A Daruma doll (Japanese: 達磨, Hepburn: daruma) is a hollow, round, Japanese traditional doll modeled after Bodhidharma, the founder of the Zen tradition of Buddhism. These dolls, though typically red and depicting a bearded man (Bodhidharma), vary greatly in color and design depending on region and artist. Though considered a toy by some, Daruma has a design that is rich in symbolism and is regarded more as a talisman of good luck to the Japanese. Daruma dolls are seen as a symbol of perseverance[citation needed] and good luck[citation needed], making them a popular gift of encouragement. The doll has also been commercialized by many Buddhist temples to use alongside the setting of goals.
Bodhidharma was a Buddhist monk who lived during the 5th/6th century CE. He is traditionally credited as the transmitter of Ch'an (Zen) to China. Little contemporary biographical information on Bodhidharma is extant, and subsequent accounts became layered with legend.[2] According to one tradition, Bodhidharma gained a reputation for, among other things, his practice of wall-gazing. Legend claims that he sat facing a wall in meditation for a period of nine years without moving, which caused his legs and arms to fall off from atrophy.[3] Another popular legend is that after falling asleep during his nine-year meditation he became angry with himself and cut off his eyelids to avoid ever falling asleep again.
According to the principal Chinese sources, Bodhidharma came from the Western Regions, which refers to Central Asia but may also include the Indian subcontinent, and was either a "Persian Central Asian" or a "South Indian ... the third son of a great Indian king."[4][5] Throughout Buddhist art, Bodhidharma is depicted as an ill-tempered, profusely bearded, wide-eyed non-Chinese person. He is referred as "The Blue-Eyed Barbarian" (Chinese: 碧眼胡; pinyin: Bìyǎnhú) in Chan texts.
The current popular symbolism associated with Daruma as a good luck charm in part originated at Shorinzan Daruma Temple, in the city of Takasaki (Gunma Prefecture, north of Tokyo). Josef Kyburz, author of "Omocha": Things to Play (Or Not to Play) with, explained that the founder of Daruma-Dera would draw New Year’s charms depicting Bodhidharma. The parishioners would keep these charms to "bring happiness and prosperity and ward off accidents and misfortune".[6]
It is believed that the Daruma figurine then originated from this region when the ninth priest, Togaku, found a solution to handle the constant requests of the parishioners for new charms. The charms were always given with an effectiveness of one year, so the people required new ones every year. He solved this by entrusting them with the making of their own Daruma charms near the beginning of the Meiwa period (1764–72). The temple made wooden block molds for the people to use. The peasants then used these molds to make three-dimensional papier-mâché charms.[7]
Kyburz notes that though it is unknown when the Daruma figurine combined with the tumbler doll; the two were well recognized as synonymous by the mid-19th century. The doll quickly grew in popularity, becoming a mascot of the region. This was due greatly in part to fact that the majority of the families were silk farmers, a crop which requires a great deal of luck for success.[6]
There is an annual Daruma Doll Festival (達磨市, daruma-ichi) held by the city of Takasaki in celebration of being the proclaimed birthplace of the Daruma doll. The celebration is held at the Shorinzan, the name of Takasaki's "Daruma-Dera". According to the Takasaki city website, "Over 400,000 people from all over the Kanto Plain come to buy new good-luck dolls for the year. Takasaki produces 80% of Japan's Daruma dolls."[8] The festival also features a 24-hour reading of sutras by the Shorinzan monks for world peace.
Daruma’s design, particularly the shape, color, eyes and facial hair, each have its own history and symbolic meaning.
Darumas are still usually made of papier-mâché, have a round shape, are hollow and weighted at the bottom so that they will always return to an upright position when tilted over. In Japanese, a roly-poly toy is called okiagari, meaning to get up (oki) and arise (agari). This characteristic has come to symbolize the ability to have success, overcome adversity, and recover from misfortune.[6] In Japanese popular culture on cards, banners and books, Daruma is often illustrated alongside the phrase "Nanakorobi Yaoki" (七転八起), translated to mean "seven times down, eight times up". While some traditional Daruma dolls have flat bases, the Sankaku or Triangle Daruma (三角だるま) is constructed from a rolled cardboard cone attached to a rounded clay base so that it always stands straight when tilted.[9]
The tumbler doll style is similar to an earlier toy called the Okiagari Koboshi, a little self-righting monk which was popular in the Kinki region during the mid-17th century. The original okiagari toy, however, is said to have been introduced from Ming China around 1368–1644.[11]
Though it is not certain, the origins of Daruma's traditional red coloring probably came from the color of priest's robes. Reliable sources in English are hard to find, but one Japan-based website cites this red as being the "color of the robe of a high-ranking priest.[12] The author then concludes that "since Daruma was the founder of the Zen Sect, he must have worn a red robe." The art historian James T. Ulak has documented a history of depictions of the Bodhidharma wearing lavish red robes, prior to representations of him as a doll, in an article entitled "Japanese Works in The Art Institute of Chicago."[13]
By virtue of his red robes, Daruma has come to play a role in recovering from sickness. During the late Edo period (1603-1868), red was believed to have a strong association to smallpox. Hartmut O. Rotermond, author of Demonic Affliction or Contagious Disease?, describes that in Edo and surrounding cities, there were many outbreaks of measles and smallpox. In present-day Japan, there are many red shrines dedicated to a God of Smallpox, which had a particular liking for red. These shrines were built in response to those outbreaks.[14] Believing that the God of smallpox, if pleased, would spare the afflicted child, the Japanese would often stretch out ropes around the house strung with red paper strips, have the child wear a red robe, and make a small altar for the God to put talisman-like Daruma figurines on.[15] These precautions were also used to warn others that sickness was in the house, and to encourage cleanliness around the sick. The red of Daruma, however, was used to pacify the God, while the image of okiagari was to encourage the patient to recover as quickly as they fell ill.[6] Daruma are also sold as a set of five colors – blue, yellow, red, white and black – called Goshiki Daruma. These days, daruma can also be found in colors other than red, including gold, which is meant to bring luck in financial matters.
The eyes of Daruma are often blank when sold. Monte A. Greer, author of Daruma Eyes, described the "oversized symmetrical round blank white eyes" as a means to keep track of goals or big tasks and motivate them to work to the finish. The recipient of the doll fills in one eye upon setting the goal, then the other upon fulfilling it. In this way, every time they see the one-eyed Daruma, they recall the goal. One explanation how this custom started says that in order to motivate Daruma-san to grant your wish, you promise to give him full sight once the goal is accomplished. This practice might also have something to do with the "enlightenment", the ideal attainment of Buddhism. This custom has led to a phrase in Japanese translated as "Both Eyes Open". Referring to "opening" the second eye, it expresses the realization of a goal.[16] Traditionally, the Daruma was purchased as a household item, and only the head of the household would paint in the eyes.[17]
One example of this is politicians during election time. Political parties have often been shown at their headquarters with large Daruma dolls and amulets purchased from local temples as a prayer for victory. This practice was highlighted in a 1967 article in Time magazine: "Last week, in the Tokyo headquarters of Japan's ruling Liberal Democratic Party, Premier Eisaku Satō dipped a sumi brush into an ink stone and with swift strokes daubed in the dark right eye of his Daruma. 'The eyes,' he remarked when he had finished, 'are as big as my own.'"[18]
The Matsukawa Daruma (松川だるま) is produced with the eyes already painted, with the purpose of watching over a family's household.[19] These intricate figures are more slender than traditional Daruma and typically feature blue coloring and a base molded (or simply painted) in the form of the ship that transports the Seven Lucky Gods.[20]
Bizen ware (備前焼, Bizen-yaki) is a type of Japanese pottery traditionally from Bizen province, presently a part of Okayama prefecture.
Bizen ware was traditionally produced in and around the village of Imbe in Bizen province, from where it received its name. It is therefore also known as Imbe or Inbe ware. It has ties to Sue pottery from the Heian period in the 6th century, and made its appearance during the Kamakura period of the 14th century.[1][2][3]
Bizen was considered one of the Six Ancient Kilns by the scholar Koyama Fujio.[1] It experienced its peak during the Momoyama period of the 16th century.[4][5] During the Edo period, the Ikeda lords of the Okayama domain continued to support the kilns and gave special privileges to families who operated them, such as the Kimura, Mori, Kaneshige, Oae, Tongu, and Terami.[1] The rustic quality of Bizen made it popular for use in Japanese tea ceremony.[6][7] Ware of the early phase is called old Bizen style (古備前派 Ko-Bizen-ha).
After modernisation began during the Meiji era of the 19th century, Bizen almost disappeared along with many other traditional crafts. The artist Kaneshige Toyo (1896–1967) helped preserve it in the 1930s during the early Shōwa era by reviving the Momoyama style.[8][7] For his efforts he was named a Living National Treasure.[1]
Bizen ware was designated a traditional Japanese craft by the government in 1982.[9] At the beginning of the 21st century it was produced in around 300 operating kilns.[4]
Artists honoured by the Okayama Prefectural government with the designation Intangible Cultural Property include Fujita Ryuho (1913-1973), Kaneshige Toyo, Fujiwara Kei (1899-1983), Fujiwara Ken (1924-1977), Fujiwara Rakuzan (1910-1996), Mimura Tokei (1885-1956), Isezaki Yozan (1902-1961), Ishii Furo (1899-1964), Oae Jindo (1890-1954), Kaneshige Michiaki (1934-1995), Kaneshige Sozan (1909-1995), and Yamamoto Toshu (1906-1994).[10] Kaneshige Toyo, Fujiwara Kei and Yamamoto Toshu were in addition registered as Living National Treasures.[6][10]
Other notable artists include Konishi Toko I (1899-1954), Matsuda Kazan I (1902-1948), Nishimura Shunko (1886-1953), and Suzuki Osai (1908-1972).[10] Contemporary artists include Hajime Kimura and Kosuke Kanishige, who specializes in the hidasuki technique, as well as Harada Shuroku, Mori Togaku, Abe Anjin,[8] Nakamura Rokuro,[11] and Kakurezaki Ryuichi.[12][13]
A Bizen ware festival is held every year around Imbe Station.[14]
Bizen is characterized by significant hardness due to high temperature firing; its earthen-like, reddish-brown color; absence of glaze, although it may contain traces of molten ash resembling glaze; and markings resulting from wood-burning kiln firing.[6][1]
The clay found in Imbe is sticky and fine, with a high iron content and, traditionally, much organic matter that is unreceptive to glazing.[15] For some potters this is an inadequate material, since it has weak characteristics such as high shrinkage and relatively low fire resistance. Most Bizen ware is not coated with a glaze because of this shrinkage, since any applied glaze would peel off during the firing process. Due to its low fire resistance it cannot withstand rapid high-temperature changes, so the firing has to be done gradually. However, the soil also has beneficial properties, such as plasticity. The high strength of Inbe clay causes it to retain its form, making it tough even without glaze.[15]
Most vessels are made on a potter's wheel.[16] Although one body of clay and one type of firing are used, there is a wide variety of results due to the properties of the clay. The nature of Bizen ware surfaces depends entirely on yohen, or "kiln effects." The placement of the individual clay workpieces in the kiln causes them to be fired under different conditions, leading to variety.[16]
Because of the clay composition, Bizen wares are fired slowly over a long period of time. Firings take place only once or twice a year, with the firing period lasting for 10–14 days. Red pine is used for firewood because the resin it contains helps to produce a high temperature fire.[5] Thousand of logs might be used in a single firing.
The finish is determined by how the potter controls the fire. Most of the firing takes place in traditional climbing kilns with various chambers called noborigama, or in a tunnel kiln called an anagama.[5] The vessels are stacked and the flames flow through the stacks and around the individual vessels. During the course of the firing, the vessels can change colour from black to grey.[16]
If less firewood is used, the flame will become oxidizing, turning the vessels reddish brown. Oxygen is not the only determining factor, another is how the flames move upward in the kiln. The potter must also control the flying charcoal ash. Charcoal ashes melt in the heat and become something like a glaze that adheres to the pottery surface. The ash also creates sprinkles of yellow called goma, or "sesame seed" effects. Therefore, both flames and ashes are the crucial elements of the Bizen style.[16]
During the firing process the potter adds firewood directly into the firebox of the kiln every 20 minutes, day and night. The temperature initially reaches 600 degrees Celsius, and it is increased only gradually in order to avoid cracking the ceramic.[5] The pieces are left in the kiln for 10 days.[16]
On the eighth day, the firing is almost complete, with a temperature close to the peak of 1200 Celsius, or even 1300 Celsius.[5][4] Glowing white charcoal completely covers the pottery at the peak of 10 days of firing. The final step is to throw charcoal directly into the kiln. This reduces the oxygen fuel and creates dark patterns on the vessels. Six days after firing, the flames are extinguished and the vessels are taken out.[16]
The potter can also control the appearance of the vessels by how he arranges them in the kiln. This can result in a wide range of visual styles, depending on how the pieces are placed and how the firing is controlled. However it is not always certain what exact patterns or colours will be created during firing:[16]
The Bizen Ware Traditional Industry Hall (備前焼伝統産業会館, Bizenyaki Dentō Sangyō Kaikan), located in Imbe Station, displays works by contemporary potters and a small collection of old Bizen ware.[18]
The Okayama Prefectural Bizen Ceramics Museum (岡山県備前陶芸美術館, Bizen Tōgei Bijutsukan) has a collection of more than 500 pieces.[19]