ransacked the building.
The ANL had asked health workers to be on hand, expecting there to be police aggression on the day. One of them was Tony Ventham, a paramedic at nearby Central Middlesex Hospital.
“We tried to drive the five miles from work to the medical point, but this proved futile,” he explained. “By mid-afternoon the only way to get into Southall was on foot from two miles away.
“We then heard the awful news that police had raided the medical point.
“Everyone was forced to walk downstairs to the street with police truncheons raining down on them all the way. A doctor’s skull was cut and dozens of others were injured.”
Another one of the police’s victims in the community centre was Clarence Baker, the manager of Misty In Roots. A cop struck Clarence over the head, putting him in a coma. He only woke up five months later.
Blair was most likely injured shortly after this.
Parminder Atwal described the events that led to Blair’s death to the Evening Standard newspaper the following day. “Demonstrators were at the top of Beachcroft Avenue,” he said. “I was in my garden when two police vans came and about 20 policemen got out.
“The police were carrying shields and truncheons. They tried to break up a line of people and came running down the road pulling people, pulling them by their hair and hitting them with their sticks. Blair Peach got tangled up in it and was knocked over.
“As the police rushed past him, one of them hit him on the head with a stick… I was in my garden and saw this quite clearly.”
The police had struck him with a blunt instrument, managing to cave in a part of his skull without showing any external bleeding. Parminder said, “When they all rushed past, he was left sitting up against the wall.
“He tried to get up, but he was shivering and looked very strange, he couldn’t get up.”
The police came back and tried to make Blair get up, shouting “Move! Come on, move!”, and he managed to stumble across the road and was taken in by the Atwal family.
“He couldn’t even hold a glass of water.”
Blair’s friend and fellow NUT union member Nick Grant remembers, “Blair was conscious but groggy. He handed over his car keys before leaving with Amanda Leon.
“Blair walked from the ambulance into A&E in Ealing Hospital. Police already understood that there was something to be worried about and they quizzed Amanda who left with Blair’s belongings, advising her to call back later for an update.”
The hospital informed Blair’s friends at around 11.40pm that he had died in theatre.
“Then sure enough,” Nick added, “within an hour of Blair’s death, plainclothes police were banging on the door.
“They clearly knew where we were and what they’d done.”
The Metropolitan Police inquiry found the SPG had a stash of weapons, including unauthorised truncheons, knives, a whip and a lead weighted leather stick.
This could have inflicted the sort of blow that killed Blair. One SPG officer’s locker was found full of Nazi regalia.
Around 15,000 people came to Blair’s funeral a few days after his death, including Labour MP Tony Benn and TUC union federation president Ken Gill.
It was a testament to Blair’s work in the ANL to fight the rise of the NF.
The aim of the ANL was to split the hardcore Nazis from racists who they had managed to pull around themselves.
But Blair was also a revolutionary socialist, who saw the need to get rid of the foul capitalist society that spawns fascism.
As the obituary in Socialist Worker said, “It is the task of all of us to provide the memorial that Blair would have wished for by carrying on his fight against racism and exploitation.”
Southall murder—cops said it was ‘Just an Asian’
Gurdip Singh Chaggar was fatally stabbed near the Dominion Theatre in Southall, west London, on 4 June 1976.
After Gurdip was stabbed, a passer-by asked a cop who had been killed. The cop replied, “Just an Asian.”
His death came after a decade of racism against Asian people, pushed by mainstream politicians and the fascists.
In the same year as Gurdip’s death British border officials at Heathrow Airport had subjected Asian women to humiliating virginity tests. This was the result of a law passed by the Labour government that said woman didn’t need a visa if they were going to get married.
And in Essex racists had stabbed to death two Asian young people.
But Gurdip’s death ignited a wave of rebellion against racism by young Asian people. They took to the streets and founded the Southall Youth Movement. Similar Asian Youth Movements were set up across Britain.
Suresh Grover, one of the founders of the Southall Youth Movement, said, “We were British Asians with black politics and we wanted to unite people to combat the issue of racism.
“We realised religion, ethnicity, identity had no role or significance in what we were doing, so those issues didn’t come up.”
They could not be stopped because there was a police cordon between them and the demonstrators. Forty years ago, residents of a London suburb took to the streets to protest against racism. It may have been a lead-filled rubber cosh. : You are free: to share – to copy, distribute and transmit the work; to remix – to adapt the work; Under the following conditions: attribution – You must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made. The 1976 murder of teenager Gurdip Singh Chaggar and the 1979 riots in Southall form the backdrop of acclaimed writer Hanif Kureishi’s political play Borderline. A forthcoming documentary film about The Battle of Southall, an anti-racist battle in West London in April 1979. 2:04. Writer Sharan Dhaliwal remembers how a racist attack resulting in the death of an 18-year-old in Southall in 1976 sparked the area's first and biggest youth-led movement of anti-racism. De Gurdwara in Southall vanbinnen. ", In further interview, Officer E was no more helpful. To suggest that the incidents on Monday in Southall were unprovoked attacks against the police is to divert attention from the real issues. ... Southall Riots. Vehicles and street furniture was also destroyed and damaged. A National Front supporter was found beaten up near Southall railway station. Provocation manifested itself in the very fact that the National Front were allowed to hold their meeting in Southall and call for the withdrawal of the basic democratic rights to vote and the repatriation of the very inhabitants of this area. When they entered it, they found that it was partly barricaded and more items were thrown at them. A series of articles by History is Made at Night on the 1981 July uprisings/ riots, which occurred in Brixton, Southall, Toxteth, Moss Side, Wood Green, London, Leicester and Bradford. Mr Purewal was a founding member of the Southall Youth Movement (SYM), which was formed in 1976 to challenge racial discrimination. Politics. The holding of public meetings, as said, is the role of the local authority. Some were persuaded to move along the Uxbridge Road. The Soweto riots of 1976 were the most brutal and violent riots that had taken place against the South African apartheid administration. A forthcoming documentary film about The Battle of Southall, an anti-racist battle in West London in April 1979. Although things had been pretty peaceful for a few years for us white Britishers who didn’t experience the daily insults and incivilities of racism, let us never forget that the community had already experienced the brutal murder of a young student Gurdip Singh Chaggar (still remembered) a few years earlier in 1976 within a mile of where we lived. In an interview he justified possession of the cosh by saying he was a collector of weapons including "Nazi memorabilia" such as bayonets and swords. Often, it should be said, relations between front line protestors and police were amicable enough. The National Front said that its meeting was a public meeting but that only 20 non-party members at most would be able to attend (it was a small room). The summer of 1976 saw a major schism develop as the younger generation became increasingly frustrated with the IWA’s “old guard” and their perceived reluctance to confront racism head on. The following year a right wing rally was met with 4,000 counter-demonstrators at the Battle Of Lewisham, and two years later, an anti-Nazi riot erupted in the London suburb of Southall. Various groups of people began to gather near the town hall from about noon on that Monday. He seems to have been moved to a house nearby, 71 Orchard Avenue, and an ambulance called from there. Coming of age: 1976 and the road to anti racism This book is about anti-racist activism in 1976. order they might lead to, though bans or re-routing of meetings and processions are permissible with the Home Secretary’s approval. When they were finally interviewed by the police, their stories differed and did not match the findings of the pathologists’ post mortems. But Commander Cass uses his report to outline the collective amnesia suffered by Officer E and his five colleagues, officers F, G,H,I and J, who found themselves unable to recall any incident that day involving an altercation with Mr Peach – who would have been memorable as one of the only white protesters at the scene. It was immediately suspected that a police officer had delivered the blow which killed Mr Peach but it was never proven. He was also in possession of a stolen driving licence. ... Asian youth movements responded to racist murders in Southall in 1976 and Tower Hamlets in 1978 by confronting both the National Front and the police. Speaking about the actions of the officers with respect to the similar statements and refusal to co-operate, Commander Cass added: "A strong inference that can be drawn from this is that they have conspired together to obstruct police.". They were named in a document produced by Commander John Cass of Scotland Yard and presented to the DPP, some of which seems to have its way into the press. Some were insulted by protestors who were on the roof of a nearby shop. They were happy to present a united front to TV and other journalists, that is to say Peach was on his way home and was attacked by several officers, whilst running away and much blood was spilt. Hamish M Chohan is a student at the University of Arts, London. Nonetheless, while Commander Cass is critical of the officers who refused to help his investigation, he reveals views which would raise eyebrows if uttered at Scotland Yard today. Find out below. Colour shot.Bussing at Southall, Middlesex / Greater London.Southall train station, Travel shot long street showing shops. Although this report did not absolve the protestors of committing any violence, it deemed that the police had been excessive in their use of force. His supporters claimed that he had been on his way home when he was attacked. Four hours later, at 12.10am, he died at New Ealing hospital. To this date no one has been charged with the killing of Blair Peach. Rather than keeping the peace, the police cordons may have had the opposite effect of heightening tension as it provoked some in the crowd to violence. A 33-year-old man has died from head injuries after a bloody battle broke out between police and demonstrators in Southall. At 3pm there were several hundred protestors with placards. This was at about 6.20pm when between 500-2,000 protestors tried to break the police cordon on the High Street and near the town hall. This was because police officers entering this road had been attacked by missile throwers based in this house. The Southall disturbances of 1979 deeply affected those who became caught up in the turmoil that day. Southall Riots. A bus carrying police was attacked. {{#verifyErrors}} {{message}} {{/verifyErrors}} {{^verifyErrors}} {{message}} {{/verifyErrors}}, How a riot in Southall became a symbol of police corruption, Save up to 20% on early 2021 holidays with Booking.com discounts, Debenhams discount code for 15% off selected beauty products, Exclusive Ideal World promo code: 20% saving on fitness, Discounts of up to 70% on super value goods with this AliExpress promo, Take 10% off Sony OLED TVs with this Argos discount code. 1981: Brixton riot against the Metropolitan Police. Police blocking the road, Southall, West London - Peter Arkell/reportdigital.co.uk - 1976-06-06 It is the task of the police to ensure that they occur peacefully. It was elements of the latter trait which manifested themselves on 23 April 1979. This was probably the worst part of the violence. Disturbances in Southall after National Front St George's Day election meeting. At about 1pm there were 150 protestors near the town hall. None of these people had been involved in the demonstration, though all were sympathetic to it. He suggests that, not withstanding the death of Mr Peach, police can be legally justified in using the most extreme measures in dealing with a riot. Southall riots 1976 unrest after the racist killing of Gurdip Singh Chaggar. 31 March 1985. 6 years ago | 234 views. Report. On the other hand, 10 witnesses, some of whom were members of the Anti-Nazi league, the Socialist Workers’ Party and the Southall Rights movement, claimed to have seen him being attacked by the police and suspicion fell on a group of six Special Police Group officers. Two years after his death, a friend of his, Janice Anderson, who he had stayed with on the evening of the 22nd, claimed that he told her that he thought he had been followed by two men in a white car which had later parked near his friend’s home. However, the witnesses initially refused to be interviewed by the police and suggested that a supermarket trolley killed their friend. Youths had made bombs and bottles and bricks were supplied to those who wanted to use them. This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 International license. These were Inspector Alan Murray and constables White, Freestone, Lake, Richardson and Scottow of the 200-man SPG, a cross divisional force. Scotland Yard released the Cass report online in 2010, concluding, but not identifying which, police officers may have killed Peach. Although free speech had been upheld, it had been at a cost, with 340 arrests having been made, mainly for carrying offensive weapons, for attacking the police and for public disorder; 36 police officers had been injured and 21 needed treatment in Ealing Hospital, as did 24 demonstrators. Worse was to come. They also agreed to conceal the presence of a witness. Southall Riots; Rewind to 1979 Documentary about the Southall Riots 1979. Within moments of the police van arriving Mr Peach, a 33-year-old slim, bearded teacher from New Zealand, suffered a blow to the head which fractured his skull and would later kill him. There were many different voices raised in public about the riot; from politicians of all persuasions, moderate and otherwise, Left and Right, and police spokesmen, from people near and far, from those who were there and those who were not, from journalists and many others. A three-decade-long campaign followed, yet, far from secure a prosecution, Mr Peach's family and friends have never even been able to ascertain the exact details of the last moments of his life. Some officers were in danger of being cut off and others used riot shields. Furthermore, in August 76, we saw riots in Notting Hill, then the start of the Grunwick Strike, and in November 1976 birth of Rock against Racism. Amit Roy As Gurdip Singh Chaggar, an eighteen-yearOld Sikh, lay dying outside the Victory public house in Southall, he could not have known that his death would unleash a flurry of racial, political and diplomatic activity. The report describes how, amid the confusion and chaos of a barely-controlled riot, three of the six officers produced suspiciously identical accounts of the day's events, each of them failing to make any mention of the assault on Mr Peach. This was done in order to limit the violence that had already occurred but also increased the frustrations of some among the crowd. Southall murder—cops said it was ‘Just an Asian’ Gurdip Singh Chaggar was fatally stabbed near the Dominion Theatre in Southall, west London, on 4 June 1976. In an interview in 2009 he denied any wrong doing and said he had not seen any of his men attack Peach, though added that it was a very chaotic situation. ‘A large group of youths’ threw stones from Alexandra and Beechcroft Avenues at the police at about 8pm and one officer’s jaw was fractured. One witness said that Officer E got out of the van, waving his truncheon and shouting: "Come on you bastards". They told other witnesses to say nothing to the police until they had a friendly solicitor present. The local youth responded by forming the Southall Youth Movement and organising protests, sit-ins, and demonstrations. Within days of Chaggar’s death, a Southall Youth Movement was launched at the Dominion Theatre. Shops in the Broadway were attacked by some of the crowd and other youths climbed on to shop roof tops. The subject is still a highly emotive one both among residents and those who took part, whether protestors or police officers. I was completely lost and said ‘Because I have asked you politely not to’. Wanted posters were widely distributed to the effect that these half dozen were guilty. 1979 – Southall riots (Southall, West London, England) 1979 – Star Hotel riot (Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia) 1980s. On 23 April it will be the 40th anniversary of the events in Southall in 1979 that were later to be called ‘the Southall riots’. In de wijk staat de grootste gurdwara in Europa. Browse more videos. The Battle of Southall. The fighting began when thousands of protesters gathered to demonstrate against a National Front campaign meeting. In 1976, one of the UK's most important strikes began at Grunwick Photo Processing Plant. To an extent both are true; there were many local people present. Below: Badge art from 1979 The events of 1976; the hostility to Asian refugees, the Grunwick strike, the birth of Southall Youth Movement, riots at Notting Hill carnival, and birth of Rock against Racism are often told separately, as unique events. Very few people were actually at the meeting; about 40 party members, three journalists and a few others. In that month of June 1976, Southall was in shock, and the grief of the community as a whole was palpable when over 1000 people joined in the funeral services of Gurdeep Singh Chaggar. The RAR movement would involve numerous anti-fascist benefit gigs (including a response to the 1979 Southall race riots, where police clashed with anti … Within moments of the police van arriving Mr Peach, a 33-year-old slim, bearded teacher from New Zealand, suffered a blow to the head which fractured his skull and would later kill him. The 1981 Southall riot followed disturbances earlier that year in Brixton and occurred the night before all hell broke loose in Toxteth, Liverpool. His case became a cause celebre for campaigners who had often complained about the heavy-handed tactics of the Special Patrol Group (SPG), an elite unit, which came to consider itself as a separate entity within the Met. 1976: Southall residents riot following the murder of Gurdip Singh Chaggar. There were no Nazi saluting skinheads in the pub. It was the first sustained, widespread, black action in opposition to the regime. Evidence given by the eye witnesses seemed unbelievable to jurors and while police witnesses were at odds with one another, too, there seemed to be no evidence of a conspiracy. The National Front, whose meeting had sparked off these events, may well have been forgotten. 1977: The Battle of Lewisham occurred when the Metropolitan Police attempted to facilitate a march by the National Front; 1979: Southall riots during an Anti-Nazi League demonstration in opposition to the National Front. ... 1986 and 1976 the government passed Race Relations Acts to prevent racial discrimination. Under National Party rule after 1948, African capitalism was to be structured by separate development. A student film-maker needs your support and help in making a short documentary on the Southall Riots (uprisings) of 1981. In 1979 there was a general election approaching and political parties, as always, needed public halls in which to hold their election meetings. Notting Hill race riots. The meeting was over by 9.30pm. Southall Riots -Hambrough Tavern burnt down! The fighting began when thousands of protesters gathered to demonstrate against a National Front campaign meeting. The National Front booked to hold a meeting at Southall Town Hall on 23 April 1979. Jaguar car is stoned and chased by youth after the occupents shouted racist abuse, West London Credit The Battle of Southall. There had previously been race riots in Soweto around 1960, but they were very short-lived. These found that he had no defence injuries, nor that he fell when hit. Want an ad-free experience?Subscribe to Independent Premium. There was other activity elsewhere. Blair Peach died of a head wound in Ealing Hospital just after midnight on 24 April. The 1976 murder of teenager Gurdip Singh Chaggar and the 1979 riots in Southall form the backdrop of acclaimed writer Hanif Kureishi’s political play Borderline. Southall is een wijk in het Londense bestuurlijke gebied Ealing, in de regio Groot-Londen. The far right organised marches and meetings locally, leading to growing tensions and violence, including a racist attack in 1976 that saw 18-year-old student Gurdip Singh Chaggar murdered on Southall High Street. A telegram was even sent to the Prime Minister, James Callaghan, and Home Secretary to intervene in the interests of peace as they were concerned about the possible repercussions. Cops poured into the area and riot vans lined many of the roads. 1976: The Soweto riots A short history of the riots against new education laws that turned into a mass collective rejection of apartheid South Africa by thousands of working class black youths. The investigation, which was kept from public view for 31 years in the vain hope that a prosecution would materialise, also revealed a worrying culture within the SPG. An extreme right-wing organization chose Southall Town Hall to hold its St George's Day election meeting. The group was created following the inaction of community leaders over the alleged racist murder of an 18-year-old Sikh boy. On the day before the meeting there was a peaceful sit-in and local police tried to persuade the protestors that that was all that was needed to register their protest and that a large turn out on the next day might be dangerous, but this advice went unheeded. In 1979, on St George’s Day, the National Front organised a meeting at the Town Hall located at the crossroads at the heart of Southall. It was at this point that 14 witnesses saw an SPG officer hit Mr Peach. There has never been a public inquiry and, despite frequent calls for such, for example in 1999, these were turned down, apparently because of the problem of the time lapse. Many had come for a peaceful protest and sat down at Southall Broadway. Yet Asian leaders feel that the Government has yet to appreciate fully the threat of increased racial conflict. The report paints a picture of an arrogant officer who revelled in the confrontational atmosphere of that night. Night number one was in Southall: Thirty years ago today, on Friday 3 July 1981, several 'Oi' punk bands were set to play a gig in Southall, an area of west London with a large South Asian population. From July into the middle of August, several British cities exploded into violent anger – but each riot had its own distinctive flavour. However, 20 yards behind the front lines were missile throwers. Murray resigned from the force in the following year. Prominent in these were his brother Roy, a New Zealand solicitor, and also Celia Stubbs, a close friend. But yesterday a previously unseen police report provided them with closure, of a sort. The murder of 18 year old Gurdip Singh Chaggar by a gang of racialists on the streets of Southall on June 4 1976. Several thousand local residents turned out in opposition. By the end of 1976 Britain was changing and the everyday racism of the 1970s was being challenged by young people, … He did say please’ and that really was the high point of my part in the early riot’. In accordance with the policy that Africans™ political and economic development was to be confined to the eight (later ten) ethnic ‚homelands™, Although the National Front was legally within its rights and Ealing Council acted within the letter of the law, many were troubled. De Opstand in Soweto op 16 juni 1976 was een belangrijke gebeurtenis in de strijd tegen het Apartheidsbewind in Zuid-Afrika.. Soweto is de afkorting voor South Western Townships, de townships voor de zwarte bevolking ten zuidwesten van Johannesburg.Aanleiding voor de opstand waren de plannen van minister van onderwijs, Andries Treurnicht, om het Afrikaans als algemene onderwijstaal … “Southall, a town that was the destination for a significant numbers of migrants, was a symbol of everything they resented. Arrests were made from a house in Park View Road, which was the headquarters of People’s Unite Community Affairs. Southall riots.Asian protestors. The politician Ken Livingstone also claimed he knew the names of two officers, one of which was the killer but he refused to say who they were. An Ealing resident complained that he and his wife were verbally abused by police officers and were even threatened with arrest. The August 2011 riots in London prompted many commentators to look back on previous riots in the city and the country to see what common threads, if any, run through outbreaks of public disorder. Some of the National Front members appeared on the steps of the town hall and made insulting gestures, and shouted: ‘The reds, the reds, we’ve got to get rid of the reds’. On 23 April, 1979, The National Front chose Southall Town Hall for its St George's Day election meeting. The population of Southall contained a very high number of people from the Indian subcontinent and, to a lesser extent, from Africa and the West Indies. There was also a stewards’ meeting about tactics attended by the younger protestors. The meeting took place in a very small room in the town hall, one usually used for wedding receptions and parties. Playing next. Ealing Police broke up a massive street fight involving 40 men brandishing swords and bottles in west London this morning and arrested two men in St John's Road, Southall after melee. There is a photograph showing a young Suresh Grover and his friend writing ‘this … The strike was the first dispute where a majority of the strikers belonged to ethnic minorities. The Riots of 1981: Popular Violence and the Politics of Law and Order CLIVE UNSWORTH* But the more these conscious illusions of the ruling classes are shown to be false and the less they satisfy common sense, the more dogmati-cally they are asserted and the more deceitful, moralizing and spiritual becomes the language of established society. Find your bookmarks in your Independent Premium section, under my profile. The extreme right-wing organisation had chosen Southall Town Hall to hold its St George's Day election meeting. Cass also suggested that officers had altered their appearances, growing beards and shaving moustaches, to hamper the investigation by making identity parades more difficult. 1980 – Geen Woning Geen Kroning (Amsterdam, the Netherlands) 1980 – New Mexico State Penitentiary Riot (Santa Fe, New Mexico, United States) 1980 – Arthur McDuffie riots, May 1980 (Miami, United States) Many like the three people quoted in this article remain living in Ealing. Campaigners to call for a new inquiry into the teacher’s death in 1979 when riot police charged at protesters in west London ... racist gang in 1976. Indians sit down protest. Two activists working with the legacy of these events reflect on the importance of archival images in recording underrepresented histories This was clearly meant to be a provocative gesture and one which it presumably hoped would gain it maximum publicity. There was also a great deal of damage to shops in Southall, perhaps resulting in £30,000 worth of damage. The far right organised marches and meetings locally, leading to growing tensions and violence, including a racist attack in 1976 that saw 18-year-old student Gurdip Singh Chaggar murdered on Southall High Street. There were various groups set up titled Friends of Blair Peach and the New Zealand Friends of Blair Peach and there have been marches on the anniversaries of his death and his name became a synonym for police brutality. A National Front supporter was found beaten up near Southall railway station. !or a start, it focused sharply on the widening generation —and cultural—gap between Y.°1-ing Asians and their parents. The Soweto riots of 1976 were the start of a very long period of serious urban unrest in South Africa in opposition to the system. A bus was attacked and boarded and police arrested selected individuals and put them under arrest in vans. Responses, riots and protests. If your symptoms get worse or you are w…, Volunteers asked to rise up for research project, Avoiding the 'cliff edge' for rough sleepers, How stolen, precious pottery item was found again, Accessibility statement for EalingNewsExtra, Register for free email updates from Ealing News Extra, Southall Rising project and exhibition to mark 40th anniversary of, Southall councillor’s personal reflection on 40th anniversary of riot, Project charts Southall’s rising up from troubled times, New affordable homes in the pipeline as Perceval House development secures planning approval, Step into Science Week – fun family experiments, Film tells how Ealing was ‘cradle of British rock’. “Southall, a town that was the destination for a significant numbers of migrants, was a symbol of everything they resented. He was politically active, being a member of the Socialist Workers’ Party and the Anti-Nazi League; both groups being prominently involved in Southall on the 23rd. Southall is, and was at the time, an ethnically diverse area of the London borough of Ealing. In 1976, a young Southallian named Gurdip Singh Chagger was stabbed to death by a group of white youths outside the Dominion Cinema and the headquarters of the IWA. Depa Singhx, 39, was given the £10,000 fixed penalty notice for organising the rally in Southall, West London, on Sunday, in which 4,000 people protested against Indian farming reforms. Collette Poirier. After the lid was finally blown off Brixton in April 1981, the late Sir Ronald Bell appeared on BBC’s ‘Nationwide’ to explain that Afro-Caribbean youth’s ‘rootlessness’ was the principal cause of the riots. The traditional leadership provided by the elders o Southall riots 1976 unrest after the racist killing of Gurdip Singh Chaggar. Commander Cass wrote: "No officer has admitted striking Clement Blair Peach either deliberately, accidentally, or given an account which would indicate that he may have done so without realising it. Start your Independent Premium subscription today. Many self-identifying skinheads at the time either grew up poor in government housing projects or “uncool” in suburban row houses and felt isolated from the hippie movement, whose members they believed embodied a middle-class worldview — and one that didn’t address their unique concerns. Those protesting at the election meeting numbered perhaps 3,000 and were mostly from Southall, though some came from elsewhere in London and from other nearby towns such as Slough. ... Southall in west London has a large and thriving south Asian population. Lord Simon Woolley from @opblackvote wants to hear from ordinary people in, Plans to replace the council's HQ with a new civic hub incl smaller, more efficient council offices, library, cust…, An Officer F was suspended after the investigation team found a lead cosh and a whip in his locker. Some contacted the council and asked them to retract their consent, though this would have been illegal. The release of the documents is bittersweet, however, because, failing a confession, no-one will ever face prosecution over Mr Peach's death. Southall gained a reputation as the Asian community’s equivalent of Brixton with the racist murder of Gurdip Singh Chaggar in 1976, the death of the protester Blair Peach following a National Front meeting in 1979 and the Southall riots of 1981. Follow. Chief among the culprits was Officer E – the man identified as being most likely to have struck the fatal blow. Over 2700 police involved, including the Special Patrol Group and 2000+ demonstrators. The police were reinforced and then cleared the roads of the stone throwers. No one has ever been charged with his death, though in recent years the Metropolitan Police has said that one of its officers dealt the fatal blow, but this man has never been identified. He grew up near Southall and is making a short documentary on the Southall Riots (uprisings) and the events that led up to it on that day, Friday 03rd July 1981. Hundreds of people gathered outside the historic Southall Town Hall on Saturday to mark the death of teenager Gurdip Singh Chaggar and the race-fuelled riots in …
Sikhism (/ˈsɪkɪzəm/); Punjabi: ਸਿੱਖੀ or Sikhi (Sikkhī, [ˈsɪkːʰiː], from ਸਿੱਖ, Sikh, 'disciple', 'seeker', or 'learner'),[i] is a monotheistic and panentheistic religion that originated in the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent[ii] around the end of the 15th century CE.[1][2][3][4][5][6] Sikhism is one of the youngest of the major religions and the world's fifth-largest organized religion,[7] with about 30 million Sikhs as of the early-21st century.[8][9] However, according to rough estimates, there are around 120–150 million (12–15 crore) Nanak Naam Lewas people across the world who also believe in 10 Sikh Gurus and Guru Granth Sahib.[10]
Symbol of Sikhism
Sikhism developed from the spiritual teachings of Guru Nanak, the first Guru (1469–1539),[11] and of the nine Sikh gurus who succeeded him. The tenth guru, Gobind Singh (1666–1708), named the Sikh scripture Guru Granth Sahib as his successor, bringing to a close the line of human gurus and establishing the scripture as the eternal, religious spiritual guide for Sikhs.[12][13][14] Guru Nanak taught that living an "active, creative, and practical life" of "truthfulness, fidelity, self-control and purity" is above metaphysical truth, and that the ideal man "establishes union with God, knows His Will, and carries out that Will".[15] Guru Hargobind, the sixth Sikh Guru (1606–1644), established the concept of mutual co-existence of the miri (political/temporal) and piri (spiritual) realms.[16]
The Sikh scripture opens with the Mul Mantar (ਮੂਲ ਮੰਤਰ), fundamental prayer about ik onkar (ੴ, 'One God').[17][18] The core beliefs of Sikhism, articulated in the Guru Granth Sahib, include faith and meditation on the name of the one creator; divine unity and equality of all humankind; engaging in seva ('selfless service'); striving for justice for the benefit and prosperity of all; and honest conduct and livelihood while living a householder's life.[19][20][21] Following this standard, Sikhism rejects claims that any particular religious tradition has a monopoly on Absolute Truth.[iii][22]
Sikhism emphasizes simran (ਸਿਮਰਨ, meditation and remembrance of the words of God),[23] which can be expressed musically through kirtan, or internally through naam japna ('meditation on His name') as a means to feel God's presence. It teaches followers to transform the "Five Thieves" (i.e. lust, rage, greed, attachment, and ego).[24]
The religion developed and evolved in times of religious persecution, gaining converts from both Hinduism and Islam.[25] Mughal rulers of India tortured and executed two of the Sikh gurus—Guru Arjan (1563–1605) and Guru Tegh Bahadur (1621–1675)—after they refused to convert to Islam.[26][27][28][29][30] The persecution of Sikhs triggered the founding of the Khalsa by Guru Gobind Singh in 1699 as an order to protect the freedom of conscience and religion,[26][31] with members expressing the qualities of a Sant-Sipāhī—a 'saint-soldier'.[32][33]
Contents
1 Terminology
2 Philosophy and teachings
2.1 Concept of God
2.2 Worldly Illusion
2.3 Timeless Truth
2.4 Liberation
2.5 Power and Devotion (Shakti and Bhakti)
2.6 Singing and Music
2.7 Remembrance of the Divine Name
2.8 Service and Action
2.9 Justice and Equality
2.10 Ten Gurus and Authority
3 Scripture
3.1 Adi Granth
3.2 Guru Granth Sahib
3.2.1 Compilation
3.2.2 Language and script
3.2.3 Teachings
3.2.4 As guru
3.2.5 Relation to Hinduism and Islam
3.3 Dasam Granth
3.4 Janamsakhis
4 Observances
4.1 Sikh festivals/events
4.2 Ceremonies and customs
4.3 Initiation and the Khalsa
5 History
5.1 Historical influences
5.2 Growth of Sikhism
5.3 Political advancement
5.3.1 Sikh confederacy and the rise of the Khalsa
5.3.2 Singh Sabha movement
5.3.3 Partition of India
5.3.4 Khalistan
6 Sikh people
6.1 Sikh sects
6.2 Sikh castes
6.3 Sikh diaspora
7 Prohibitions in Sikhism
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
11 Further reading
12 External links
Terminology
The majority of Sikh scriptures were originally written in the alphabet of Gurmukhī, a script standardised by Guru Angad out of Laṇḍā scripts historically used in present-day Pakistan and North India.[34][35] Adherents of Sikhism are known as Sikhs, meaning 'students' or 'disciples' of the Guru. The anglicised word Sikhism derives from the Punjabi verb Sikhi, which connotes the "temporal path of learning" and is rooted in the word sikhana ('to learn').[36][37]
Philosophy and teachings
Main article: Ik Onkar
A Sikh can be defined as any human being who faithfully believes in:[38]
i. One Formless Being
ii. Ten Gurus, from Guru Nanak Sahib to Guru Gobind Singh Sahib,
iii. The Guru Granth Sahib,
iv. The utterances and teachings of the ten Gurus and
v. the baptism bequeathed by the tenth Guru, and who does not owe allegiance to any other religion, is a Sikh.
Sikhism is classified as an Indian religion along with Buddhism, Hinduism, and Jainism.[iv][v][39]
The basis of Sikhism lies in the teachings of Guru Nanak and his successors. Sikh ethics emphasize the congruence between spiritual development and everyday moral conduct. Its founder Guru Nanak summarized this perspective as: "Truth is the highest virtue, but higher still is truthful living."[40]:234 Sikhism lays emphasis on Ėk nūr te sab jag upjiā, 'From the one light, the entire universe welled up.'[citation needed]
Concept of God
Some sources call Sikhism a monotheistic religion,[41][42] while others call it a monistic and panentheistic religion.[6][3][4] According to Nesbitt (2005), English renderings of Sikhism as a monotheistic religion "tend misleadingly to reinforce a Semitic understanding of monotheism, rather than Guru Nanak's mystical awareness of the one that is expressed through the many. However, what is not in doubt is the emphasis on 'one'."[2]
In Sikhism, the overall concept of God is Waheguru ('wondrous Teacher') considered to be nirankar ('shapeless'), akal ('timeless'), karta purakh ('the creator'), and agam agochar ('incomprehensible and invisible').[43]
God has no gender in Sikhism, though translations may present God as masculine. It is also akaal purkh ('beyond time and space') and nirankar ('without form'). In addition, Nanak wrote that there are many worlds on which it has created life.[44]
The Sikh scripture begins with God as ik onkar (ੴ), the 'formless one',[18][40]:227 understood in the Sikh tradition as monotheistic unity of God.[45] Ik onkar (sometimes capitalized) is more loosely rendered 'the one supreme reality', 'the one creator', 'the all-pervading spirit', and other ways of expressing a diffused but unified and singular sense of God and creation.[46]
The traditional Mul Mantar goes from ik onkar until Nanak hosee bhee sach.[clarification needed] The opening line of the Guru Granth Sahib and each subsequent raga, mentions ik onkar:[47]
ੴ ਸਤਿ ਨਾਮੁ ਕਰਤਾ ਪੁਰਖੁ ਨਿਰਭਉ ਨਿਰਵੈਰੁ ਅਕਾਲ ਮੂਰਤਿ ਅਜੂਨੀ ਸੈਭੰ ਗੁਰ ਪ੍ਰਸਾਦਿ॥
ikk ōankār sat(i)-nām(u) karatā purakh(u) nirabha'u niravair(u) akāl(a) mūrat(i) ajūnī saibhan gur(a) prasād(i).
"There is one supreme being, the eternal reality, the creator, without fear and devoid of enmity, immortal, never incarnated, self-existent, known by grace through the true Guru."
—Guru Granth Sahib (17th c.), p. 1
Worldly Illusion
Māyā, defined as a temporary illusion or "unreality", is one of the core deviations from the pursuit of God and salvation: where worldly attractions give only illusory temporary satisfaction and pain that distracts from the process of the devotion of God. However, Nanak emphasised māyā as not a reference to the unreality of the world, but of its values. In Sikhism, the influences of ego, anger, greed, attachment, and lust, known as the pānj chor ('five thieves'), are believed to be particularly distracting and hurtful. Sikhs believe the world is currently in a state of kali yuga ('age of darkness') because the world is led astray by the love of and attachment to maya.[48] The fate of people vulnerable to the five thieves, is separation from God, and the situation may be remedied only after intensive and relentless devotion.[49]
Timeless Truth
An Akali-Nihung Sikh Warrior at Harmandir Sahib, also called the Golden Temple
According to Guru Nanak, the supreme purpose of human life is to reconnect with Akal ('The Timeless One'), however, egotism is the biggest barrier in making this connection. Using the Guru's teaching remembrance of nām (the divine Name of the Lord)[50][51] leads to the end of egotism. Guru Nanak designated the word Guru ('teacher')[52] to mean the voice of "the spirit": the source of knowledge and the guide to salvation.[53] As ik onkar is universally immanent, Guru is indistinguishable from Akal and are one and the same.[54] One connects with Guru only with accumulation of selfless search of truth.[55] Ultimately the seeker realises that it is the consciousness within the body which is the seeker/follower of the Word that is the true Guru. The human body is just a means to achieve the reunion with Truth.[54] Once truth starts to shine in a person's heart, the essence of current and past holy books of all religions is understood by the person.[56]
Liberation
Guru Nanak's teachings are founded not on a final destination of heaven or hell, but on a spiritual union with the Akal, which results in salvation or jivanmukti ('enlightenment/liberation within one's lifetime'),[57] a concept also found in Hinduism.[58] Guru Gobind Singh makes it clear that human birth is obtained with great fortune, therefore one needs to be able to make the most of this life.[59]
Sikhs accept reincarnation and karma concepts found in Buddhism, Hinduism, and Jainism, but do not necessarily infer a metaphysical soteriology akin to those found in those other religions.[clarification needed][59][60][61] However, in Sikhism, both karma and liberation "is modified by the concept of God's grace" (nadar, mehar, kirpa, karam, etc.).[58] Guru Nanak states that "the body takes birth because of karma, but salvation is attained through grace."[62] To get closer to God, Sikhs: avoid the evils of maya; keep the everlasting truth in mind; practice shabad kirtan (musical recitation of hymns); meditate on naam; and serve humanity. Sikhs believe that being in the company of the satsang (association with sat, 'true', people) or sadh sangat is one of the key ways to achieve liberation from the cycles of reincarnation.[63]
Power and Devotion (Shakti and Bhakti)
See also: Bhakti
Sikhism was influenced by the Bhakti movement,[vi][vii][viii] but it was not simply an extension of Bhakti.[64]
Guru Nanak, the first Sikh Guru and the founder of Sikhism, was a Bhakti saint.[65] He taught that the most important form of worship is Bhakti (devotion to Bhagvan).[66] Guru Arjan, in the Sukhmani Sahib, recommended the true religion is one of loving devotion to God.[67][68] The Guru Granth Sahib includes suggestions on how a Sikh should perform constant Bhakti.[66][69][70] Some scholars call Sikhism a Bhakti sect of Indian traditions,[71][72] adding that it emphasises "nirguni Bhakti," i.e. loving devotion to a divine without qualities or physical form.[72]:1–3[73][74] While Western scholarship generally places Sikhism as arising primarily within a Hindu Bhakti movement milieu while recognizing some Sufi Islamic influences,[75][76]:3, 42–3 some Indian Sikh scholars disagree and state that Sikhism transcended the environment it emerged from. The basis of the latter analysis is that Bhakti traditions did not clearly disassociate from Vedic texts and their cosmologies and metaphysical worldview, while the Sikh tradition clearly did disassociate from the Vedic tradition.[64]
Some Sikh sects outside the Punjab region of India, such as those found in Maharashtra and Bihar, practice aarti (the ceremonial use of lamps) during Bhakti observances in a Sikh gurdwara.[77][78] But, most Sikh gurdwaras forbid aarti during their Bhakti practices.[76]:201
While emphasizing Bhakti, the Sikh gurus also taught that the spiritual life and secular householder life are intertwined, and not separate. This logically follows from the panentheistic nature of Sikh philosophy.[79] In Sikh worldview, the everyday world is part of the Infinite Reality, increased spiritual awareness leads to increased and vibrant participation in the everyday world.[80] Guru Nanak described living an "active, creative, and practical life" of "truthfulness, fidelity, self-control and purity" as being higher than the metaphysical truth.[81]
The 6th Sikh Guru, Guru Hargobind, after Guru Arjan martyrdom and faced with oppression by the Islamic Mughal Empire, affirmed the philosophy that the political/temporal (Miri) and spiritual (Piri) realms are mutually coexistent.[82][83] According to the 9th Sikh Guru, Tegh Bahadur, the ideal Sikh should have both Shakti (power that resides in the temporal), and Bhakti (spiritual meditative qualities). This was developed into the concept of the "saint soldier" by the 10th Sikh Guru, Gobind Singh.[83]
The concept of man as elaborated by Guru Nanak refines and negates the "monotheistic concept of self/God", and "monotheism becomes almost redundant in the movement and crossings of love."[84] The goal of man, taught the Sikh gurus, is to end all dualities of "self and other, I and not-I", attain the "attendant balance of separation-fusion, self-other, action-inaction, attachment-detachment, in the course of daily life".[84]
Singing and Music
Sikhs refer to the hymns of the gurus as Gurbani ('Guru's word'). Shabad Kirtan is the singing of Gurbani. The entire verses of Guru Granth Sahib are written in a form of poetry and rhyme to be recited in thirty-one Ragas of the Classical Indian Music as specified. However, the exponents of these are rarely to be found amongst the Sikhs who are conversant with all the Ragas in the Guru Granth Sahib. Guru Nanak started the Shabad Kirtan tradition and taught that listening to kirtan is a powerful way to achieve tranquility while meditating; Singing of the glories of the Supreme Timeless One (God) with devotion is the most effective way to come in communion with the Supreme Timeless One.[85] The three morning prayers for Sikhs consist of Japji Sahib, Jaap Sahib, and Tav-Prasad Savaiye.[86] Baptised Sikhs (Amritdharis) rise early and meditate, then recite all the Five Banis of Nitnem, before breakfast.
Remembrance of the Divine Name
A key practice by Sikhs is remembrance[51] of the Naam (divine name) Waheguru.[50] This contemplation is done through Nām Japna (repetition of the divine name) or Naam Simran (remembrance of the divine Name through recitation).[51][87] The verbal repetition of the name of God or a sacred syllable has been an ancient established practice in religious traditions in India, however, Sikhism developed Naam-simran as an important Bhakti practice.[88][89][90] Guru Nanak's ideal is the total exposure of one's being to the divine Name and a total conforming to Dharma or the "Divine Order". Nanak described the result of the disciplined application of nām simraṇ as a "growing towards and into God" through a gradual process of five stages. The last of these is Sach Khaṇḍ (The Realm of Truth) – the final union of the spirit with God.[53]
Service and Action
The Sikh gurus taught that by constantly remembering the divine name (naam simran) and through selfless service, or sēvā, the devotee overcomes egotism (Haumai). This, it states, is the primary root of five evil impulses and the cycle of birth and death.[91][92]
Service in Sikhism takes three forms: Tan (physical service, i.e. labor), Man (mental service, such as studying to help others), and Dhan (material service, including financial support).[93] Sikhism stresses kirat karō: that is "honest work". Sikh teachings also stress the concept of sharing, or vaṇḍ chakkō, giving to the needy for the benefit of the community.[94]
Justice and Equality
Sikhism regards God as the true king, the king of all kings, the one who dispenses justice through the law of karma, a retributive model and divine grace.[95][32][33]
The term for justice in the Sikh tradition is niau.[95] It is related to the term dharam which in Sikhism connotes 'moral order' and righteousness (derived from but become distinct from the etymologically related Hindu concept of dharma).[95] According to the Tenth Sikh Guru Guru Gobind Singh, states Pashaura Singh (a professor of Sikh studies), "one must first try all the peaceful means of negotiation in the pursuit of justice" and if these fail then it is legitimate to "draw the sword in defense of righteousness".[96] Sikhism considers "an attack on dharam is an attack on justice, on righteousness, and on the moral order generally" and the dharam "must be defended at all costs".[97] The divine name is its antidote for pain and vices. Forgiveness is taught as a virtue in Sikhism, yet it also teaches its faithful to shun those with evil intentions and to pick up the sword to fight injustice and religious persecution.[98]
Sikhism does not differentiate religious obligations by gender. God in Sikhism has no gender, and the Sikh scripture does not discriminate against women, nor bar them from any roles.[99] Women in Sikhism have been in positions of leadership, including leading in wars and issued orders or hukamnamas.[100][99][101]
Ten Gurus and Authority
Main article: Sikh gurus
A rare Tanjore-style painting from the late 19th century depicting the ten Sikh Gurus with Bhai Bala and Bhai Mardana
The term Guru comes from the Sanskrit gurū, meaning teacher, enlightener, guide, or mentor. The traditions and philosophy of Sikhism were established by ten Gurus from 1469 to 1708.[102][103] Each Guru added to and reinforced the message taught by the previous, resulting in the creation of the Sikh religion. Guru Nanak was the first Guru and appointed a disciple as successor. Guru Gobind Singh was the final Guru in human form. Before his death, Guru Gobind Singh decreed in 1708, that the Gurū Granth Sāhib would be the final and perpetual Guru of the Sikhs.[14]
Guru Nanak stated that his Guru is God who is the same from the beginning of time to the end of time.[104] Nanak claimed to be God's mouthpiece, God's slave and servant, but maintained that he was only a guide and teacher.[105][106] Nanak stated that the human Guru is mortal, who is to be respected and loved but not worshipped.[105] When Guru, or SatGuru (The true Guru) is used in Gurbani it is often referring to the highest expression of truthfulness – God.[107]
Guru Angad succeeded Guru Nanak. Later, an important phase in the development of Sikhism came with the third successor, Guru Amar Das. Guru Nanak's teachings emphasised the pursuit of salvation; Guru Amar Das began building a cohesive community of followers with initiatives such as sanctioning distinctive ceremonies for birth, marriage, and death. Amar Das also established the manji (comparable to a diocese) system of clerical supervision.[53]
Guru Amar Das's successor and son-in-law Guru Ram Das founded the city of Amritsar, which is home of the Harimandir Sahib and regarded widely as the holiest city for all Sikhs. Guru Arjan was arrested by Mughal authorities who were suspicious and hostile to the religious order he was developing.[108] His persecution and death inspired his successors to promote a military and political organization of Sikh communities to defend themselves against the attacks of Mughal forces.
The interior of the Akal Takht
The Sikh gurus established a mechanism which allowed the Sikh religion to react as a community to changing circumstances. The sixth guru, Guru Hargobind, was responsible for the creation of the concept of Akal Takht (throne of the timeless one), which serves as the supreme decision-making centre of Sikhism and sits opposite the Harmandir Sahib. The Akal Takht is located in the city of Amritsar. The leader is appointed by the Shiromani Gurdwara Pabandhak Committee (SPGC). The Sarbat Ḵẖālsā (a representative portion of the Khalsa Panth) historically gathers at the Akal Takht on special festivals such as Vaisakhi or Hola Mohalla and when there is a need to discuss matters that affect the entire Sikh nation. A gurmatā (literally, 'guru's intention') is an order passed by the Sarbat Ḵẖālsā in the presence of the Gurū Granth Sāhib. A gurmatā may only be passed on a subject that affects the fundamental principles of Sikh religion; it is binding upon all Sikhs.[109] The term hukamnāmā (literally, 'edict' or 'royal order') is often used interchangeably with the term gurmatā. However, a hukamnāmā formally refers to a hymn from the Gurū Granth Sāhib which is given order to Sikhs.
{ |class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" |- ! class="navbox-title" |Chronology of the ten Sikh gurus |- |
Graph showing Life Spans and Guruship Spans of Sikh Gurus
Approximate Life Spans and Guruship Spans of the 10 Sikh Gurus
|}
The word guru in Sikhism also refers to Akal Purkh (God), and God and guru can sometimes be synonymous in Gurbani (Sikh writings).[102][110]
Scripture
There is one primary scripture for the Sikhs: the Gurū Granth Sāhib. It is sometimes synonymously referred to as the Ādi Granth.[111] Chronologically, however, the Ādi Granth – literally, 'First Volume' – refers to the version of the scripture created by Guru Arjan in 1604.[112] The Gurū Granth Sāhib is the final expanded version of the scripture compiled by Guru Gobind Singh.[111][113] While the Guru Granth Sahib is an unquestioned scripture in Sikhism, another important religious text, the Dasam Granth, does not enjoy universal consensus, but is considered a secondary scripture by many Sikhs.[111]
Adi Granth
Main article: Ādi Granth
The Ādi Granth was compiled primarily by Bhai Gurdas under the supervision of Guru Arjan between the years 1603 and 1604.[114] It is written in the Gurmukhī script, which is a descendant of the Laṇḍā script used in the Punjab at that time.[115] The Gurmukhī script was standardised by Guru Angad, the second guru of the Sikhs, for use in the Sikh scriptures and is thought to have been influenced by the Śāradā and Devanāgarī scripts. An authoritative scripture was created to protect the integrity of hymns and teachings of the Sikh Gurus, and thirteen Hindu and two Muslim bhagats of the Bhakti movement sant tradition in medieval India.[116] The thirteen Hindu bhagats whose teachings were entered into the text included Ramananda, Namdev, Pipa, Ravidas, Beni, Bhikhan, Dhanna, Jaidev, Parmanand, Sadhana, Sain, Sur, Trilochan, while the two Muslim bhagats were Kabir and Sufi saint Farid.[117][118][119][120] However, the bhagats in context often spoke of transcending their religious labels, Kabir often attributed to being a Muslim states in the Adi Granth, "I am not Hindu nor Muslim."[121] The Gurus following on this message taught that different methods of devotion are for the same infinite God.[122]
Guru Granth Sahib
Gurū Granth Sāhib – the primary scripture of Sikhism
Main article: Gurū Granth Sāhib
The Guru Granth Sahib is the holy scripture of the Sikhs, and is regarded as the living Guru.
Compilation
The Guru Granth started as a volume of Guru Nanak's poetic compositions. Prior to his death, he passed on his volume to Guru Angad (Guru 1539–1551). The final version of the Gurū Granth Sāhib was compiled by Guru Gobind Singh in 1678. It consists of the original Ādi Granth with the addition of Guru Tegh Bahadur's hymns. The predominant bulk of Guru Granth Sahib is compositions by seven Sikh Gurus – Guru Nanak, Guru Angad, Guru Amar Das, Guru Ram Das, Guru Arjan, Guru Teg Bahadur and Guru Gobind Singh. It also contains the traditions and teachings of thirteen Hindu Bhakti movement sants (saints) such as Ramananda, Namdev among others, and two Muslim saints namely Kabir and the Sufi Sheikh Farid.[117][53]
The text comprises 6,000 śabads (line compositions),[111] which are poetically rendered and set to rhythmic ancient north Indian classical music.[123] The bulk of the scripture is classified into sixty rāgas, with each Granth rāga subdivided according to length and author. The hymns in the scripture are arranged primarily by the rāgas in which they are read.[111]
Language and script
Mul Mantar written by Guru Har Rai, showing the Ik Onkar at top.
The main language used in the scripture is known as Sant Bhāṣā, a language related to both Punjabi and Hindi and used extensively across medieval northern India by proponents of popular devotional religion (bhakti).[124] The text is printed in Gurumukhi script, believed to have been developed by Guru Angad,[111] but it shares the Indo-European roots found in numerous regional languages of India.[125]
Teachings
A group of Sikh musicians at the Golden Temple complex
The vision in the Guru Granth Sahib, states Torkel Brekke, is a society based on divine justice without oppression of any kind.[126]
The Granth begins with the Mūl Mantra, an iconic verse which received Guru Nanak directly from Akal Purakh (God). The traditional Mul Mantar goes from Ik Oankar until Nanak Hosee Bhee Sach.
One God exists, truth by name, creative power, without fear, without enmity, timeless form, unborn, self-existent, by the Guru's grace.[127]
(Punjabi: ੴ ਸਤਿ ਨਾਮੁ ਕਰਤਾ ਪੁਰਖੁ ਨਿਰਭਉ ਨਿਰਵੈਰੁ ਅਕਾਲ ਮੂਰਤਿ ਅਜੂਨੀ ਸੈਭੰ ਗੁਰ ਪ੍ਰਸਾਦਿ ॥, romanized: Ika ōaṅkāra sati nāmu karatā purakhu nirabha'u niravairu akāla mūrati ajūnī saibhaṅ gura prasādi)
As guru
The Tenth Guru, Guru Gobind Singh ji, named the Sikh scripture Guru Granth Sahib as his successor, terminating the line of human Gurus and making the scripture the literal embodiment of the eternal, impersonal Guru, where Gods/Gurus word serves as the spiritual guide for Sikhs.[12][13][14][128]
All Sikhs are commanded to take the Granth as Guru
(Punjabi: ਸੱਬ ਸਿੱਖਣ ਕੋ ਹੁਕਮ ਹੈ ਗੁਰੂ ਮਾਨਯੋ ਗ੍ਰੰਥ ।, romanized: Sabb sikkhaṇ kō hukam hai gurū mānyō granth)
The Guru Granth Sahib is installed in Sikh Gurdwara (temple); many Sikhs bow or prostrate before it on entering the temple. The Guru Granth Sahib is installed every morning and put to bed at night in many Gurdwaras.[129] The Granth is revered as eternal gurbānī and the spiritual authority.[130]
The copies of the Guru Granth Sahib are not regarded as material objects, but as living subjects which are alive.[131] According to Myrvold, the Sikh scripture is treated with respect like a living person, in a manner similar to the Gospel in early Christian worship. Old copies of the Sikh scripture are not thrown away, rather funerary services are performed.[131]
In India the Guru Granth Sahib is even officially recognised by the Supreme Court of India as a judicial person which can receive donations and own land.[131] Yet, some Sikhs also warn that, without true comprehension of the text, veneration for the text can lead to bibliolatry, with the concrete form of the teachings becoming the object of worship instead of the teachings themselves.[131]
Relation to Hinduism and Islam
Main articles: Sikhism and Hinduism and Islam and Sikhism
The Sikh scriptures use Hindu terminology, with references to the Vedas, and the names of gods and goddesses in Hindu bhakti movement traditions, such as Vishnu, Shiva, Brahma, Parvati, Lakshmi, Saraswati, Rama, Krishna, but not to worship.[126][132][self-published source][133] It also refers to the spiritual concepts in Hinduism (Ishvara, Bhagavan, Brahman) and the concept of God in Islam (Allah) to assert that these are just "alternate names for the Almighty One".[134]
While the Guru Granth Sahib acknowledges the Vedas, Puranas and Qur'an,[135] it does not imply a syncretic bridge between Hinduism and Islam,[136] but emphasises focusing on nitnem banis like Japu (repeating mantra of the divine Name of God – WaheGuru), instead of Muslim practices such as circumcision or praying on a carpet, or Hindu rituals such as wearing thread.[137]
Dasam Granth
The Dasam Granth is a Sikh scripture which contains texts attributed to Guru Gobind Singh, including his autobiography Bachittar Natak. The major narrative in the text is on Chaubis Avtar (24 Avatars of Hindu god Vishnu), Rudra, Brahma, the Hindu warrior goddess Chandi and a story of Rama in Bachittar Natak.[138]
Main article: Dasam Granth
The Dasam Granth is a scripture of Sikhs which contains texts attributed to the Guru Gobind Singh. The Dasam Granth is important to a great number of Sikhs, however it does not have the same authority as the Guru Granth Sahib. Some compositions of the Dasam Granth like Jaap Sahib, (Amrit Savaiye), and Benti Chaupai are part of the daily prayers (Nitnem) for Sikhs.[139] The first verse of the ardās prayer is from Chandi di Var. The Dasam Granth is largely versions of Hindu mythology from the Puranas, secular stories from a variety of sources called Charitro Pakhyan – tales to protect careless men from perils of lust.[140][141]
Five versions of Dasam Granth exist, and the authenticity of the Dasam Granth has in modern times become one of the most debated topics within Sikhism. The text played a significant role in Sikh history, but in modern times parts of the text have seen antipathy and discussion among Sikhs.[138]
Janamsakhis
Main article: Janamsākhīs
The Janamsākhīs (literally birth stories), are writings which profess to be biographies of Guru Nanak. Although not scripture in the strictest sense, they provide a hagiographic look at Guru Nanak's life and the early start of Sikhism. There are several – often contradictory and sometimes unreliable – Janamsākhīs and they are not held in the same regard as other sources of scriptural knowledge.
Observances
The Darbar Sahib of a Gurdwara
Observant Sikhs adhere to long-standing practices and traditions to strengthen and express their faith. The daily recitation of the divine name of God VaheGuru and from a memory of specific passages from the Gurū Granth Sāhib, like the Japu (or Japjī, literally chant) hymns is recommended immediately after rising and bathing. Baptized Sikhs recite the five-morning prayers, the evening and night prayer. Family customs include both reading passages from the scripture and attending the gurdwara (also gurduārā, meaning the doorway to God; sometimes transliterated as Gurudwara). There are many gurdwaras prominently constructed and maintained across India, as well as in almost every nation where Sikhs reside. Gurdwaras are open to all, regardless of religion, background, caste, or race.
Worship in a gurdwara consists chiefly of the singing of passages from the scripture. Sikhs will commonly enter the gurdwara, touch the ground before the holy scripture with their foreheads. The recitation of the eighteenth century ardās is also customary for attending Sikhs. The ardās recalls past sufferings and glories of the community, invoking divine grace for all humanity.[142]
The gurdwara is also the location for the historic Sikh practice of "Langar" or the community meal. All gurdwaras are open to anyone of any faith for a free meal, always vegetarian.[143] People eat together, and the kitchen is maintained and serviced by Sikh community volunteers.[144]
Sikh festivals/events
Guru Amar Das chose festivals for celebration by Sikhs like Vaisakhi, wherein he asked Sikhs to assemble and share the festivities as a community.[145][146]
Vaisakhi is one of the most important festivals of Sikhs, while other significant festivals commemorate the birth, lives of the Gurus and Sikh martyrs. Historically, these festivals have been based on the moon calendar Bikrami calendar.[147] In 2003, the SGPC, the Sikh organisation in charge of upkeep of the historical gurdwaras of Punjab, adopted Nanakshahi calendar.[147] The new calendar is highly controversial among Sikhs and is not universally accepted. Sikh festivals include the following:
Vaisakhi which includes Parades and Nagar Kirtan and occurs on 13 April or 14 April. Sikhs celebrate it because on this day, which fell on 30 March 1699, the tenth Guru, Gobind Singh, inaugurated the Khalsa, the 11th body of Guru Granth Sahib and leader of Sikhs until eternity.
Nagar Kirtan involves the processional singing of holy hymns throughout a community. While practiced at any time, it is customary in the month of Visakhi (or Vaisakhi). Traditionally, the procession is led by the saffron-robed Panj Piare (the five beloved of the Guru), who are followed by the Guru Granth Sahib, the holy Sikh scripture, which is placed on a float.
Nagar Kirtan crowd listening to Kirtan at Yuba City, California.
Band Chor Diwas has been another important Sikh festival in its history.[148] In recent years, instead of Diwali, the post-2003 calendar released by SGPC has named it the Bandi Chhor divas.[149] Sikhs celebrate Guru Hargobind's release from the Gwalior Fort, with several innocent Raja kings who were also imprisoned by Mughal Emperor Jahangir in 1619. This day continues to be commemorated on the same day of Hindu festival of Diwali, with lights, fireworks and festivities.
Hola Mohalla is a tradition started by Guru Gobind Singh. It starts the day after Sikhs celebrate Holi,[150] sometimes referred to as Hola.[151] Guru Gobind Singh modified Holi with a three-day Hola Mohalla extension festival of martial arts. The extension started the day after the Holi festival in Anandpur Sahib, where Sikh soldiers would train in mock battles, compete in horsemanship, athletics, archery and military exercises.[152][153]
Gurpurbs are celebrations or commemorations based on the lives of the Sikh Gurus. They tend to be either birthdays or celebrations of Sikh martyrdom. All ten Gurus have Gurpurbs on the Nanakshahi calendar, but it is Guru Nanak and Guru Gobind Singh who have a gurpurb that is widely celebrated in Gurdwaras and Sikh homes. The martyrdoms are also known as a Shaheedi Gurpurbs, which mark the martyrdom anniversary of Guru Arjan and Guru Tegh Bahadur.
Ceremonies and customs
Sikh wedding
Sikh funeral procession, Mandi, Himachal Pradesh
Khalsa Sikhs have also supported and helped develop major pilgrimage traditions to sacred sites such as Harmandir Sahib, Anandpur Sahib, Fatehgarh Sahib, Patna Sahib, Hazur Nanded Sahib, Hemkund Sahib and others.[154] Sikh pilgrims and Sikhs of other sects customarily consider these as holy and a part of their Tirath.[155] The Hola Mohalla around the festival of Holi, for example, is a ceremonial and customary gathering every year in Anandpur Sahib attracting over 100,000 Sikhs.[156][157] Major Sikh temples feature a sarovar where some Sikhs take a customary dip. Some take home the sacred water of the tank particularly for sick friends and relatives,[158][159] believing that the waters of such sacred sites have restorative powers and the ability to purify one's karma.[160][ix][158] The various Gurus of Sikhism have had different approaches to pilgrimage.[161]
Upon a child's birth, the Guru Granth Sahib is opened at a random point and the child is named using the first letter on the top left hand corner of the left page. All boys are given the last name Singh, and all girls are given the last name Kaur (this was once a title which was conferred on an individual upon joining the Khalsa).[162]
The Sikh marriage ritual includes the anand kāraj ceremony.[163][164] The marriage ceremony is performed in front of the Guru Granth Sahib by a baptized Khalsa, Granthi of the Gurdwara.[165][166] The tradition of circling the Guru Granth Sahib and Anand Karaj among Khalsa is practised since the fourth Guru, Guru Ram Das. Its official recognition and adoption came in 1909, during the Singh Sabha Movement.[166]
Upon death, the body of a Sikh is usually cremated. If this is not possible, any respectful means of disposing the body may be employed. The kīrtan sōhilā and ardās prayers are performed during the funeral ceremony (known as antim sanskār).[167]
Initiation and the Khalsa
Khalsa (meaning "pure and sovereign") is the collective name given by Guru Gobind Singh to those Sikhs who have been fully initiated by taking part in a ceremony called ammrit sañcār (nectar ceremony).[168] During this ceremony, sweetened water is stirred with a double-edged sword while liturgical prayers are sung; it is offered to the initiating Sikh, who ritually drinks it.[168] Many Sikhs are not formally and fully initiated, as they do not undergo this ceremony, but do adhere to some components of Sikhism and identify as Sikhs. The initiated Sikh, who is believed to be reborn, is referred to as Amritdhari or Khalsa Sikh, while those who are not initiated or baptised are referred to as Kesdhari or Sahajdhari Sikhs.[168][169]
The first time that this ceremony took place was on Vaisakhi, which fell on 30 March 1699 at Anandpur Sahib in Punjab.[168] It was on that occasion that Gobind Singh baptised the Pañj Piārē – the five beloved ones, who in turn baptised Guru Gobind Singh himself. To males who initiated, the last name Singh, meaning "lion", was given, while the last name Kaur, meaning "princess", was given to baptised Sikh females.[168]
Baptised Sikhs wear five items, called the Five Ks (in Punjabi known as pañj kakkē or pañj kakār), at all times. The five items are: kēs (uncut hair), kaṅghā (small wooden comb), kaṛā (circular steel or iron bracelet), kirpān (sword/dagger), and kacchera (special undergarment).[168] The Five Ks have both practical and symbolic purposes.[170]
History
Main article: History of Sikhism
Guru Nanak (1469–1539), the founder of Sikhism, was born in the village of Rāi Bhōi dī Talwandī, now called Nankana Sahib (in present-day Pakistan).[171] His parents were Punjabi Khatri Hindus.[172][173] According to the hagiography Puratan Janamsakhi composed more than two centuries after his death and probably based on oral tradition,[174] Nanak as a boy was fascinated by religion and spiritual matters, spending time with wandering ascetics and holy men.[175] His friend was Mardana, a Muslim. Together they would sing devotional songs all night in front of the public, and bathe in the river in the morning. One day, at the usual bath, Nanak went missing and his family feared he had drowned. Three days later he returned home, and declared: "There is no Hindu, there is no Muslim" ("nā kōi hindū nā kōi musalmān"). Thereafter, Nanak started preaching his ideas that form the tenets of Sikhism. In 1526, Guru Nanak at age 50, started a small commune in Kartarpur and his disciples came to be known as Sikhs.[175] Although the exact account of his itinerary is disputed, hagiographic accounts state he made five major journeys, spanning thousands of miles: the first tour being east towards Bengal and Assam; the second south towards Andhra and Tamil Nadu; the third north to Kashmir, Ladakh, and Mount Sumeru[176] in Tibet; and the fourth to Baghdad.[177] In his last and final tour, he returned to the banks of the Ravi River to end his days.[178]
There are two competing theories on Guru Nanak's teachings.[179] One, according to Cole and Sambhi, is based on hagiographical Janamsakhis,[180] and states that Nanak's teachings and Sikhism were a revelation from God, and not a social protest movement nor any attempt to reconcile Hinduism and Islam in the 15th century.[181] The other states that Nanak was a guru. According to Singha, "Sikhism does not subscribe to the theory of incarnation or the concept of prophethood. But it has a pivotal concept of Guru. He is not an incarnation of God, not even a prophet. He is an illumined soul."[182] The second theory continues that hagiographical Janamsakhis were not written by Nanak, but by later followers without regard for historical accuracy, and contain numerous legends and myths created to show respect for Nanak.[183] The term revelation, clarify Cole and Sambhi, in Sikhism is not limited to the teachings of Nanak, but is extended to all Sikh gurus, as well as the words of past, present and future men and women, who possess divine knowledge intuitively through meditation. The Sikh revelations include the words of non-Sikh bhagats, some who lived and died before the birth of Nanak, and whose teachings are part of the Sikh scriptures.[184] The Adi Granth and successive Sikh gurus repeatedly emphasised, states Mandair, that Sikhism is "not about hearing voices from God, but it is about changing the nature of the human mind, and anyone can achieve direct experience and spiritual perfection at any time".[179]
Historical influences
The roots of the Sikh tradition are, states Louis Fenech, perhaps in the Sant-tradition of India whose ideology grew to become the Bhakti tradition.[vii] Furthermore, adds Fenech:[185]
Few Sikhs would mention these Indic texts and ideologies in the same breadth as the Sikh tradition, let alone trace elements of their tradition to this chronological and ideological point, despite the fact that the Indic mythology permeates the Sikh sacred canon, the Guru Granth Sahib, and the secondary canon, the Dasam Granth ... and adds delicate nuance and substance to the sacred symbolic universe of the Sikhs of today and of their past ancestors.
The development of Sikhism was influenced by the Bhakti movement;[vi][vii][viii] and Vaishnawa Hinduism.[186] however, Sikhism was not simply an extension of the Bhakti movement.[64][187] Sikhism developed while the region was being ruled by the Mughal Empire. Two of the Sikh Gurus, Guru Arjan and Guru Tegh Bahadur, refused to convert to Islam and were tortured and executed by the Mughal rulers.[26][188] The Islamic era persecution of Sikhs triggered the founding of the Khalsa, as an order for freedom of conscience and religion.[26][189][31] A Sikh is expected to embody the qualities of a "Sant-Sipāhī" – a saint-soldier.[32][33]
Growth of Sikhism
Guru Nanak explaining Sikh teachings to Sadhus
After its inception, Sikhism grew as it gained converts among Hindus and Muslims in the Punjab region.[25][190][191][192] In 1539, Guru Nanak chose his disciple Lahiṇā as a successor to the Guruship rather than either of his sons. Lahiṇā was named Guru Angad and became the second Guru of the Sikhs.[193][194] Nanak conferred his choice at the town of Kartarpur on the banks of the river Ravi. Sri Chand, Guru Nanak's son was also a religious man, and continued his own commune of Sikhs. His followers came to be known as the Udasi Sikhs, the first parallel sect of Sikhism that formed in Sikh history.[195] The Udasis believe that the Guruship should have gone to Sri Chand, since he was a man of pious habits in addition to being Nanak's son.[195]
Guru Angad, before joining Guru Nanak's commune, worked as a pujari (priest) and religious teacher centered around Hindu goddess Durga.[194][196] On Nanak's advice, Guru Angad moved from Kartarpur to Khadur, where his wife Khivi and children were living, until he was able to bridge the divide between his followers and the Udasis. Guru Angad continued the work started by Guru Nanak and is widely credited for standardising the Gurmukhī script as used in the sacred scripture of the Sikhs.[196]
Guru Amar Das became the third Sikh Guru in 1552 at the age of 73. He adhered to the Vaishnavism tradition of Hinduism for much of his life, before joining the commune of Guru Angad.[197][198] Goindval became an important centre for Sikhism during the Guruship of Guru Amar Das. He was a reformer, and discouraged veiling of women's faces (a Muslim custom) as well as sati (a Hindu custom).[199][200] He encouraged the Kshatriya people to fight in order to protect people and for the sake of justice, stating this is Dharma.[201] Guru Amar Das started the tradition of appointing manji (zones of religious administration with an appointed chief called sangatias),[197] introduced the dasvandh ("the tenth" of income) system of revenue collection in the name of Guru and as pooled community religious resource,[202] and the famed langar tradition of Sikhism where anyone, without discrimination of any kind, could get a free meal in a communal seating. The collection of revenue from Sikhs through regional appointees helped Sikhism grow.[197][203]
Guru Amar Das named his disciple and son-in-law Jēṭhā as the next Guru, who came to be known as Guru Ram Das. The new Guru faced hostilities from the sons of Guru Amar Das and therefore shifted his official base to lands identified by Guru Amar Das as Guru-ka-Chak.[204] He moved his commune of Sikhs there and the place then was called Ramdaspur, after him. This city grew and later became Amritsar – the holiest city of Sikhism.[205] Guru Ram Das expanded the manji organization for clerical appointments in Sikh temples, and for revenue collections to theologically and economically support the Sikh movement.[204]
In 1581, Guru Arjan – youngest son of Guru Ram Das, became the fifth Guru of the Sikhs. The choice of successor, as throughout most of the history of Sikh Guru successions, led to disputes and internal divisions among the Sikhs.[206] The elder son of Guru Ram Das named Prithi Chand is remembered in the Sikh tradition as vehemently opposing Guru Arjan, creating a faction Sikh community which the Sikhs following Guru Arjan called as Minas (literally, "scoundrels").[207][208]
Guru Arjan is remembered in the Sikh for many things. He built the first Harimandir Sahib (later to become the Golden Temple). He was a poet and created the first edition of Sikh sacred text known as the Ādi Granth (literally the first book) and included the writings of the first five Gurus and other enlightened 13 Hindu and 2 Muslim Sufi saints. In 1606, he was tortured and killed by the Mughal emperor Jahangir,[209] for refusing to convert to Islam.[210][26][211] His martyrdom is considered a watershed event in the history of Sikhism.[26][212]
Political advancement
After the martyrdom of Guru Arjan, his son Guru Hargobind at age eleven became the sixth Guru of the Sikhs, and Sikhism dramatically evolved to become a political movement in addition to being religious.[213] Guru Hargobind carried two swords, calling one spiritual and the other for temporal purpose (known as mīrī and pīrī in Sikhism).[214][self-published source] According to the Sikh tradition, Guru Arjan asked his son Hargobind to start a military tradition to protect the Sikh people and always keep himself surrounded by armed Sikhs. The building of an armed Sikh militia began with Guru Hargobind.[213] Guru Hargobind was soon arrested by the Mughals and kept in jail in Gwalior. It is unclear how many years he served in prison, with different texts stating it to be between 2 and 12.[215] He married three women, built a fort to defend Ramdaspur and created a formal court called Akal Takht, now the highest Khalsa Sikh religious authority.[216]
In 1644, Guru Hargobind named his grandson Har Rai as the Guru. The Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan attempted political means to undermine the Sikh tradition, by dividing and influencing the succession.[217] The Mughal ruler gave land grants to Dhir Mal, a grandson of Guru Hargobind living in Kartarpur, and attempted to encourage Sikhs to recognise Dhir Mal as the rightful successor to Guru Hargobind.[217] Dhir Mal issued statements in favour of the Mughal state, and critical of his grandfather Guru Arjan. Guru Hargobind rejected Dhir Mal, the later refused to give up the original version of the Adi Granth he had, and the Sikh community was divided.[217]
Guru Har Rai is famed to have met Dara Shikoh during a time Dara Shikoh and his younger brother Aurangzeb were in a bitter succession fight. Aurangzeb summoned Guru Har Rai, who refused to go and sent his elder son Ram Rai instead.[218] The emperor found a verse in the Sikh scripture insulting to Muslims, and Ram Rai agreed it was a mistake then changed it. Ram Rai thus pleased Aurangzeb, but displeased Guru Har Rai who excommunicated his elder son. He nominated his younger son Guru Har Krishan to succeed him in 1661. Aurangzeb responded by granting Ram Rai a jagir (land grant). Ram Rai founded a town there and enjoyed Aurangzeb's patronage, the town came to be known as Dehradun, after Dehra referring to Ram Rai's shrine. Sikhs who followed Ram Rai came to be known as Ramraiya Sikhs.[218][219] However, according to rough estimates, there are around 120–150 million (12–15 crore)</ref>[220] Guru Har Krishan became the eighth Guru at the age of five, and died of smallpox before reaching the age of eight. No hymns composed by these three Gurus are included in the Guru Granth Sahib.[221]
Guru Tegh Bahadur, the uncle of Guru Har Krishan, became Guru in 1665. Tegh Bahadur resisted the forced conversions of Kashmiri Pandits[222] and non-Muslims[223] to Islam, and was publicly beheaded in 1675 on the orders of Mughal emperor Aurangzeb in Delhi for refusing to convert to Islam.[224][225] His beheading traumatized the Sikhs. His body was cremated in Delhi, the head was carried secretively by Sikhs and cremated in Anandpur. He was succeeded by his son, Gobind Rai who militarised his followers by creating the Khalsa in 1699, and baptising the Pañj Piārē.[226] From then on, he was known as Guru Gobind Singh, and Sikh identity was redefined into a political force resisting religious persecution.[227]
Gurudwara Sis Ganj Sahib in Delhi. The long window under the marble platform is the location where Guru Tegh Bahadur was executed by the Mughals.
Artistic rendering of the execution of Bhai Mati Das by the Mughals. This image is from a Sikh Ajaibghar near the towns of Mohali and Sirhind in Punjab, India.
Sikh confederacy and the rise of the Khalsa
Sculpture at Mehdiana Sahib of the execution of Banda Singh Bahadur in 1716 by the Mughals.
Some bodyguards of Maharaja Ranjit Singh at the Sikh capital, Lahore, Punjab.
Guru Gobind Singh inaugurated the Khalsa (the collective body of all initiated Sikhs) as the Sikh temporal authority in the year 1699. It created a community that combines its spiritual purpose and goals with political and military duties.[228][14][124] Shortly before his death, Guru Gobind Singh proclaimed the Gurū Granth Sāhib (the Sikh Holy Scripture) to be the ultimate spiritual authority for the Sikhs.[229]
The Sikh Khalsa's rise to power began in the 17th century during a time of growing militancy against Mughal rule. The creation of a Sikh Empire began when Guru Gobind Singh sent a Sikh general, Banda Singh Bahadur, to fight the Mughal rulers of India[230][self-published source] and those who had committed atrocities against Pir Buddhu Shah. Banda Singh advanced his army towards the main Muslim Mughal city of Sirhind and, following the instructions of the Guru, punished all the culprits. Soon after the invasion of Sirhind, while resting in his chamber after the Rehras prayer Guru Gobind Singh was stabbed by a Pathan assassin hired by Mughals. Gobind Singh killed the attacker with his sword. Though a European surgeon stitched the Guru's wound, the wound re-opened as the Guru tugged at a hard strong bow after a few days, causing profuse bleeding that led to Gobind Singh's death.
After the Guru's death, Baba Banda Singh Bahadur became the commander-in-chief of the Khalsa.[231] He organised the civilian rebellion and abolished or halted the Zamindari system in time he was active and gave the farmers proprietorship of their own land.[232] Banda Singh was executed by the emperor Farrukh Siyar after refusing the offer of a pardon if he converted to Islam. The confederacy of Sikh warrior bands known as misls emerged, but these fought between themselves. Ranjit Singh achieved a series of military victories and created a Sikh Empire in 1799.
The Sikh empire had its capital in Lahore, spread over almost 200,000 square miles (520,000 square kilometres) comprising what is now northwestern Indian subcontinent. The Sikh Empire entered into a treaty with the colonial British powers, with each side recognizing Sutlej River as the line of control and agreeing not to invade the other side.[233] Ranjit Singh's most lasting legacy was the restoration and expansion of the Harmandir Sahib, most revered Gurudwara of the Sikhs, with marble and gold, from which the popular name of the "Golden Temple" is derived.[234] After the death of Ranjit Singh in 1839, the Sikh Empire fell into disorder. Ranjit Singh had failed to establish a lasting structure for Sikh government or stable succession, and the Sikh Empire rapidly declined after his death. Factions divided the Sikhs, and led to Anglo-Sikh wars. The British easily defeated the confused and demoralised Khalsa forces, then disbanded them into destitution.[235] The youngest son of Ranjit Singh named Duleep Singh ultimately succeeded, but he was arrested and exiled after the defeat of Sikh Khalsa.[236]
Singh Sabha movement
Main article: Singh Sabha Movement
The Singh Sabha movement, a movement to revitalize Sikhism, also saw the resurgence of the Khalsa after their defeat by the British in the Anglo-Sikh wars,[237] and the subsequent decline and corruption of Sikh institutions during colonial rule, and the proselytization of other faith groups in the Punjab.[238][239] It was started in the 1870s, and after a period of interfactional rivalry, united under the Tat Khalsa to reinvigorate Sikh practice and institutions.[240]
The last Maharaja of the Sikh Empire Duleep Singh converted to Christianity in 1853, a controversial but influential event in Sikh history. Along with his conversion, and after Sikh Empire had been dissolved and the region made a part of the colonial British Empire, proselytising activities of Christians, Brahmo Samajis, Arya Samaj, Muslim Anjuman-i-Islamia and Ahmadiyah sought to convert the Sikhs in northwestern Indian subcontinent into their respective faiths.[238][239] These developments launched the Singh Sabha Movement.[238][239]
The first meeting of the movement was in the Golden Temple, Amritsar in 1873, and it was largely launched by the Sanatan Sikhs, Gianis, priests, and granthis.[241] Shortly thereafter, Nihang Sikhs began influencing the movement, followed by a sustained campaign by the Tat Khalsa, which had quickly gained dominance by the early 1880s.[240][242] The movement became a struggle between Sanatan Sikhs and Tat Khalsa in defining and interpreting Sikhism.[243][244][245]
Sanatan Sikhs led by Khem Singh Bedi – who claimed to be a direct descendant of Guru Nanak, Avtar Singh Vahiria and others supported a more inclusive approach which considered Sikhism as a reformed tradition of Hinduism, while Tat Khalsa campaigned for an exclusive approach to the Sikh identity, disagreeing with Sanatan Sikhs and seeking to modernize Sikhism.[245][242][246] The Sikh Sabha movement expanded in north and northwest Indian subcontinent, leading to more than 100 Singh Sabhas.[245][243] By the early decades of the 20th century, the influence of Tat Khalsa increased in interpreting the nature of Sikhism and their control over the Sikh Gurdwaras.[245][243][242] The Tat Khalsa banished Brahmanical practices including the use of the yagna fire,[247][248] replaced by the Anand Karaj marriage ceremony in accordance with Sikh scripture, and the idols and the images of Sikh Gurus from the Golden Temple in 1905, traditions which had taken root during the administration of the mahants during the 1800s.[249] They undertook a sustained campaign to standardize how Sikh Gurdwaras looked and ran, while looking to Sikh scriptures and the early Sikh tradition[250] to purify the Sikh identity.[251]
The spiritual successors of the Singh Sabha include the Akali movement of the 1920s, as well as the modern-day Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee (SGPC), a gurdwara administration body, and the Akali Dal political party.[252]
Partition of India
Sikhs participated and contributed to the decades-long Indian independence movement from the colonial rule in the first half of the 20th century. Ultimately when the British Empire recognized independent India, the land was partitioned into Hindu majority India and Muslim majority Pakistan (East and West) in 1947. This event, states Banga, was a watershed event in Sikh history.[253][254] The Sikhs had historically lived in northwestern region of Indian subcontinent on both sides of the partition line ("Radcliffe Line"). According to Banga and other scholars, the Sikhs had strongly opposed the Muslim League demands and saw it as "perpetuation of Muslim domination" and anti-Sikh policies in what just a hundred years before was a part of the Sikh Empire. As such, Sikh organizations, including the Chief Khalsa Dewan and Shiromani Akali Dal led by Master Tara Singh, condemned the Lahore Resolution and the movement to create Pakistan, viewing it as inviting possible persecution; the Sikhs largely thus strongly opposed the partition of India.[255] During the discussions with the colonial authorities, Tara Singh emerged as an important leader who campaigned to prevent the partition of colonial India and for the recognition of Sikhs as the third community.[253]
When partition was announced, the newly created line divided the Sikh population into two halves. Along with the Hindus, the Sikhs suffered organized violence and riots against them in West Pakistan, and Sikhs moved en masse to the Indian side leaving behind their property and the sacred places of Sikhism.[256] This reprisals on Sikhs were not one sided, because as Sikhs entered the Indian side, the Muslims in East Punjab experienced reprisals and they moved to West Pakistan.[253][257] Before the partition, Sikhs constituted about 15% of the population in West Punjab that became a part of Pakistan, the majority being Muslims (55%). The Sikhs were the economic elite and wealthiest in West Punjab, with them having the largest representation in West Punjab's aristocracy, nearly 700 Gurdwaras and 400 educational institutions that served the interests of the Sikhs.[258] Prior to the partition, there were a series of disputes between the majority Muslims and minority Sikhs, such as on the matters of jhatka versus halal meat, the disputed ownership of Gurdwara Sahidganj in Lahore which Muslims sought as a mosque and Sikhs as a Gurdwara, and the insistence of the provincial Muslim government in switching from Indian Gurmukhi script to Arabic-Persian Nastaliq script in schools.[253] During and after the Simla Conference in June 1945, headed by Lord Wavell, the Sikh leaders initially expressed their desire to be recognized as the third party, but ultimately relegated their demands and sought a United India where Sikhs, Hindus and Muslims would live together, under a Swiss style constitution. The Muslim League rejected this approach, demanding that entire Punjab should be granted to Pakistan.[259] The Sikh leaders then sought the partition instead, and Congress Working Committee passed a resolution in support of partitioning Punjab and Bengal.[259][257]
Sikh Light Infantry personnel march past during the Republic day parade in New Delhi, India
Between March and August 1947, a series of riots, arson, plunder of Sikh and property, assassination of Sikh leaders, and killings in Jhelum districts, Rawalpindi, Attock and other places made Tara Singh call the situation in Punjab as "civil war", while Lord Mountbatten stated "civil war preparations were going on".[256] The riots had triggered the early waves of migration in April, with some 20,000 people leaving northwest Punjab and moving to Patiala.[260][254] In Rawalpindi, 40,000 people became homeless. The Sikh leaders made desperate petitions, but all religious communities were suffering in the political turmoil. Sikhs, states Banga, were "only 4 million out of a total of 28 million in Punjab, and 6 million out of nearly 400 million in India; they did not constitute the majority, not even in a single district".[260][261]
When the partition line was formally announced in August 1947, the violence was unprecedented, with Sikhs being one of the most affected religious community both in terms of deaths, as well as property loss, injury, trauma and disruption.[262][257] Sikhs and Muslims were both victims and perpetrators of retaliatory violence against each other. Estimates range between 200,000 and 2 million deaths of Sikhs, Hindus and Muslims.[262][257] There were numerous rapes of and mass suicides by Sikh women, they being taken captives, their rescues and above all a mass exodus of Sikhs from newly created Pakistan into newly independent India. The partition created the "largest foot convoy of refugees recorded in [human] history, stretching over 100 kilometer long", states Banga, with nearly 300,000 people consisting of mostly "distraught, suffering, injured and angry Sikhs". Sikh and Hindu refugees from Pakistan flooded into India, Muslim refugees from India flooded into Pakistan, each into their new homeland.[262][261]
Khalistan
Sikhs in London protesting against the Indian government
In 1940, a few Sikhs such as the victims of Komagata Maru in Canada proposed the idea of Khalistan as a buffer state between an independent India and what would become Pakistan.[258] These leaders, however, were largely ignored.[253][254] The early 1980s witnessed some Sikh groups seeking an independent nation named Khalistan carved out from India and Pakistan. The Golden Temple and Akal Takht were occupied by various militant groups in 1982. These included the Dharam Yudh Morcha led by Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale, the Babbar Khalsa, the AISSF and the National Council of Khalistan.[263] Between 1982 and 1983, there were Anandpur Resolution demand-related terrorist attacks against civilians in parts of India.[264] By late 1983, the Bhindranwale led group had begun to build bunkers and observations posts in and around the Golden Temple, with militants involved in weapons training.[263] In June 1984, the then Prime Minister of India Indira Gandhi ordered Indian Army to begin Operation Blue Star against the militants.[263] The fierce engagement took place in the precincts of Darbar Sahib and resulted in many deaths, including Bhindranwale, the destruction of the Sikh Reference Library, which was considered a national treasure that contained over a thousand rare manuscripts,[265] and destroyed Akal Takht. Numerous soldiers, civilians and militants died in the cross fire. Within days of the Operation Bluestar, some 2,000 Sikh soldiers in India mutinied and attempted to reach Amritsar to liberate the Golden Temple.[263] Within six months, on 31 October 1984, Indira Gandhi's Sikh bodyguards assassinated her. The assassination triggered the 1984 anti-Sikh riots.[264] According to Donald Horowitz, while anti-Sikh riots led to much damage and deaths, many serious provocations by militants also failed to trigger ethnic violence in many cases throughout the 1980s. The Sikhs and their neighbors, for most part, ignored attempts to provoke riots and communal strife.[264]
Sikh people
Main article: Sikh
Sikhs in India[266]
State/UT Percentage
Punjab 58%
Chandigarh 13.1%
Haryana 4.9%
Delhi 3.4%
Uttarakhand 2.3%
Jammu and Kashmir 1.9%
Rajasthan 1.3%
Himachal Pradesh 1.2%
Estimates state that Sikhism has some 25-30 million followers worldwide.[viii][267] But however according to rough estimates, there are around 120–150 million (12–15 crore) Nanak Naam Lewas people across the world who also believe in 10 Sikh Gurus and Guru Granth Sahib.[10] According to Pew Research, a religion demographics and research group in Washington DC, "more than nine-in-ten Sikhs are in India, but there are also sizable Sikh communities in the United States, the United Kingdom and Canada."[268] Within India, the Sikh population is found in every state and union territory, but it is predominantly found in the northwestern and northern states. Only in the state of Punjab, Sikhs constitute a majority (58% of the total, per 2011 census).[266] The states and union territories of India where Sikhs constitute more than 1.5% of its population are Punjab, Chandigarh, Haryana, Delhi, Uttarakhand and Jammu & Kashmir.[266] Forming 4.7% of the total population, the western Canadian province of British Columbia is home to over 200,000 Sikhs and is the only province (or similar major subnational division) in the world outside India with Sikhism as the second most followed religion among the population.[269][270]
Sikhism was founded in northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent in what is now Pakistan. Some of the Gurus were born near Lahore and in other parts of Pakistan. Prior to 1947, in British India, millions of Sikhs lived in what later became Pakistan. During the partition, Sikhs and Hindus left the newly created Muslim-majority Pakistan and mostly moved to Hindu-majority India - with some moving to Muslim-majority Afghanistan[271]) - while numerous Muslims in India moved to Pakistan.[272][273] According to 2017 news reports, only about 20,000 Sikhs remain in Pakistan, and their population is dwindling (0.01% of the country's estimated 200 million population). The Sikhs in Pakistan, like others in the region, have been "rocked by an Islamist insurgency for more than a decade".[274][275]
Sikh sects
Main article: Sects of Sikhism
Sikh sects are sub-traditions within Sikhism that believe in an alternate lineage of gurus, or have a different interpretation of the Sikh scriptures, or believe in following a living guru, or hold other concepts that differ from the orthodox Khalsa Sikhs.[276][277] The major historic sects of Sikhism have included Udasi, Nirmala, Nanakpanthi, Khalsa, Sahajdhari, Namdhari Kuka, Nirankari, and Sarvaria.[278]
Namdhari Sikhs, also called the Kuka Sikhs are a sect of Sikhism known for their crisp white dress and horizontal pagari (turban).[279][165] Above: Namdhari singer and musicians.
The early Sikh sects were Udasis and Minas founded by Sri Chand – the elder son of Guru Nanak, and Prithi Chand – the elder son of Guru Ram Das respectively, in parallel to the official succession of the Sikh Gurus. Later on Ramraiya sect grew in Dehradun with the patronage of Aurangzeb.[280] Many splintered Sikh communities formed during the Mughal Empire era. Some of these sects were financially and administratively supported by the Mughal rulers in the hopes of gaining a more favorable and compliant citizenry.[277][280]
After the collapse of Mughal Empire, and particularly during the rule of Ranjit Singh, Udasi Sikhs protected Sikh shrines, preserved the Sikh scripture and rebuilt those that were desecrated or destroyed during the Muslim–Sikh wars. However, Udasi Sikhs kept idols and images inside these Sikh temples.[195][281] In the 19th century, Namdharis and Nirankaris sects were formed in Sikhism, seeking to reform and return to what each believed was the pure form of Sikhism.[245][243][244]
All these sects differ from Khalsa orthodox Sikhs in their beliefs and practices, such as continuing to solemnize their weddings around fire and being strictly vegetarian.[279][165] Many accept the concept of living Gurus such as Guru Baba Dyal Singh. The Nirankari sect, though unorthodox, was influential in shaping the views of Tat Khalsa and the contemporary-era Sikh beliefs and practices.[282][283] Another significant Sikh sect of the 19th century was the Radhasoami movement in Punjab led by Baba Shiv Dyal.[284] Other contemporary era Sikhs sects include the 3HO, formed in 1971, which exists outside India, particularly in North America and Europe.[284][285][286]
Sikh castes
Nagar Kirtan in Bangalore
According to Surinder Jodhka, the state of Punjab with a Sikh majority has the "largest proportion of scheduled caste population in India". Although decried by Sikhism, Sikhs have practiced a caste system. The system, along with untouchability, has been more common in rural parts of Punjab. The landowning dominant Sikh castes, states Jodhka, "have not shed all their prejudices against the lower castes or dalits; while dalits would be allowed entry into the village gurdwaras they would not be permitted to cook or serve langar." The Sikh dalits of Punjab have tried to build their own gurdwara, other local level institutions and sought better material circumstances and dignity. According to Jodhka, due to economic mobility in contemporary Punjab, castes no longer mean an inherited occupation nor are work relations tied to a single location.[287] In 1953, the government of India acceded to the demands of the Sikh leader, Master Tara Singh, to include Sikh dalit castes in the list of scheduled castes.[288] In the Shiromani Gurdwara Prabandhak Committee, 20 of the 140 seats are reserved for low-caste Sikhs.[288]
Over 60% of Sikhs belong to the Jat caste, which is an agrarian caste. Despite being very small in numbers, the mercantile Khatri and Arora castes wield considerable influence within the Sikh community. Other common Sikh castes include Sainis, Ramgarhias (artisans), Ahluwalias (formerly brewers), Kambojs (rural caste), Labanas, Kumhars and the two Dalit castes, known in Sikh terminology as the Mazhabis (the Chuhras) and the Ravidasias (the Chamars).[289]
Sikh diaspora
Further information: Sikhism in India, Sikh diaspora, and Sikhism by country
Sikhs celebrating Vaisakhi in Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Sikhism is the fourth-largest amongst the medium-sized world religions, and one of the youngest.[290][291][292] Worldwide, there are 25.8 million Sikhs, which makes up 0.39% of the world's population. Approximately 75% of Sikhs live in Punjab, where they constitute over 50% of the state's population. Large communities of Sikhs migrate to the neighboring states such as Indian State of Haryana which is home to the second largest Sikh population in India with 1.1 million Sikhs as per 2001 census, and large immigrant communities of Sikhs can be found across India. However, Sikhs only comprise about 2% of the Indian population.[293]
Sikh migration to Canada began in the 19th century and led to the creation of significant Sikh communities, predominantly in South Vancouver and Surrey, British Columbia, and Brampton, Ontario. Today temples, newspapers, radio stations, and markets cater to these large, multi-generational Indo-Canadian groups. Sikh festivals such as Vaisakhi and Bandi Chhor are celebrated in those Canadian cities by the largest groups of followers in the world outside the Punjab.
Sikhs also migrated to East Africa, West Africa, the Middle East, Southeast Asia, the United Kingdom, the United States, and Australia. These communities developed as Sikhs migrated out of Punjab to fill in gaps in imperial labour markets.[294] In the early twentieth century a significant community began to take shape on the west coast of the United States. Smaller populations of Sikhs are found within many countries in Western Europe, Mauritius, Malaysia, Philippines, Fiji, Nepal, China, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Iran, Singapore, United States, and many other countries.
Prohibitions in Sikhism
Further information: Prohibitions in Sikhism and Diet in Sikhism
Some major prohibitions include:
Haircuts: Cutting or removing hair from any body part is strictly forbidden including shaving or trimming facial and nostril hairs for both Amritdhari (formally baptized) and Keshdhari (non-baptized and practicing) Sikhs.
Intoxication: Consumption of drugs, alcohol, tobacco and other intoxicants is not allowed for Amritdhari Sikhs and Keshdhari Sikhs. Drugs and tobacco are forbidden for all.[295][296][297] Cannabis is generally prohibited, but ritually consumed in edible form by some Sikhs.[298][299]
Gambling: Gambling, also called jooa in traditional Indian languages,[clarification needed] be it in any form like lottery, roulette, poker, American or British bingo, is prohibited in some codes of conduct, such as the Sikh Rehat Maryada.
Priestly class: Sikhism does not have priests, as they were abolished by Guru Gobind Singh (the 10th Guru of Sikhism).[300] The only position he left was a Granthi to look after the Guru Granth Sahib; any Sikh is free to become Granthi or read from the Guru Granth Sahib.[300]
Eating meat killed in a ritualistic manner (kutha meat): Sikhs are strictly prohibited from eating meat killed in a ritualistic manner (such as halal or kosher, known collectively as kutha meat in Sikhism),[301] or any meat where langar is served.[302] It is patit for Sikhs to eat anything which is an animal product from a ritualised slaughter.[citation needed] For many Sikhs (and in some Sikh sects, e.g. Akhand Kirtani Jatha) Damdami Taksal, Nanaksar, eating any meat is believed to be forbidden, but this is not a universally held belief.[303][clarification needed]
Having extramarital sexual relations[295][296][304][305]
Sikhs (singular Sikh: /sɪk/ (like "sick") or /siːk/ (like "seek"); Punjabi: ਸਿੱਖ, sikkh [sɪkkʰ]; Devanagari: सिख) are an ethnoreligious group[74] who adhere to Sikhi or Sikhism,[75] a Dharmic religion that originated in the late 15th century in the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent, based on the revelation of Guru Nanak.[76] The term Sikh has its origin in the Sanskrit word śiṣya (शिष्य), meaning 'disciple' or 'student'.[77][78][79]
Male Sikhs generally have Singh ('lion') as their last name, though not all Singhs are necessarily Sikhs; likewise, female Sikhs have Kaur ('princess') as their last name. These unique last names were given by the Gurus to allow Sikhs to stand out and also as an act of defiance to India's caste system, which the Gurus were always against. Sikhs strongly believe in the idea of sarbat da bhala (welfare of all) and are often seen on the frontline to provide humanitarian aid across the world.
Sikhs who have undergone the Amrit Sanchar ('baptism by Khanda'), an initiation ceremony, are known as Khalsa from the day of their initiation, and they must at all times have on their bodies the five Ks:
kesh, uncut hair usually kept covered by a dastār, also known as a turban;
kara, an iron or steel bracelet;
kirpan, a dagger-like sword tucked into a gatra strap or a kamar kasa waistband;
kachera, a cotton undergarment; and
kanga, a small wooden comb.
Tarn Taran Sahib - The World's Largest Sarovar (sacred pool)
The Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent has been the historic homeland of the Sikhs, having even been ruled by the Sikhs for significant parts of the 18th and 19th centuries. Today, Canada has the largest national Sikh proportion (2.1%) in the world,[13] while the Punjab state in India has the largest Sikh proportion (58%) amongst all administrative divisions in the world. Many countries, such as Canada and the United Kingdom, recognize Sikhs as a designated religion on their censuses,[80] and, as of 2020, Sikhs are considered as a separate ethnic group in the United States.[81] The UK also considers Sikhs to be an ethno-religious people, as a direct result of the Mandla v Dowell-Lee case in 1982.[82][83]
History
Main article: History of Sikhism
Gurdwara Janam Asthan, the birthplace of Guru Nanak
Guru Nanak (1469–1539), the founder of Sikhism, was born in a Khatri family to Mehta Kalu and Mata Tripta in the village of Talwandi, present-day Nankana Sahib, near Lahore.[84] Throughout his life, Guru Nanak was a religious leader and social reformer. However, Sikh political history may be said to begin in 1606, with the death of the fifth Sikh guru, Guru Arjan Dev.[85] Religious practices were formalised by Guru Gobind Singh on 30 March 1699, when the Guru initiated five people from a variety of social backgrounds, known as the Panj Piare ("beloved five"), to form a collective body of initiated Sikhs, known as the Khalsa ("pure").[86]
The early followers of Guru Nanak were Khatris, but later a large number of Jats joined the faith.[87] Khatris and Brahmins opposed "the demand that the Sikhs set aside the distinctive customs of their castes and families, including the older rituals."[88]
Pashaura Singh analyzed references made within the 11th ballad of the Varan of Bhai Gurdas to form a picture of the caste-makeup of the early Sikh community.[89] At the time of the writing the Vaar, the early Sikh community was composed of various castes and backgrounds, such as:[89]
Khatris (particularly the Sehgal, Ohri, Uppal, Julka, Bhalla, Passi, Khullar, Vohra, Vij, Kapur, Chaddha, Behl, Kohli, Marwah, Mehra, Soni, Jhanjhi, Sodhi, Beri, Nanda, Wadhawan, Tulli, and Puri gotras)[89]
Brahmins (such as the Bhardwaj gotra)[89]
Jats (particularly the Randhawa, Khehra, Dhillon, and Pannu gotras)[89]
Tarkhans ('carpenters')[89]
Lohars ('blacksmiths')[89]
Nais ('barbers')[89]
Chhimbas ('cotton-printers')[89]
Machhis ('water-carriers')[89]
Dhobis ('washermen')[89]
Kumhars ('potters')[89]
Telis ('oil pressers")[89]
masons[89]
goldsmiths[89]
Outcastes (such as Chandals)[89]
Muslims[89]
The early Sikhs varied widely in their occupations and position in society's hierarchy: some were rich merchants (Seths and Sarrafs), others were heads of villages (Chowdhury), some were labourers, others were enslaved, whilst others still were artisans, craftsmen, shopkeepers, or simple peasants.[89]
The Sikh Empire at its greatest extent
During the rule of the Mughal Empire in India, two Sikh gurus were martyred. (Guru Arjan was martyred on suspicion of helping in betrayal of Mughal Emperor Jahangir and Guru Tegh Bahadur was martyred by the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb)[90] As the Sikh faith grew, the Sikhs subsequently militarized to oppose Mughal rule.[citation needed]
The Samadhi of Emperor Ranjit Singh in Lahore, Pakistan
The Golden Temple
Metal helmet in a museum
A Sikh Khalsa Army sowar's battle helmet
Max Arthur Macauliffe (1841-1913), a senior British administrator who was posted to India during the British rule of Punjab, converted to Sikhism in the 1860s
After defeating the Afghans and Mughals, sovereign states called Misls were formed under Jassa Singh Ahluwalia. The Confederacy of these states was unified and transformed into the Sikh Empire under Maharaja Ranjit Singh. This era was characterised by religious tolerance and pluralism, including Christians, Muslims, and Hindus in positions of power. Its secular administration implemented military, economic, and governmental reforms. The empire is considered the zenith of political Sikhism,[91] encompassing Kashmir, Ladakh, and Peshawar. Hari Singh Nalwa, the commander-in-chief of the Sikh Khalsa Army in the North-West Frontier, expanded the confederacy to the Khyber Pass.
British rule in India
Sikh armour and weapons
“Sikh Sardar”, photograph by John McCosh taken in circa 1848-49
After the annexation of the Sikh/Punjabi kingdom by the British, the British Army began recruiting significant numbers of Sikhs and Punjabis.[citation needed] During the 1857 Indian mutiny, the Sikhs stayed loyal to the British, resulting in heavy recruitment from Punjab to the British Indian Army for the next 90 years of the British Raj in colonial India.[92] The distinct turban that differentiates a Sikh from other turban wearers is a relic of the rules of the British Indian Army.[93] The British colonial rule saw the emergence of many reform movements in India, including Punjab, such as the formation of the First and Second Singh Sabha in 1873 and 1879 respectively. The Sikh leaders of the Singh Sabha worked to offer a clear definition of Sikh identity and tried to purify Sikh belief and practice.[94]
The later years of British colonial rule saw the emergence of the Akali movement to bring reform in the gurdwaras during the early 1920s. The movement led to the introduction of Sikh Gurdwara Bill in 1925, which placed all the historical Sikh shrines in India under the control of the Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee.[95]
Partition and post-Partition
At the time of the Indian independence movement, the Sikh ruler of the Kapurthala State fought to oppose the partition of India and advocated for a united, secular country.[96] Sikh organizations, including the Chief Khalsa Dewan and Shiromani Akali Dal led by Master Tara Singh, condemned the Lahore Resolution and the movement to create Pakistan, viewing it as inviting possible persecution, with Akali Dal instead favouring an undivided Azad Punjab as an independent Sikh State or Khalistan, having passed the Sikh State Resolution in 1946. The Sikhs therefore strongly fought against the partition of Punjab.[97] The months leading up to the 1947 partition of Punjab were marked by conflict in the Punjab between Sikhs and Muslims.[98] This caused the religious migration of Punjabi Sikhs and Hindus from West Punjab to the east (modern India), mirroring a simultaneous religious migration of Punjabi Muslims from East Punjab to the west (modern Pakistan).[99]
Following partition, the Government of India had begun to redraw states corresponding to demographic and linguistic boundaries. However, this was not effective in the northern part of the country,[100] as the government reconsidered redrawing states in the north. [101] While states across the country were extensively redrawn on linguistic lines at the behest of linguistic groups, the only languages not considered for statehood were Punjabi, Sindhi and Urdu. [102] Leading to the launch of the Punjabi Suba movement and the presentation for a Punjabi Suba as a policy in April 1948 by Master Tara Singh. Also, on 26 January 1950 Sikh representatives refused to sign the Indian constitution. As Sikhs were recognized as Hindus and Sikhs were not provided with scheduled castes concessions given to Hindu scheduled castes.
The Punjab Suba experienced heavy government crackdown with the Congress Government arresting as many as 21,000 people. Attempted negotiations with Congress-led the agitation to be adjourned twice, though Jawaharlal Nehru continued to reject the demand.[103][104] On 4 July 1955, government police forces, led by DIG Ashwini Kumar,[105] forced entry into the Golden Temple premises and heavy-handedly arrested protestors and took them into custody, along with the head granthis of the Akal Takht and Golden Temple, volunteer protestors, and even cooks of the temple's langar.[106] The Guru Ram Das Serai and Shiromani Akali Dal offices were also raided, and batons used and tear gas and shells were fired to disperse the protestors gathered on the periphery of the temple, damaging the periphery and Sarovar, or pool, of the temple.[106][107] The government stopped volunteers on the way to the Golden Temple, and troops were ordered to flag-march through the bazaars and streets surrounding the site.[107] Over 200 protestors were killed, thousands arrested,[107] and thousands, including women and children, were injured.
The Congress government agreed to the Punjab Suba in 1966 after protests and recommendation of the States Reorganisation Commission.[108] The state of East Punjab was later split into the states of Himachal Pradesh, the new state Haryana and current day Punjab.[109] However, there was a growing alienation between Punjabi Sikh and Hindu populations. The latter of which reported Hindi rather than Punjabi as their primary language. The result was that Punjabi-speaking areas were left out of the new state and given to Haryana and Himachal Pradesh[110] resulting in the state of Punjab to be roughly 35,000 square miles smaller than the Punjabi-speaking areas based on pre-1947 census figures. Moreover, the 1966 reorganization left Sikhs highly dissatisfied, with the capital Chandigarh being made into a shared a union territory and the capital of Punjab and Haryana.
In the late 1960s, the Green Revolution in India was first introduced in Punjab as part of a development program issued by international donor agencies and the Government of India.[111] While, Green Revolution in Punjab had several positive impacts, the introduction of the mechanised agricultural techniques led to uneven distribution of wealth. The industrial development was not done at the same pace as agricultural development, the Indian government had been reluctant to set up heavy industries in Punjab due to its status as a high-risk border state with Pakistan.[112] The rapid increase in the higher education opportunities without an adequate rise in the jobs resulted in the increase in the unemployment of educated youth.[108]
In 1973 as a result, of unaddressed grievances and increasing inequality the Akali Dal put forward the Anandpur Sahib Resolution.[113] The resolution included both religious and political issues. It asked for recognising Sikhism as a religion, it also demanded the devolution of power from the Central to state governments.[108] The Anandpur Resolution was rejected by the government as a secessionist document. Thousands of people joined the movement, feeling that it represented a real solution to demands such as a larger share of water for irrigation and the return of Chandigarh to Punjab.[114]
After unsuccessful negotiations the Dharam Yuddh Morcha ("righteous campaign")[115] was launched on 4 August 1982,[citation needed] by the Akali Dal in partnership with Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale, with its stated aim being the fulfillment of a set of devolutionary objectives based on the Anandpur Sahib Resolution.[115] Indian police responded to protestors with high-handed police methods creating state repression affecting a very large segment of Punjab's population. Police brutality resulted in retaliatory violence from a section of the Sikh population, widening the scope of the conflict by the use of violence of the state on its own people. [116] A "state of chaos and repressive police methods" combined to create "a mood of overwhelming anger and resentment in the Sikh masses against the authorities". Leading to Sikh leader Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale gaining prominence and demands of independence gain currency, even amongst moderates and Sikh intellectuals.[116] In 1982 and early 1983, extrajudicial killings by the police of orthodox Sikh youth in rural areas in Punjab provoked reprisals.[117] Over 190 Sikhs had been killed in the first 19 months of the protest movement.[118]
In May 1984, a Grain Roko morcha was planned and to be initiated on 3 June[119] with protestors practising civil disobedience by refusing to pay land revenue, water or electricity bills, and blocking the flow of grain out of Punjab. Indian Prime minister Indira Gandhi launched Operation Blue Star on 1 June prior to the Grain Roko morcha in order to remove Bhindranwale from the Golden Temple. This subsequently lead to Gandhi's assassination by her Sikh bodyguards.[120] Her assassination was followed by government-sponsored pogroms against Sikh communities across India and the killing of thousands of Sikhs throughout India. These events triggered an Insurgency in Punjab which would consume Punjab until the early 1990s.
During the day of Vaisakhi in 1999, Sikhs worldwide celebrated the 300th anniversary of the creation of the Khalsa. Canada Post honoured Sikh Canadians with a commemorative stamp in conjunction with the anniversary. Likewise, on 9 April 1999, Indian president K. R. Narayanan issued a stamp commemorating the 300th anniversary of the Khalsa as well.[121]
Culture and religious observations
According to Article I of Chapter 1 of the Sikh Rehat Maryada ('code of conduct'), the definition of Sikh is:[122]
Any human being who faithfully believes in i. One Immortal Being, ii. Ten Gurus, from Guru Nanak Sahib to Guru Gobind Singh Sahib, iii. The Guru Granth Sahib, iv. The utterances and teachings of the ten Gurus and
v. the baptism bequeathed by the tenth Guru, and who does not owe allegiance to any other religion, is a Sikh.
Daily routine
From the Guru Granth Sahib:[123]
One who calls themself a Sikh of the Guru, the True Guru, shall rise in the early morning hours and meditate on the Lord's Name. Upon arising early in the morning, he is to bathe and cleanse himself in the pool of nectar. Following the Instructions of the Guru, he is to chant the Name of the Lord, "Har, Har." All sins, misdeeds, and negativity shall be then erased. Then, at the rising of the sun, he is to sing Gurbani; whether sitting down or standing up, he is to meditate on the Lord's Name. One who meditates on my Lord, Har, Har, with every breath and every morsel of food and – that GurSikh becomes pleasing to the Guru's Mind. That person, unto whom my Lord and Master is kind and compassionate – upon that GurSikh, the Guru's Teachings are bestowed. Servant Nanak begs for the dust of the feet of that GurSikh, who himself chants the Naam, and inspires others to chant it.
— Fourth Mehl (Guru Ram Das), Guru Granth Sahib, p. 305
The Sikh Rahit Maryada (Code of Conduct) clearly states that baptized Amritdhari Khalsa Sikhs must recite or listen to the recitation of Japji Sahib, Jaap Sahib, the 10 Sawayyas, Sodar Rehraas, and Sohila.[124][125] Every Sikh is also supposed take the Hukam (divine order) from the Guru Granth Sahib after awakening in the ambrosial hours of the morning (three hours before the dawn) before eating.[126]
In his 52 Hukams, Guru Gobind Singh orders his followers to arise during Amritvela (early morning) and to recite the late evening prayer "Sohila" and the verse "Pavan guru pani pita..." before sleeping.
Five Ks
Main articles: The Five Ks, Khalsa, and Sahajdhari
Wooden comb, iron bracelet and curved, gold-coloured dagger
Kanga, Kara and Kirpan: three of the five Sikh articles of faith
The five Ks (panj kakaar) are five articles of faith which all baptized (Amritdhari) Sikhs are obliged to wear. The symbols represent the ideals of Sikhism: honesty, equality, fidelity, meditating on Waheguru, and never bowing to tyranny.[127] The five symbols are:
Kesh: Uncut hair, usually tied and wrapped in a turban.
Kanga: A wooden comb, usually worn under a turban to always also keep one's hair clean and well-groomed.
Kachera: Cotton undergarments, worn by both sexes; the kachera is a symbol of chastity, and also a symbol of cleanliness. It is also historically appropriate in battle due to increased mobility and comfort when compared to a dhoti.
Kara: An iron bracelet, a symbol of eternity, strength, and a constant reminder of the strength of will to keep hands away from any kind of unethical practices.
Kirpan: An iron blade in different sizes. In the UK, Sikhs can wear a small dagger, but in Punjab, they might wear a traditional curved sword from one to three feet in length. Kirpan is only a weapon of defense and religious protection, used to serve humanity and to be used against oppression.
Music and instruments
Woman in yellow scarf bowing an instrument
Woman playing the dilruba
Main article: Sikh music
The Sikhs have a number of musical instruments, including the rebab, dilruba, taus, jori, and sarinda. Playing the sarangi was encouraged by Guru Hargobind. The rebab was played by Bhai Mardana as he accompanied Guru Nanak on his journeys. The jori and sarinda were introduced to Sikh devotional music by Guru Arjan. The taus (Persian for "peacock") was designed by Guru Hargobind, who supposedly heard a peacock singing and wanted to create an instrument mimicking its sounds. The dilruba was designed by Guru Gobind Singh at the request of his followers, who wanted a smaller instrument than the taus. After Japji Sahib, all of the shabad in the Guru Granth Sahib were composed as raags. This type of singing is known as Gurmat Sangeet.
When they marched into battle, the Sikhs would play a Ranjit nagara ("victory drum") to boost morale. Nagaras (usually two to three feet in diameter, although some were up to five feet in diameter) are played with two sticks. The beat of the large drums, and the raising of the Nishan Sahib, meant that the Singhs were on their way.
Demographics
Main articles: Sikhism by country and Punjabi Sikhs
Global map of Sikh population (estimated 2023)
Sikhs number about 26-30 million worldwide, of whom 24–28 million live in India, which thus represents around 90 percent of the total Sikh population.[128][129][130][131][132][133] About 76 percent of all Indian Sikhs live in the northern Indian state of Punjab, forming a majority of about 58 per cent of the state's population, roughly around 16 million.[134][135] Substantial communities of Sikhs live in the Indian states or union territories of Haryana, where they number around 1.2 million and form 4.91 percent of the population, Rajasthan (872,000 or 1.27 percent of the population), Uttar Pradesh (643,000, 0.32 percent), Delhi (570,000, 3.4 percent), Uttarakhand (236,000, 2.34 percent), Jammu and Kashmir (234,000, 1.87 percent), Chandigarh (138,000, 13.11 percent) and Himachal Pradesh (86,000, 1.16 percent).
Canada is home to the largest national Sikh proportion (2.1 percent of the total population) in the world.[13] A substantial community of Sikhs exist in the western province of British Columbia, numbering nearly 300,000 persons and forming approximately 5.9 percent of the total population. This represents the third-largest Sikh proportion amongst all global administrative divisions, behind only Punjab and Chandigarh in India. Furthermore, British Columbia,[136] Manitoba, and Yukon hold the distinction of being three of the only four administrative divisions in the world with Sikhism as the second most followed religion among the population.[139]
Census Data and Official Statistics
As a religious minority, Sikhs have fought long and hard to get official status and to be counted in many countries across the world. Through the efforts of Sikh organisations and communities in their respective countries, there is now readily available population data on Sikhs as part of the census or official statistics in the following territories:
Census Data / Official Statistics:
Territory Latest Data
Punjab 16,004,754 2011[140]
India (Rest of India) 4,828,362
Canada 771,790 2021[141]
England 520,092 2021[142]
Australia 210,400 2021[143]
New Zealand 40,908 2018[144]
Singapore 12,051 2020[145]
Thailand 11,124 2010[146]
Norway 4,318 2021[147]
Wales 4,048 2021[142]
Fiji 2,577 2007[148]
Ireland 2,183 2022[149]
Nepal 1,496 2021[150]
Northern Ireland 389 2021[151]
Scotland Pending 2022
Pakistan Pending 2023
2011-2021 Change in Sikh %
Note: Official statistics do not count unregistered arrivals or those who have not completed the census or surveys. However, they do provide for a much more accurate depiction of Sikh communities as opposed to estimates from various Sikh organisations whose estimates can vary vastly with no statistically valuable source. Thus, official statistics and census data is highly important and Sikh communities continue to push for census inclusion in many countries where they are still not counted.
Migration
Sikh migration from British India began in earnest during the second half of the 19th century, when the British completed their annexation of the Punjab, which led to Sikh migration throughout India and the British Empire. During the Raj, semiskilled Sikh artisans were transported from the Punjab to British East Africa to help build railroads. Sikhs emigrated from India after World War II, most going to the United Kingdom but many also to North America. Some Sikhs who had settled in eastern Africa were expelled by Ugandan dictator Idi Amin in 1972.[152] Economics is a major factor in Sikh migration, and significant communities exist in the United Kingdom, the United States, Malaysia, East Africa, Australia, Singapore and Thailand.
After the Partition of India in 1947, many Sikhs from what would become the Punjab of Pakistan migrated to India as well as to Afghanistan due to fear of persecution. Afghanistan was home to hundreds of thousands of Sikhs and Hindus as of the 1970s, but due to the wars in Afghanistan in the 2010s, the vast majority of Afghan Sikhs had migrated to India, Pakistan or the west.[153][154][155]
Although the rate of Sikh migration from the Punjab has remained high, traditional patterns of Sikh migration favouring English-speaking countries (particularly the United Kingdom) have changed during the past decade due to stricter immigration laws. Moliner (2006) wrote that as a consequence of Sikh migration to the UK becoming "virtually impossible since the late 1970s," migration patterns evolved to continental Europe.[156] Italy is a rapidly growing destination for Sikh migration,[157] with Reggio Emilia and Vicenza having significant Sikh population clusters.[158] Italian Sikhs are generally involved in agriculture, agricultural processing, the manufacture of machine tools, and horticulture.[159]
Growth
A group of Sikh people
Johnson and Barrett (2004) estimate that the global Sikh population increases annually by 392,633 (1.7% per year, based on 2004 figures); this percentage includes births, deaths, and conversions. Primarily for socio-economic reasons, Indian Sikhs have the lowest adjusted growth rate of any major religious group in India, at 16.9 percent per decade (estimated from 1991 to 2001) and it have further declined to just 8.4 per cent in 2011 census report.[160][161] Sikhs in the world have the lowest fertility rate of 1.6 children per women as per (2019–20) estimation research.[162][163] The Sikh population has the lowest gender balance in India, with only 903 women per 1,000 men according to the 2011 Indian census.[164] The estimated world's Sikh population was over 30 million in 2020, and it will reach 42 million by 2050. It is expected to increase up to 62 million by 2100, given that the anticipated growth rate of 1.7% per year and adding at least 400,000 followers annually.[165][161]
Since the Sikh growth rate dropped from 1.7% (16.9% in 1991 to 2001 estimate) to 0.84%(8.4% in 2001-2011) in 2011 report,hence based on their growth rate,their population will increase 196,316(0.84% based on 2011 figures) per year and will reach 36 million in 2050,it expected to reach 52 million in 2100 given that the anticipated growth rate of 0.84% and adding at least 200,000 followers annually..[166][167]
Sikhism is the fastest growing religion in Canada, Australia and New Zealand. The growth is mainly contributed by the immigration of Indian Sikhs there over the decades. Sikhism is fourth-largest religion in Canada, fifth-largest religion in Australia and New Zealand. The decadal growth of Sikhs is more in those countries as compared to the decadal growth of Sikh population in India, thus making them the fastest-growing religion there.[168][13][169][170] Canada has the highest proportion of Sikhs in the globe, which stands at 2.12% as of 2021,[13] as compared to India which stands at 1.72% as of 2011 respectively.[171]
Castes
Since Sikhism has never actively sought converts, Sikhs have remained a relatively homogeneous ethnic group. Caste may still be practiced by some Sikhs, despite Guru Nanak's calls for treating everyone equally in Sri Granth Sahib.[172][c]
Along with Guru Nanak, other Sikh gurus had also denounced the hierarchy of the caste system, however, they all belonged to the same caste, the Khatris.[176] Most Sikhs belong to the Jat (Jatt), traditionally agrarian in occupation.[177] Despite being very small in numbers, the Khatri and Arora (Moneylenders) castes also wield considerable influence within the Sikh community. Other common Sikh castes include Ahluwalias (brewers), Kambojs or Kambos (rural caste), Ramgarhias (artisans), Brahmins (Priestly class), Rajputs (kshatriyas), Sainis (agrarian), Rai Sikh (rural caste), Labanas (merchants), Kumhars, Mazhabi and the Ramdasia/Ravidasias(Chamar).[178]
Some Sikhs, especially those belonging to the landowning dominant castes, have not shed all their prejudices against the Dalits. While Dalits were allowed entry into the village gurdwaras, in some gurdwaras, they were not be permitted to cook or serve langar (communal meal). Therefore, wherever they could mobilize resources, the Sikh Dalits of Punjab have tried to construct their own gurdwara and other local level institutions in order to attain a certain degree of cultural autonomy.[172] In 1953, Sikh leader and activist Master Tara Singh succeeded in persuading the Indian government to include Sikh castes of the converted untouchables in the list of scheduled castes.[179] In the Shiromani Gurdwara Prabandhak Committee, 20 of the 140 seats are reserved for low-caste Sikhs.[179]
Other castes (over 1,000 members) include the Arain, Bhatra, Bairagi, Bania, Basith, Bawaria, Bazigar, Bhabra, Chamar, Chhimba (cotton farmers), Darzi, Dhobi, Gujar, Jhinwar, Kahar, Kalal, Kumhar, Lohar, Mahtam, Megh, Mirasi, Mochi, Nai, Ramgharia, Sansi, Sudh, Tarkhan and Kashyap[citation needed]
Karnail Singh Panjoli, member of the Shiromani Gurdwara Prabandhak Committee, says that there are several communities within the term Nanakpanthis too. Apart from Sindhi Hindus, "There are groups like Sikhligarh, Vanjaarey, Nirmaley, Lubaney, Johri, Satnamiye, Udaasiyas, Punjabi Hindus, etc. who call themselves Nanakpanthis despite being Hindus.[180]
Diaspora
As Sikhs wear turbans and keep beards, Sikh men in Western countries have been mistaken for Muslim, Arabic, and/or Afghan since the September 11 attacks and the Iraq War.[181][182] Several days after the 9/11 attacks, Sikh-American gas station owner Balbir Singh Sodhi was murdered in Arizona by a man who took Sodhi to be a member of al-Qaeda, marking the first recorded hate-crime in America motivated by 9/11. CNN would go on to suggest an increase in hate crimes against Sikh men in the US and the UK after the 9/11 attacks.[181][182]
In an attempt to foster Sikh leaders in the Western world, youth initiatives by a number of organisations exist. The Sikh Youth Alliance of North America sponsors an annual Sikh Youth Symposium.
The Sikh diaspora has been most successful in the UK, and UK Sikhs have the highest percentage of home ownership (82%) of any religious community.[183] UK Sikhs are the second-wealthiest religious group in the UK (after the Jewish community), with a median total household wealth of £229,000.[184]
In May 2019, the UK government exempted "Kirpan" from the list of banned knives. The U.K. government passed an amendment by which Sikhs in the country would be allowed to carry kirpans and use them during religious and cultural functions. The bill was amended to ensure that it would not impact the right of the British Sikh community to possess and supply kirpans, or religious swords.[185][186] Similarly, the Sikh American Legal Defense and Education Fund overturned a 1925 Oregon law banning the wearing of turbans by teachers and government officials in 2010.[187]
Agriculture
Historically, most Indians have been farmers and 66 per cent of the Indian population are engaged in agriculture.[188] Indian Sikhs are employed in agriculture to a lesser extent; India's 2001 census found 39 per cent of the working population of the Punjab employed in this sector.[189] According to the Swedish political scientist Ishtiaq Ahmad, a factor in the success of the Indian green revolution was the "Sikh cultivator, often the Jat and Kamboj or Kamboh, whose courage, perseverance, spirit of enterprise and muscle prowess proved crucial."[190] However, Indian physicist Vandana Shiva[191] wrote that the green revolution made the "negative and destructive impacts of science (i.e. the green revolution) on nature and society" invisible, and was a catalyst for Punjabi Sikh and Hindu tensions despite a growth in material wealth.
Sikhs in modern history
Main article: List of Sikhs
Manmohan Singh is an Indian economist, academic, and politician who served as the 13th Prime Minister of India from 2004 to 2014. The first and only Sikh and non-Hindu in office, Singh was also the first prime minister since Jawaharlal Nehru to be re-elected after completing a full five-year term.
Notable Sikhs in science include nuclear scientist Piara Singh Gill, fibre-optics pioneer Narinder Singh Kapany; and physicist, science writer and broadcaster Simon Singh.
In business, the UK-based clothing retailers New Look and the Thai-based JASPAL[192] were founded by Sikhs. India's largest pharmaceutical company, Ranbaxy Laboratories, is headed by Sikhs.[193] Apollo Tyres is headed by Onkar Singh Kanwar. In Singapore, Kartar Singh Thakral expanded his family's trading business, Thakral Holdings,[194] into assets totalling almost US$1.4 billion and is Singapore's 25th-richest person. Sikh Bob Singh Dhillon is the first Indo-Canadian billionaire. Mastercard's CEO was a Sikh named Ajaypal Singh Banga.
In sports, Sikhs include England cricketer Monty Panesar; former 400-metre runner Milkha Singh; his son, professional golfer Jeev Milkha Singh; Indian wrestler and actor Dara Singh; former Indian hockey team captains Sandeep Singh, Ajitpal Singh and Balbir Singh Sr.; former Indian cricket captain Bishen Singh Bedi; Harbhajan Singh, India's most successful off spin cricket bowler; Yuvraj Singh, World Cup winning allrounder; Maninder Singh, World Cup winning off spinner; and Navjot Singh Sidhu, former Indian cricketer-turned-politician.
Sikhs in Bollywood, in the arts in general, include poet and lyricist Rajkavi Inderjeet Singh Tulsi; Gulzar; Jagjit Singh; Dharmendra; Sunny Deol; writer Khushwant Singh; actresses Neetu Singh, Simran Judge, Poonam Dhillon, Mahi Gill, Esha Deol, Parminder Nagra, Gul Panag, Mona Singh, Namrata Singh Gujral; and directors Gurinder Chadha and Parminder Gill.
Sikhs in Punjabi Music industry include Sidhu Moosewala, Diljit Dosanjh, Babu Singh Maan, Surjit Bindrakhia, Ammy Virk, Karan Aujla, Jazzy B, Miss Pooja.
In the Indian and British armies
Main article: Sikhs in the British Indian Army
According to a 1994 estimate, Punjabi Sikhs and Hindus comprised 10 to 15% of all ranks in the Indian Army. The Indian government does not release religious or ethnic origins of a military personnel, but a 1991 report by Tim McGirk estimated that 20% of Indian Army officers were Sikhs.[195] Together with the Gurkhas recruited from Nepal, the Maratha Light Infantry from Maharashtra and the Jat Regiment, the Sikhs are one of the few communities to have exclusive regiments in the Indian Army.[195] The Sikh Regiment is one of the most-decorated regiments in the army, with 73 Battle Honours, 14 Victoria Crosses,[196] 21 first-class Indian Orders of Merit (equivalent to the Victoria Cross),[197] 15 Theatre Honours, 5 COAS Unit Citations, two Param Vir Chakras, 14 Maha Vir Chakras, 5 Kirti Chakras, 67 Vir Chakras, and 1,596 other awards. The highest-ranking general in the history of the Indian Air Force is a Punjabi Sikh, Marshal of the Air Force Arjan Singh.[198] Plans by the United Kingdom Ministry of Defence for a Sikh infantry regiment were scrapped in June 2007.[199]
Sikhs supported the British during the Indian Rebellion of 1857.[200] By the beginning of World War I, Sikhs in the British Indian Army totaled over 100,000 (20 per cent of the force). Until 1945, fourteen Victoria Crosses (VC) were awarded to Sikhs, a per-capita regimental record.[196] In 2002, the names of all Sikh VC and George Cross recipients were inscribed on the monument of the Memorial Gates[201] on Constitution Hill, next to Buckingham Palace.[202] Chanan Singh Dhillon was instrumental in campaigning for the memorial.
During World War I, Sikh battalions fought in Egypt, Palestine, Mesopotamia, Gallipoli and France. Six battalions of the Sikh Regiment were raised during World War II, serving in the Second Battle of El Alamein, the Burma and Italian campaigns and in Iraq, receiving 27 battle honours. Around the world, Sikhs are commemorated in Commonwealth cemeteries.[203]
Sikhs in the First World War, marching with their scripture, Guru Granth Sahib
Sikhs in the First World War, marching with their scripture, Guru Granth Sahib
Postcard of marching Sikhs with rifles
French postcard depicting the arrival of the 15th Sikh Regiment in France during World War I; the bilingual postcard reads, "Gentlemen of India marching to chasten the German hooligans"
Indian Sikh soldiers in the Italian campaign
Indian Sikh soldiers in the Italian campaign
Sikh soldier with captured Swastika flag of Nazi Germany
Sikh soldier with captured Swastika flag of Nazi Germany
See caption
Japanese soldiers shooting blindfolded Sikh prisoners in World War II
Khalistan movement
Sikhs in London protesting against Indian government actions
The Khalistan movement is a Sikh separatist movement, which seeks to create a separate country called Khalistān ("The Land of the Khalsa") in the Punjab region of South Asia to serve as a homeland for Sikhs.[204] The territorial definition of the proposed country Khalistan consists of both the Punjab, India, along with Punjab, Pakistan, and includes parts of Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, and Rajasthan.[205][206][207]
Khalistan movement began as an expatriate venture.[208] In 1971, the first explicit call for Khalistan was made in an advertisement published in the New York Times by an expat (Jagjit Singh Chohan).[209] By proclaiming the formation of Khalistan, he was able to collect millions of dollars from the Sikh diaspora.[210] On 12 April 1980, he declared the formation of the "National Council of Khalistan", at Anandpur Sahib.[211] He declared himself as the President of the council, and named Balbir Singh Sandhu as its Secretary General. In May 1980, Chohan traveled to London and announced the formation of Khalistan. A similar announcement was made by Balbir Singh Sandhu in Amritsar, where he began releasing stamps and currency of Khalistan. The inaction of the authorities in Amritsar and elsewhere was decried as a political stunt by the Congress(I) party of Indira Gandhi by the Akali Dal, headed by the Sikh leader Harchand Singh Longowal.[212]
The movement flourished in the Indian state of Punjab following Operation Blue Star and the Anti-Sikh Pogroms. As proponents were able to generate funding from a grieving diaspora. In June 1985, Air India Flight 182 was bombed by Babbar Khalsa, a pro-Khalistani terrorist organization.[213] In January 1986, the Golden Temple was occupied by militants belonging to All India Sikh Students Federation and Damdami Taksal.[214] On 26 January 1986, a gathering known as the Sarbat Khalsa (a de facto parliament) passed a resolution (gurmattā) favouring the creation of Khalistan. Subsequently, a number of rebel militant groups in favour of Khalistan waged a major insurgency against the government of India. Indian security forces suppressed the insurgency in the early 1990s, but Sikh political groups such as the Khalsa Raj Party and SAD (A) continued to pursue an independent Khalistan through non-violent means.[215][216][217] Pro-Khalistan organisations such as Dal Khalsa (International) are also active outside India, supported by a section of the Sikh diaspora.[218]
In the 1990s, the insurgency abated,[219] and the movement failed to reach its objective due to multiple reasons including a heavy police crackdown on separatists, divisions among the Sikhs and loss of support from the Sikh population.[220] However, various pro-Khalistan groups, both political and militant, remain committed to the separatist movement. There are claims of funding from Sikhs outside India to attract young people into militant groups.[221] There have also been multiple claims that the movement is motivated and supported by the Pakistan's external intelligence agency, the ISI.[222][223]
Art and culture
Main articles: Sikh art and culture and Punjabi culture
Intricate design
Opaque watercolour-on-paper Nakashi art; about 1880, by an unknown artist from Lahore or Amritsar, and used to decorate the walls of Harmandir Sahib
Large building on the water
Darbar Sahib, circa 1870
Sikh art and culture are nearly synonymous with that of Punjab, and Sikhs are easily recognised by their distinctive turban (Dastar). Punjab has been called India's melting pot, due to the confluence of invading cultures from the rivers from which the region gets its name. Sikh culture is therefore a synthesis of cultures. Sikhism has forged a unique architecture, which S. S. Bhatti described as "inspired by Guru Nanak's creative mysticism" and "is a mute harbinger of holistic humanism based on pragmatic spirituality".[224] The American non-profit organization United Sikhs has fought to have Sikh included on the U.S. census as well, arguing that Sikhs "self-identify as an ethnic minority" and believe "that they are more than just a religion".[225]
During the Mughal and Afghan persecution of the Sikhs during the 17th and 18th centuries,[226] the latter were concerned with preserving their religion and gave little thought to art and culture. With the rise of Ranjit Singh and the Sikh Raj in Lahore and Delhi, there was a change in the landscape of art and culture in Punjab; Hindus and Sikhs could build decorated shrines without the fear of destruction or looting.[227]
The Sikh Confederacy was the catalyst for a uniquely Sikh form of expression, with Ranjit Singh commissioning forts, palaces, bungas (residential places), and colleges in a Sikh style. Sikh architecture is characterised by gilded fluted domes, cupolas, kiosks, stone lanterns, ornate balusters, and square roofs. A pinnacle of Sikh style is Harmandir Sahib (also known as the Golden Temple) in Amritsar.
Sikh culture is influenced by militaristic motifs (with the Khanda the most obvious), and most Sikh artifacts—except for the relics of the Gurus—have a military theme. This theme is evident in the Sikh festivals of Hola Mohalla and Vaisakhi, which feature marching and displays of valor.
Although the art and culture of the Sikh diaspora have merged with that of other Indo-immigrant groups into categories like "British Asian", "Indo-Canadian" and "Desi-Culture", a minor cultural phenomenon that can be described as "political Sikh" has arisen.[228] The art of diaspora Sikhs like Amarjeet Kaur Nandhra, and Amrit and Rabindra Kaur Singh (The Singh Twins)[229] is influenced by their Sikhism and current affairs in Punjab.
Bhangra and Giddha are two forms of Punjabi folk dancing which have been adapted and pioneered by Sikhs. Punjabi Sikhs have championed these forms of expression worldwide, resulting in Sikh culture becoming linked to Bhangra (although "Bhangra is not a Sikh institution but a Punjabi one").[230]
Painting
Painting of Guru Nanak with companions, Bhai Mardana and Bhai Bala, in debate with the Siddhs
Sikh painting is a direct offshoot of the Kangra school of painting. In 1810, Ranjeet Singh (1780–1839) occupied Kangra Fort and appointed Sardar Desa Singh Majithia his governor of the Punjab hills. In 1813, the Sikh army occupied Guler State, and Raja Bhup Singh became a vassal of the Sikhs. With the Sikh kingdom of Lahore becoming the paramount power, some of the Pahari painters from Guler migrated to Lahore for the patronage of Maharaja Ranjeet Singh and his Sardars.
The Sikh school adapted Kangra painting to Sikh needs and ideals. Its main subjects are the ten Sikh gurus and stories from Guru Nanak's Janamsakhis. The tenth Guru, Gobind Singh, left a deep impression on the followers of the new faith because of his courage and sacrifices. Hunting scenes and portraits are also common in Sikh painting.
Shrines
There is an old Sikh shrine called 'Prachin Guru Nanak Math', which lies at a small hill, just next to Bishnumati bridge at Balaju. Guru Nanak is said to have visited Nepal during his third Udasi while returning from Mount Kailash in Tibet. Nanak is said to have stayed at Balaju and Thapathali in Kathmandu. The Nanak Math shrine at Balaju is managed by the Guru-Ji and the Udasin Akardha, a sect developed by Guru Nanak's son, Sri Chandra.[231][232]
See also
History of Punjab
Ganga Sagar (urn)
Jat Sikh
List of British Sikhs
Mazhabi Sikh
Sects of Sikhism
Sikhism by country
Sikhism in India
Turban training centre
Indian Sikhs number approximately 21 million people and account for 1.7% of India's population as of 2011, forming the country's fourth-largest religious group. The majority of the nation's Sikhs live in the northern state of Punjab, which is the only Sikh-majority administrative division in the world.
India is home to the majority of the global Sikh population, and also has the second-largest Sikh proportion in the world, behind Canada.
History
Main article: History of Sikhism
Partition
Sikh organizations, including the Chief Khalsa Dewan and Shiromani Akali Dal led by Master Tara Singh, strongly opposed the partition of India, viewing the possibility of the creation of Pakistan as inviting persecution.[4]
Demography
The Gurdwara Bangla Sahib
Population
India's Sikh population stands at 20.8 million, which is only 1.72% of the country's total population. Out of approximately 25-30 million Sikhs in the world, the majority of them, 20.8-22 million, live in India that is about (83.2%-84.1%) of the world's Sikh population.[5][6] Sikhs have a fertility rate of 1.6 in India, which is the lowest in the nation as per as according to year 2019-21 estimation.[7] Half a million Sikhs have made Canada their home, and though they constitute 1.4% of the total population, they have had a notable impact on Canadian society and national politics.[8]
Out of the total Sikhs in India, 77% are concentrated in state of Punjab. Sikhism is the dominant religion in Punjab, India, where it is followed by 16 million constituting 57.7% of the population, the only Indian state where Sikhism is the majority faith. By 2050, according to Pew research center based on growth rate of current Sikh population between (2001-2011), India will have 30,012,386 Sikhs by half-century which will be more than that of any country including the west.[9]
National and ethnic origins
Although Punjabi Sikhs form the majority of the Sikh population, the Sikh community is varied and includes people who speak the Pashto language, the Brahui language, the Telugu language, Marathi language, Assamese language, Hindi language, Sindhi language, Bengali language and many more. The many communities following Sikhism is detailed below.
Afghan Sikhs
Main article: Sikhism in Afghanistan
The Sikhs of Afghanistan are primarily Punjabi merchants and immigrants.[10][11] They speak the Punjabi language within themselves but are usually fluent in Dari and occasionally Pashto as well.[12]
Bengali Sikhs
Sikhism in the Bengal region dates back to 1504 but has declined after the partition.[13] Sikhism first emerged in Bengal when Guru Nanak visited Bengal in 1504 and established a number of Gurdwaras.[14]
By the early 18th century, there were a few Sikhs living in the region of Bengal.[15] One famous Sikh who lived during this time period was Omichand, a local Khatri Sikh banker and landlord who participate in the conspiracy against Nawab Siraj ud-Daulah with the East India Company.[15][16] The Flemish artist Frans Baltazard Solvyns arrived in Calcutta in 1791 and observed many Sikhs, whom one could differentiate from the rest of the land's inhabitants by their garbs and traditions.[15] He etched depictions of a Khalsa Sikh and a Nanakpanthi, which was published in 1799.[15]
Gurdwara Nanak Shahi is the principal Sikh Gurdwara (prayer hall) in Dhaka, Bangladesh. It is located at the campus of the University of Dhaka and considered to be the biggest of the 7 Gurdwaras in the country. After the Partition of India, the Sikh community left for India.[14]
After the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 and Bangladesh Liberation War, Indian Sikh soldiers helped renovate the Gurdwaras left in Bangladesh.[citation needed] Shri Guru Tegh Bahadur ji visited Dhaka. There is another Sikh temple known as the Gurudwara Sangat Tola. Many Sikhs also used to visit a well at the ruins of Jafarabad which they believed has waters with curative powers.[17]
There was a presence of Sikhism in Sylhet Division after Guru Nanak's visit in 1508. Kahn Singh Nabha has stated that in memory of Nanak's visit, Gurdwara Sahib Sylhet was established.[citation needed] This Gurdwara was visited twice by Tegh Bahadur and many hukamnamas were issued to this temple by Guru Gobind Singh. In 1897, the gurdwara fell down after the earthquake. Nearly all the Sikhs of Sylhet in the early 18th century were found in North Cachar where they used to work for the Assam Bengal Railway.[18] There are around 1 lakh Bengali people who follow Sikhism as their religion in both West Bengal and Bangladesh.[19]
Assamese Sikhs
The presence of Sikhism has been existing in Assam[20] for over 200 years. The community traces its origins to the times of Maharaja Ranjit Singh who took his army to Assam and put some influence of the religion towards the locals. According to the 2001 census, there were 22,519 Sikhs in Assam,[21] out of which 4,000 are Assamese Sikhs.[19]
Assamese Sikhs follow the Sikh religion and celebrate Sikh festivals as they also celebrate cultural festivals such as Magh Bihu and wear traditional Assamese dress. Their language is the Assamese language.[19][22]
Agrahari Sikhs
Agrahari Sikh is a Sikh community found in Bihar and Jharkhand. Agrahari Sikhs, also known as Bihari Sikhs, have existed for centuries in Bihar and Jharkhand.[23]
Bihari Sikhs share their culture with the local Bihari community. The men generally wear the local dhoti and women wear the Sari. They also celebrate Hindu festivals such as the Chath festival.[24]
Dakhni Sikhs
Dakhni Sikhs are from the Deccan Plateau in India located within the states of Telangana and Andhra Pradesh.[25] The traditional dress of women is the sari. The native language of Dakhni Sikhs is the Telugu language.[26]
Kashmiri Sikhs
Ethnic Kashmiri Sikhs speak the Kashmiri language and observe Kashmiri culture. They trace their religious heritage to the influence of Sikh soldiers who settled in Kashmir under the Maharaja Ranjit Singh rule in 1819. However, the soldiers permanently settled in Kashmir.[27]
Punjabi Sikhs
Punjabi Sikhs are the native Sikhs of undivided Punjab region who speaks the Punjabi language as their mother tongue and practice Punjabi culture. Their traditional dress includes the Punjabi Salwar Suit, Punjabi Tamba and Kurta, Punjabi juti and Patiala salwar.
In addition to the Sikh festivals using the Nanakshahi calendar, Punjabi Sikhs observe traditional Punjabi festivals using the Punjabi calendar.
Sindhi Sikhs
Main article: Sindhis in India
See also: Sikhism in Pakistan
In addition to celebrating Sikh festivals, Sindhi Sikhs celebrate cultural festivals such as Cheti Chand, the Sindhi new year. Sindhi Sikhs speak the Sindhi language. Most of the Sindhi Hindus are Nanak Panthis who believe in 10 Sikh Gurus and regularly go to guru dwara and most of the Marriage also takes place in Gurudwara.[28]
South Indian Sikhs
There are Sikh communities in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra who converted to Sikhism centuries ago.
The Sikhs comprise Banjara and Satnami. The process of blending the religion into southern India for the Sikligars began at the time of 10th Sikh Guru Gobind Singh, who came to the Deccan and died in 1708 at Nanded (Maharashtra).
It all came by the Sikligars as they came to southern India as expert arms-making camp followers of the tenth Guru. Sikligar is a compound of the Persian words `saiqal` and `gar` meaning a polisher of metal.[25] The traditional occupation of the Sikligars is crafting kitchen implements.
Banjaras are a nomadic tribe who traditionally travelled with merchandise and are found across a large swathe of northern India, as well as in the south. Sikh Banjaras too travelled with armies of the past supplying them with provisions.[25]
Geographical distribution
Sikhs as percentage of total population in different districts of India, 2011 Census
Indian Sikhs by state and union territory
State/U.T. 2011 Indian Census[29]
Pop. %
Punjab 16,004,754 57.69%
Haryana 1,243,752 4.91%
Rajasthan 872,930 1.27%
Uttar Pradesh 643,500 0.32%
Delhi 570,581 3.4%
Uttarakhand 236,340 2.34%
Jammu and Kashmir 232,585 1.9%
Maharashtra 223,247 0.2%
Madhya Pradesh 151,412 0.21%
Chandigarh 138,329 13.11%
Himachal Pradesh 79,896 1.16%
Jharkhand 71,422 0.22%
Chhattisgarh 70,036 0.27%
West Bengal 63,523 0.07%
Gujarat 58,246 0.1%
Telangana 30,340 0.09%
Karnataka 28,773 0.05%
Bihar 23,779 0.02%
Odisha 21,991 0.05%
Assam 20,672 0.07%
Tamil Nadu 14,601 0.02%
Andhra Pradesh 9,904 0.02%
Kerala 3,814 0.01%
Arunachal Pradesh 3,287 0.24%
Meghalaya 3,045 0.1%
Ladakh 2,263 0.83%
Nagaland 1,890 0.1%
Sikkim 1,868 0.31%
Manipur 1,527 0.05%
Goa 1,473 0.1%
Andaman and Nicobar Islands 1,286 0.34%
Tripura 1,070 0.03%
Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu 389 0.07%
Puducherry 297 0.02%
Mizoram 286 0.03%
Lakshadweep 8 0.01%
India 20,833,116 1.72%
Notable Indian Sikhs
Main article: List of Sikhs
Though Sikhs are a minority in India, the community occupies a significant place in the country. The former Chief Justice of India, Jagdish Singh Khehar, and the former Prime Minister of India, Dr. Manmohan Singh[30] are Sikh, as is former President of India Gyani Zail Singh. Almost every council of ministers in India has included Sikh representatives.
Sikhs are also conspicuous in the Indian army, primarily because of their history as defenders of righteousness, they formed the sword arm of the British empire. The Late Indian officer with a 5 star rank, Arjan Singh, is a Sikh. Sikhs have also led the Indian army through JJ Singh and the Indian Air Force was led by Air Chief Marshal Dilbagh Singh. Sikhs have been prominent in Indian sports, with the Indian individual gold medalist in Olympics, Abhinav Bindra, being a Sikh. Similarly they occupy important official positions, like Deputy Chairman of the Planning Commission, Montek Singh Ahluwalia;[31] governor Surjit Singh Barnala.
Sikhs are also known for entrepreneurial business in India. Milkha Singh, also known as The Flying Sikh, is a former Indian track and field sprinter who was introduced to the sport while serving in the Indian Army. One reason for visibility of Sikhs in the Indian spectrum is the disproportionate role played by the Sikh community during the Indian freedom struggle, with Bhagat Singh remaining a youth icon to Indian youth.[32]
See also
flag India portal
List of famous Sikhs
Religion in India
Cochin Sikhs
Sikhism
Sikhism in Pakistan
Sikh culture
The Sikhs are adherents to Sikhism, the fifth largest organized religion in the world, with around 25 million adherents.[1] Sikh History is around 500 years and in that time the Sikhs have developed unique expressions of art and culture which are influenced by their faith and synthesize traditions from many other cultures depending on the locality of the adherents of the religion. Sikhism is the only religion that originated in the Punjab region with all other religions coming from outside Punjab (with the possible exception of Punjabi Hinduism since the oldest Hindu scripture – the Rig Veda – was composed in the Punjab region. Some other religions, like Jainism, may also claim to have originated in Punjab since Jain symbolism has been found among artifacts of the Indus Valley Civilization). All the Sikh gurus, many saints, and many of the martyrs in Sikh history were from Punjab and from the Punjabi people (as well as other parts of the Indian Subcontinent). Punjabi culture and Sikhism are mistakenly considered inseparably intertwined. "Sikh" properly refers to adherents of Sikhism as a religion, strictly not an ethnic group. However, because Sikhism has seldom sought converts, most Sikhs share strong ethno-religious ties, therefore it is a common stereotype that all Sikhs share the same ethnicity. Many countries, such as the U.K., therefore misconcievingly recognize Sikh as a designated ethnicity on their censuses.[2] The American non-profit organization United Sikhs has fought to have Sikhs included on the U.S. census as well, arguing that Sikhs "self-identify as an 'ethnic minority'" and believe "that they are more than just a religion".[3]
Cultural societies of the Sikhs
True-colour photograph - ‘Group of Tibetans at the “Golden Temple” of the Sikhs’, 15 January 1914
There is a common misconception that all Sikhs belong to the Punjab region. The religion's birthplace of Punjab itself has been called "India’s melting pot",[4] and many other parts of Northern India due to the heavy influence of invading cultures, such as Mughal and Persian, that mirrors the confluence of rivers from which the region gets its name(from Persian, "panj" پنج meaning "five" and "-āb" آب meaning water thus meaning land of the five waters). Thus, Sikh culture is to a large extent a result of groups of various cultures uniting together, thus forming a unique one.
Sikhism has forged a unique form of architecture which Bhatti describes as being "inspired by Guru Nanak’s creative mysticism" such that Sikh architecture "is a mute harbinger of holistic humanism based on pragmatic spirituality".[5] The keynote of Sikh architecture is the Gurdwara which is the personification of the "melting pot" of Indian cultures, full of Mughal, Aryan and Persian influences. The reign of the Sikh Empire was the single biggest catalyst in the creation of a uniquely Sikh form of expression, with Maharajah Ranjit Singh patronising the building of forts, palaces, bungs (residential places), colleges, etc. that can be said to be of the Sikh Style. The "jewel in the crown" of the Sikh Style is the Harmandir Sahib.
Sikh culture and identity are heavily influenced by militaristic motifs, with Khanda being the most obvious; thus it is no surprise that the majority of Sikh artifacts, independent of the relics of the Gurus, have a military theme. This motif is again evident in the Sikh festivals of Hola Mohalla and Vasakhi which feature marching and practicing displays of valor, respectively.
The art, culture, identity, and society of the Sikhs have been merged with the different localities and ethnicities of different Sikhs into categories such as 'Agrahari Sikhs', 'Dakhni Sikhs' and 'Assamese Sikhs'; however there has emerged a niche cultural phenomenon that can be described as 'Political Sikh'. The art of prominent diaspora Sikhs such as Amarjeet Kaur Nandhra,[6] and Amrit and Rabindra Kaur Singh (The Singh Twins),[7] is partly informed by their Sikh spirituality and influence.
Culture of Sikh communities
Dusenbery (2014) states that Punjabi Sikhs form the majority of the Sikh population. He notes that "some Sindhis and other South Asians have been affiliated at the margins as Nanakpanthis (‘followers of Nanak’s path’) or Sehajdhari (‘slow adopter’) Sikhs" but in the main, "the Sikh Panth has remained largely a Punjabi affair".[8] However, the Sikh community is varied and includes people who speak the Pashto language, the Sindhi language, the Telugu language and many more. The many communities following Sikhism are detailed below.
Afghani Sikhs
Main article: Sikhism in Afghanistan
The Sikhs of Afghanistan have a unique culture which has elements of the culture of Afghanistan. Tatla (2014) states that there were 3,000 Sikhs in Afghanistan in his book The Sikh Diaspora which was published in 2014.[9]
American Sikhs
Main article: Sikhism in the United States
Yogi Bhajan is credited with raising awareness of Sikhism amongst the non-Asian community of the United States of America. This community is known as the white Sikh community which practices Sikhism and maintains a distinct culture.[10]
Assamese Sikhs
See also: Sikhism_in_India § Assamese_Sikhs
The presence of Sikhism has existed in Assam[11] for over 200 years. The community traces its origins to the times of Maharaja Ranjit Singh who took his army to Assam and put some influence of the religion towards the locals. According to the 2001 census, there were 22,519 Sikhs in Assam,[12] out of which 4,000 are Assamese Sikhs.[13]
Assamese Sikhs follow the Sikh religion and celebrate Sikh festivals. They also celebrate cultural festivals such as Magh Bihu and wear traditional Assamese dress. Their language is the Assamese language.[13][14]
Agrahari Sikhs
Main article: Agrahari Sikh
Agrahari Sikh is a Sikh community found in eastern India including the states of West Bengal, Bihar and Jharkhand. Agrahari Sikhs, also known as Bihari Sikhs, have existed for centuries in Bihar and Jharkhand.[15]
Bihari Sikhs share their culture with the local Bihari community. The men generally wear the local dhoti and women wear the sari. They also celebrate cultural festivals such as the Chath festival.[16]
Dakhni Sikhs
See also: Sikhism_in_India § South_Indian_Sikhs
Painting depicting the wedding of Guru Nanak from a 19th century illustrated manuscript of the Janamsakhi from Maharashtra
Dakhni Sikhs are from the Deccan Plateau in India located within the states of Maharashtra, Telegana and Andhra Pradesh.[17] The traditional dress of women is the sari. The native languages of Dakhni Sikhs include Marathi and Telugu.[18]
Kashmiri Sikhs
Ethnic Kashmiri Sikhs speak the Kashmiri language and observe Kashmiri culture. They trace their religious heritage to the influence of Sikh soldiers who settled in Kashmir under Maharaja Ranjit Singh's rule in 1819. However, the soldiers permanently settled in Kashmir.[19]
Punjabi Sikhs
Main article: Punjabi Sikhs
See also: Punjabis, Sikhism in Pakistan, and Religion in Punjab
Punjabi Sikhs follow the Punjabi culture. Their traditional dress includes the Punjabi Salwar Suit, Punjabi Tamba and Kurta, Punjabi juti and Patiala salwar.
In addition to the Sikh festivals using the Nanakshahi calendar, Punjabi Sikhs observe traditional Punjabi festivals using the Punjabi calendar.
Sindhi Sikhs
Main article: Sindhis in India
See also: Sikhism in Pakistan
In addition to celebrating Sikh festivals, Sindhi Sikhs celebrate cultural festivals such as Cheti Chand, the Sindhi new year. Sindhi Sikhs speak the Sindhi language. Khalsa Sikhs historically had a stronghold in Kandhra, Khairpur during the reign of the Talpur Mirs (1775–1955).[20] However, most Sikhs in Sindh are followers of the Udasi, Sewapanthi, and Nanakpanthi sects.[21][22] Only around 8,000–10,000 people in present-day Sindh are mainstream, orthodox Khalsa Sikh. The vast majority belong to the aforementioned sects whom may practice varying degrees of religious kinship and syncretism with Hinduism and Sufism.[23][24][25][26] Udasis are generally concentrated in northern Sindh whilst Nanakpanthis can be found throughout the region except in areas of the Rajasthani cultural sphere (Dhatki-speaking areas) who practice a more mainstream, non-syncretic, and differentiated form of Hinduism.[27] Nanakpanth and Udasipanth are different sects of Sikhism, with a major difference being that Udasis adopt a life-hood of celibacy whilst Nanakpanthis freely marry and bear children.[22] Another Sikh sect, the Jagiasi, who claim to have been founded by the younger son of Guru Nanak named Lakhmi Das, were also historically prevalent in Sindh, especially during the period of Baba Gurupat, who was a descendant of Guru Nanak.[28][29][30][31] Baba Gurupat conducted missionary works in Sindh and founded many Jagiasu tikanas (seats; a term for a place of worship in many Sikh sects) in the region, specifically in Khairpur, Hyderabad, Halani, and Kandyaro.[28][29][30][31] Sindhis may have been converting to Sikhism ever since the time of Guru Nanak, who traveled to the region.[32] Janamsakhi literature narrate that Guru Nanak traveled to Shikarpur, possibly as far as Sukkur.[32] Sindhi women learnt the Gurmukhi script in-order to understand the Guru Granth Sahib.[32] A lot of converts to Sikhism came from the Amil caste.[32] The Chief Khalsa Diwan sent out orthodox Sikh missionaries to Sindh in the 1930s to preach towards Sehajdharis (literally "slow adopters"), which dominated the landscape of Sikhism in Sindh.[32] The result was the number of Keshdhari (those who keep uncut hair) Sikhs recorded increasing from 1,000 in the 1901 census to over 39,000 in the 1941 census.[32] Sant Thahriya Singh was a prominent Sindhi Sikh saint of the 20th century, and many gurdwaras are constructed in his name in the region.[32]
South Indian Sikhs
See also: Sikhism_in_India § South_Indian_Sikhs
Tanjore-style painting of a Sikh couple from South India, circa 1805
There are Sikh communities in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra who converted to Sikhism centuries ago.
The Sikhs comprise Banjara and Satnami. The process of blending the religion into southern India for the Sikligars began at the time of the 10th Sikh Guru Gobind Singh, who came to the Deccan and died in 1708 at Nanded (Maharashtra).
It all came by the Sikligars as they came to southern India as expert arms-making camp followers of the tenth Guru. Sikligar is a compound of the Persian words `saiqal` and `gar` meaning a polisher of metal.[17] The traditional occupation of the Sikligars is crafting kitchen implements.
Banjaras are a nomadic tribe who traditionally travelled with merchandise and are found across a large swathe of northern India, as well as in the south. Sikh Banjaras too travelled with armies of the past supplying them with provisions.[17]
Gallery
A frontispiece to the Dasam Granth.
A frontispiece to the Dasam Granth.
The Bardari of Ranjit Singh, built in the Hazuri Bagh.
The Bardari of Ranjit Singh, built in the Hazuri Bagh.
Gateway of the Ram Bagh, North-East of Amritsar; built by Maharajah Ranjit Singh.
Gateway of the Ram Bagh, North-East of Amritsar; built by Maharajah Ranjit Singh.
A Sikh helmet from the late 18th century. Note the adaptation on the helmet's crown to allow for a Sikh's uncut hair.
A Sikh helmet from the late 18th century. Note the adaptation on the helmet's crown to allow for a Sikh's uncut hair.
One of the gates at the Sikh temple called Gurdwara Bangla Sahib, in Delhi.
One of the gates at the Sikh temple called Gurdwara Bangla Sahib, in Delhi.
Illuminated Adi Granth folio with nisan (autograph or signature) of Guru Gobind Singh.
Illuminated Adi Granth folio with nisan (autograph or signature) of Guru Gobind Singh.
Detail from Gurdwara Baba Atal.
Detail from Gurdwara Baba Atal.
A Opaque Watercolour on paper copy of Nakashi 1880c
A Opaque Watercolour on paper copy of Nakashi 1880c
Harmandir Sahib or the Golden Temple, Amritsar, India.
Harmandir Sahib or the Golden Temple, Amritsar, India.
Interior of the Akal Takht.
Interior of the Akal Takht.
Painting of the durbar of Maharaja Dalip Singh Sukerchakia.
Painting of the durbar of Maharaja Dalip Singh Sukerchakia.
Painting of Ranjit Singh and Hira Singh of Nabha.
Painting of Ranjit Singh and Hira Singh of Nabha.
The Sikh Order of Merit with a Portrait of Ranjit Singh, directly inspired by the French Légion d'honneur
The Sikh Order of Merit with a Portrait of Ranjit Singh, directly inspired by the French Légion d'honneur
Ceiling fresco of female figures from an abandoned Gurdwara located in Mangat village in Pakistan
Ceiling fresco of female figures from an abandoned Gurdwara located in Mangat village in Pakistan
Guru Granth Sahib manuscript housed at Sri Keshgarh Sahib, Anandpur and dated to 1803 B.S. (1746 C.E.) beautifully decorated with gold and floral arabesques
Guru Granth Sahib manuscript housed at Sri Keshgarh Sahib, Anandpur and dated to 1803 B.S. (1746 C.E.) beautifully decorated with gold and floral arabesques
Equestrian portrait of Guru Gobind Singh attended upon by a Nihang, circa 1850
Equestrian portrait of Guru Gobind Singh attended upon by a Nihang, circa 1850
Guru Nanak engaged in an interfaith dialogue, Janamsakhi painting
Guru Nanak engaged in an interfaith dialogue, Janamsakhi painting
Holy men visiting Guru Nanak in a mountainous forest, Mewar painting
Holy men visiting Guru Nanak in a mountainous forest, Mewar painting
Illustrations of female figures on a chola (chogha) robe that is said to have belonged to Guru Nanak which was made by and given as a gift by his sister, Bebe Nanaki
Illustrations of female figures on a chola (chogha) robe that is said to have belonged to Guru Nanak which was made by and given as a gift by his sister, Bebe Nanaki
See also
Sikh art
Indian art
Turban training centre
Sikh architecture
Sikh scriptures
History of Sikhism
Punjabi culture
Shastar Vidya
Sikh chola
Sikh Ajaibghar
Mehdiana Sahib
Punjabi culture grew out of the settlements along the five rivers (the name Punjab, is derived from two Persian words, Panj meaning "Five" and Âb meaning "Water") which served as an important route to the Near East as early as the ancient Indus Valley civilization, dating back to 3000 BCE.[1] Agriculture has been the major economic feature of the Punjab and has therefore formed the foundation of Punjabi culture, with one's social status being determined by landownership.[1] The Punjab emerged as an important agricultural region, especially following the Green Revolution during the mid-1960's to the mid-1970's, has been described as the "breadbasket of both India and Pakistan".[1] Besides being known for agriculture and trade, the Punjab is also a region that over the centuries has experienced many foreign invasions and consequently has a long-standing history of warfare, as the Punjab is situated on the principal route of invasions through the northwestern frontier of the Indian subcontinent, which promoted to adopt a lifestyle that entailed engaging in warfare to protect the land.[1] Warrior culture typically elevates the value of the community's honour (izzat), which is highly esteemed by Punjabis.[1]
Music
Main article: Music of Punjab
Bhangra is one of the many Punjabi musical art forms that are increasingly listened to in the West and becoming a mainstream favourite.[2] Punjabi music is used by western musicians in many ways, such as mixing with other compositions to produce award-winning music. Sufi music and Qawali, commonly practiced in Pakistani Punjab; are other important genres in the Punjab region.[3][4]
Dance
See also: Punjabi dance
Punjabi dances are performed either by men or by women. The dances range from solo to group dances and also sometimes dances are done along with traditional musical instruments. Bhangra is one of the most famous dances originating in the Punjab by farmers during the harvesting season. It was mainly performed while farmers did agricultural chores. As they did each farming activity they would perform bhangra moves on the spot.[5] This allowed them to finish their job in a pleasurable way. For many years, farmers performed bhangra to showcase a sense of accomplishment and to welcome the new harvesting season.[6] Traditional bhangra is performed in a circle[7] and is performed using traditional dance steps. Traditional bhangra is now also performed on occasions other than during the harvest season.[8][9] Ghidda is also a famous dance from Punjab. This dance is for women and originates thousands of years ago, it resembles femininity and beauty.[citation needed]
Art
Painting in the Punjab developed during the reign of Iltutmish of the Khilji dynasty, who had patronized it.[10] A historical reference to this was made in the Tarikh-I-Ferozeshi.[10] Sikh art, including Sikh painting, is mostly derived from Punjab's art traditions.[10] B.N. Goswamy argues that painting in the Punjab goes back to the 16th century and became influenced by the Mughal school in the early half of the 18th century.[11] Punjabi Sikh forays into painting were mostly limited to wall paintings decorating the walls of religious sites up until the early 19th century.[12] Miniature painting depicting Hindu religious scenes and themes was popular in the Punjab Hills amongst the various Pahari Rajput states.[12]
Between 1810–1830, the Sikhs began to commission these Pahari artists to paint Sikh subjects and settings, mostly Sikh royalty and nobility.[12] After Sikhs began to progressively come into more and more contact with Europeans after 1830, the main influence on Punjabi Sikh art shifted from Pahari styles and methods to European ones.[12] The Punjabi form and localization of Company paintings would be born out of this increased interaction between European and Punjabi artists.[12] Thus, Pahari-influenced traditional miniature paintings began to be surmounted by European-influenced Company school paintings.[12] Lahori and Amritsari artists increasingly abandoned using the traditional Indic medium of gouache for watercolour techniques.[12]
In 1838–39, a British visitor hired local Punjabi artists to produce pictures covering the various kinds of inhabitants of northern India using British-supplied paper and bound into an album.[12] Images of the Sikh royals and military were documented in these British-patronized local paintings.[12] Many Europeans were employed by the Lahore Durbar, such as the Frenchman Jean-François Allard, and were sponsors of the local arts.[12] A few European artists who visited the Sikh court of Lahore and left a deep impact on the local art were: G. T. Vigne (visited in 1837), William G. Osborne (visited in 1838), Emily Eden (visited in 1838 alongside her brother), and August Schoefft (arrived in 1841).[12] Eden had a large impact, as her published work Portraits of the Princes and People of India (which included lithographic depictions of Sikhs and Punjabis) was a big success and many copies of the work made their way to Punjab where they ended up giving further shape to the emerging Punjabi Company School.[12] Schoefft spent over a year in Punjab painting various local scenes and subjects.[12] During the Anglo-Sikh Wars, many of the British officials and soldiers who made their way to Punjab were artists.[12] An example is Henry Lawrence, who painted local residents of various walks of life.[12] Many Indian artists who followed the Company school were hired to paint Punjabi subjects and settings.[12] When the Sikh Empire was annexed in 1849, local Punjabi artists working in the Company style created works based upon stock sets for the purpose of selling them to European tourists in the local bazaars.[12] These Punjabi paintings geared towards a European audience depicted "Sikh rulers, heroes, occupations, and costumes".[12]
Wall paintings
Murals (including frescoes) feature prominently in Punjab and showcase various themes.[13] Punjabi murals differ from Punjabi miniature paintings in that the wall paintings were far more readily accessible and viewable by the general masses rather than being mostly an affair restricted to the privileged classes of the society, as in the case of miniatures.[13] Since murals could be seen by all walks of society, the things depicted in them were commonly understood subjects that required no specialized knowledge.[13] Punjabi murals can depict religious or secular settings.[13]
Religious themes
Mural depicting a scene from Indic mythology, located within the Samadh of Maharaja Ranjit Singh in Lahore, ca.1840's. The mythological scene depicted is likely a Vaishnavist scene from the Mahabharata or Ramayana epics.
Religious-themed murals are often found at religious shrines, such as Hindu and Sikh temples.[13] Scenes from Indic mythology, such as the Mahabharata, are commonly found, an example being the unveiling of Draupadi.[13]
Religious murals depicting female figuratives were often Shaktist in-nature.[13] A prevailing theme of the divine (the Shakti) incarnating in feminine form (these unique forms are given various names, such as Kali) to battle with negative forces (that are hostile to the deities and mankind), including demons (such as Mahishasura) and giants (such as Shumbha and Nishumbha), is a commonly witnessed scene of Punjabi murals.[13] The scenes depicted by this category of wall paintings are seemingly drawn from the Markandeya Purana, which promotes the reverence of Shakti as the divine-mother figure.[13]
Other scenes found in Punjabi wall paintings seem to stem from the stories of the Bhagavata Purana.[13] An example of a type of mural scene derived from it is Radha being surrounded by youthful gopis.[13] Krishna is also commonly depicted alongside gopis in this sort of mural.[13] Krishna is sometimes shown playing his flute whilst the gopis perform the ras-lila around him or he is shown stealing clothes from the gopis, an episode known as chira-harana.[13]
Aside from Hindu themes, there are also depictions based upon Sikh history and themes, such as Sikh gurus, martyrs (shaheeds), and religious figures (an example being bhagats).[13]
Secular themes
Fresco depicting a hunting scene from a Punjabi Muslim khangah (Khangah Dargani Shah at Dhun Dhaewal) located on the right bank of the Beas River near Chola Sahib, Tarn Taran district
Amid the murals based on profane subjects, depictions of scenes from traditional Punjabi folklore are commonplace, such as Heer Ranjha, Mirza Sahiban, Sohni Mahiwal, Sassi Pannu, Laila Majnun, Raja Rasalu, and more.[13] A lot of the depicted stories are ultimately based upon bardic literature, such as the legends of Shah Behram and Husan Banu.[13] There are also paintings based upon traditional folk ballads, such as Puran Bhagat.[13] Additionally, there are paintings of various Nayika themes, including the Ashta-nayika (eight heroines).[13] There also exists wall paintings based upon the Sat Sai of Bihari.[13] There are further depictions of various royal figures, such as Rani Jindan.[13] Many Punjabi wall paintings depict women and girls in the process of a variety of actions, such as feeding parrots, peacocks, or bucks.[13] Women are also depicted fondling pets or writing love letters in these wall paintings.[13]
Fresco depicting a dalliance scene from Jandwal temple in Hoshiarpur district
Usually displayed less conspicuously, there were also wall painting depicting sexual or erotic themes.[13] It was a common practice to decorate the walls of Islamic and Hindu palaces with erotic scenes.[13] The Sikh royality and nobality during the reign of the Sikh Empire had their residences embellished with these erotic wall paintings. General Paolo Avitabile had his private residence quarters decorated with figures of scantily clad dancing girls and Indic deities in the act of making love.[13] At the Rani Mahal of erstwhile Nabha State, there are wall paintings of couples having sex in various positions, settings, and emotions based upon the Koka Shastra treatise.[13] However, it is important to note that these erotic-based murals were limited mostly to the areas frequented by the upper-classes of the Punjabi society at the time.[13]
Weddings
See also: Punjabi wedding traditions
Punjabi wedding traditions and ceremonies are traditionally conducted in Punjabi and are a strong reflection of Punjabi culture. While the actual religious marriage ceremony among Muslims, Hindus, Sikhs, Jains, Buddhists and Christians may be conducted in Arabic, Urdu, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Hindi or Pali by the Qazi, Pundit, Granthi or Priest, there are commonalities in ritual, song, dance, food, and dress. The Punjabi wedding has many rituals and ceremonies that have evolved since traditional times and itself have evolved in Pakistani Punjab and Indian Punjab.
Cuisine
See also: Punjabi cuisine
Tandoori chicken is a popular dish in Punjabi cuisine.
The local cuisine of Punjab is heavily influenced by the agriculture and farming lifestyle prevalent from the times of the ancient Indus Valley civilization. Dishes similar to tandoori chicken may have existed during the Harappan civilization during the Bronze Age of India. According to the archeologist Professor Vasant Shinde, the earliest evidence for a dish similar to tandoori chicken can be found in the Harappan civilization and dates back to 3000 BC. His team has found ancient ovens at Harappan sites which are similar to the tandoors that are used in the state of Punjab. Physical remains of chicken bones with char marks have also been unearthed.[14][15][16] Harappan houses had keyhole ovens with central pillars which was used for roasting meats and baking breads.[17] Sushruta Samhita records meat being cooked in an oven (kandu) after marinating it in spices like black mustard (rai) powder and fragrant spices.[18] According to Ahmed (2014), Harappan oven structures may have operated in a similar manner to the modern tandoors of the Punjab.[19]
Basmati rice is the indigenous variety of Punjab, and various meat- and vegetable-based rice dishes have been developed using it.[20][21][22]
Language and literature
Main articles: Punjabi language and Punjabi literature
Baba Farid, considered the first major Punjabi poet.[23]
The Punjabi language is written with the Gurmukhi alphabet in India and with the Shahmukhi alphabet in Pakistan. Approximately 130 million people speak the Punjabi language.[24]
The earliest writings in Punjabi belong to Nath Yogi era from 9th to 14th century.[25] They referred to God with various names such as "Alakh Nirajan" which are still prevalent in Punjabi vernacular.[25]
The Punjabi literary tradition is popularly seen to commence with Fariduddin Ganjshakar (1173–1266).[23] Roughly from the 12th century to the 19th century, Punjabi Sufi poetry developed under Shah Hussain (1538–1599), Sultan Bahu (1628–1691), Shah Sharaf (1640–1724), Ali Haider (1690–1785), Bulleh Shah (1680–1757), Saleh Muhammad Safoori (1747–1826), Mian Muhammad Baksh (1830–1907) and Khwaja Ghulam Farid (1845–1901). In contrast to Persian poets, who had preferred the ghazal for poetic expression, Punjabi Sufi poets tended to compose in the Kafi.[26]
Punjabi Sufi poetry also influenced other Punjabi literary traditions particularly the Punjabi Qissa, a genre of romantic tragedy which also derived inspiration from Indic, Persian and Quranic sources. The Qissa of Heer Ranjha by Waris Shah (1706–1798) is among the most popular of Punjabi qisse. Other popular stories include Sohni Mahiwal by Fazal Shah, Mirza Sahiba by Hafiz Barkhudar (1658–1707), Sassi Punnun by Hashim Shah (1735?–1843?), and Qissa Puran Bhagat by Qadaryar (1802–1892).
Dress
Main article: Punjabi clothing
Dastar
Main article: Dastar
A Dastar is an proud of headgear associated with Sikhism and is an important part of the Punjabi and Sikh culture. Among the Sikhs, the dastār is an article of faith that represents equality, honour, self-respect, courage, spirituality, and piety. The Khalsa Sikh men and women, who keep the Five Ks, wear the turban to cover their long, uncut hair (kesh). The Sikhs regard the dastār as an important part of the unique Sikh identity. After the ninth Sikh Guru, Tegh Bahadur, was sentenced to death by the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb, Guru Gobind Singh, the tenth Sikh Guru created the Khalsa and gave five articles of faith, one of which is unshorn hair, which the dastār covers.[27] Prior to Sikhi, only kings, royalty, and those of high stature wore turbans, but Sikh Gurus adopted the practice to assert equality and sovereignty among people.[28]
Punjabi suit
Main article: Shalwar kameez
Punjabi traditional dress in India
A Punjabi suit that features two items - a qameez (top), salwar (bottom) is the traditional attire of the Punjabi people.[29][30][31] Shalwars are trousers which are atypically wide at the waist but which narrow to a cuffed bottom. They are held up by a drawstring or elastic belt, which causes them to become pleated around the waist.[32] The trousers can be wide and baggy, or they can be cut quite narrow, on the bias. The kameez is a long shirt or tunic.[33] The side seams are left open below the waist-line (the opening known as the chaak[note 1]), which gives the wearer greater freedom of movement. The kameez is usually cut straight and flat; older kameez use traditional cuts; modern kameez are more likely to have European-inspired set-in sleeves. The combination garment is sometimes called salwar kurta, salwar suit, or Punjabi suit.[35][36] The shalwar-kameez is a widely-worn,[37][38] and national dress,[39] of Pakistan. When women wear the shalwar-kameez in some regions, they usually wear a long scarf or shawl called a dupatta around the head or neck.[40] The dupatta is also employed as a form of modesty—although it is made of delicate material, it obscures the upper body's contours by passing over the shoulders. For Muslim women, the dupatta is a less stringent alternative to the chador or burqa (see hijab and purdah); for Sikh and Hindu women, the dupatta is useful when the head must be covered, as in a temple or the presence of elders.[41] Everywhere in South Asia, modern versions of the attire have evolved; the shalwars are worn lower down on the waist, the kameez have shorter length, with higher splits, lower necklines and backlines, and with cropped sleeves or without sleeves.[42]
Festivals
See also: Punjabi festivals, List of Sikh festivals, List of Hindu festivals in Punjab, and Festivals in Lahore
The Punjabi Muslims typically observe the Islamic festivals.[43][44] The Punjabi Sikhs and Hindus typically do not observe these, and instead observe Lohri, Basant and Vaisakhi as seasonal festivals.[45] The Punjabi Muslim festivals are set according to the lunar Islamic calendar (Hijri), and the date falls earlier by 10 to 13 days from year to year.[46] The Hindu and Sikh Punjabi seasonal festivals are set on specific dates of the luni-solar Bikrami calendar or Punjabi calendar and the date of the festival also typically varies in the Gregorian calendar but stays within the same two Gregorian months.[47]
Some Punjabi Muslims participate in the traditional, seasonal festivals of the Punjab region: Baisakhi, Basant and to a minor scale Lohri, but this is controversial. Islamic clerics and some politicians have attempted to ban this participation because of the religious basis of the Punjabi festivals,[48] and they being declared haram (forbidden in Islam).[49]
Preservation of Punjabi Culture
In recent years, efforts have been made to preserve and promote Punjabi culture and heritage. One notable example is the Panjab Digital Library (PDL), founded by Davinder Pal Singh. The library's mission is to digitize and preserve historical manuscripts, books, and other materials related to Punjabi language, history, and culture. This initiative has helped to safeguard and promote Punjabi culture for future generations.[50]
See also
image Punjab portal
icon Society portal
Punjabi Culture Day
Punjabi calendar
Punjabi festivals
Folk practices in Punjab
Punjab
Punjabi people
British Punjabis
Punjabi Americans
Punjabi Australians
Punjabi Canadians
Punjabi diaspora
Punjab (India)
Punjab (Pakistan)
Punjabi Cultural Society of Chicago
List of Punjabi language poets
Livestock show
Vaisakhi
Sikh art and culture