Dieges & Clust1 languageArticle
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaA silver medal, cast by Dieges & Clust and awarded at the 1904 Olympic Games.Dieges & Clust were jewellers established in New York[1][2] in 1898 by Col. Charles Joseph Dieges (b. Oct. 26, 1865-d. Sept. 14, 1953) and Prosper Clust (b. Sept. 26, 1873-d. Mar. 28, 1933).[3][1]
History[edit]The firm was founded in 1898 as a partnership between Charles Joseph Dieges and Prosper Clust. The partnership was converted to a company in 1908 with Dieges as president and director, and with Clust as secretary-treasurer and director.[4]
The firm was located at 20 John Street, New York, New York, expanding to have offices in Boston, Pittsburgh, and Chicago.[5][6]
The firm was sold to Herff Jones (a division of Carnation) on January 1, 1980.[7]
Major works[edit]They produced many medals, including the Spanish–American War Medal, the 1904 Olympic Medal, the Eagle Scout medal (from 1916 to 1920),[8] New York State World War I Service Medal, the Medal of Honour, and the Titanic-Carpathia Medals (at the request of "The Unsinkable" Mrs. Molly Brown). They made baseball's first Most Valuable Player Awards and many Baseball Press Pins as well as Lou Gehrig's farewell plaque. They also cast the Heisman Trophy (in New York and later Providence, Rhode Island) from its inception in 1935 through late 1979 when the company was sold to Herff Jones (a division of Carnation) on January 1, 1980.[7]
Perhaps the height of Dieges & Clust's production were the 1920s trophies known in sports collecting circles as "The Five Figural Spalding Baseball Trophies". The various trophies depict a baseball player pitching, catching, batting, playing first base, or playing in the outfield. The proportions of the figures and the detail (of the faces, fingers, stitching in the baseball gloves and shoelaces) are remarkable.[citation needed] They fetch up to $5,000 at auction, relatively high for a silver-plated trophy on a wooden base.[citation needed]
The company produced the Martin J. Sheridan Medal for Valor for the New York City Police Department (NYPD) that was established in honor of Detective Martin J. Sheridan – the Irish-American Athletic Club's star U.S. Olympic champion who died in 1918 of the influenza pandemic. The medal was first presented in 1922 and regularly awarded until discontinued in 1975. The medal was initially paid for through a trust fund established by the Martin J. Sheridan Memorial Committee, with New York State Supreme Court Justice Daniel F. Cohalan serving as chairman.[9]
A 1936 New York Yankees World Series ring cast by Dieges & Clust and owned by Lou Gehrig held the record sale price for such a ring at $17,500.[10]
In 1999, Sotheby's sold what was believed to be Lou Gehrig's 1927 ring for $96,000.
Staff[edit]Charles Joseph Dieges[edit]Charles Dieges, president and director of the company after 1908, served in the US 22nd Regiment in World War I and participated on the US Olympics team.
Memberships
Prosper Clust[edit]Prosper was a manufacturing jeweler who learned the trade from his father Ernest Clust, who emigrated from France in 1872. He was secretary-treasurer and director of the company after 1908.[4]
Constanzo Luini[edit]Constanzo was a medalist with Dieges & Clust who specialized patriotic and religious themes. He was born in 1886 and a descendant of Bernardino Luini, a fresco painter and student of Leonardo da Vinci. Costanzo immigrated to the United States at the turn of the century.
Caduceus48 languagesArticle
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaThis article is about the Greek symbol. For the (mis)usage as a medical symbol, see Caduceus as a symbol of medicine. For the medical symbol with one snake, often mistakenly referred to as a caduceus, see Rod of Asclepius. For other uses, see Caduceus (disambiguation).Modern depiction of the caduceus as the symbol of logisticsHermes Ingenui[a] carrying a winged caduceus upright in his left hand. A Roman copy after a Greek original of the 5th century BCE (Museo Pio-Clementino, Rome).The caduceus (☤; /kəˈdjuːʃəs, -siəs/; Latin: cādūceus, from Greek: κηρύκειον kērū́keion "herald's wand, or staff")[b] is the staff carried by Hermes in Greek mythology and consequently by Hermes Trismegistus in Greco-Egyptian mythology. The same staff was also borne by heralds in general, for example by Iris, the messenger of Hera. It is a short staff entwined by two serpents, sometimes surmounted by wings. In Roman iconography, it was often depicted being carried in the left hand of Mercury, the messenger of the gods.
Some accounts suggest that the oldest known imagery of the caduceus has its roots in Mesopotamia with the Sumerian god Ningishzida; his symbol, a staff with two snakes intertwined around it, dates back to 4000 BC to 3000 BC.[3]
As a symbolic object, it represents Hermes (or the Roman Mercury), and by extension trades, occupations, or undertakings associated with the god. In later Antiquity, the caduceus provided the basis for the astronomical symbol for planet Mercury. Thus, through its use in astrology, alchemy, and astronomy it has come to denote the planet Mercury and by extension the planetary metal that now has the same name. It is said the wand would wake the sleeping and send the awake to sleep. If applied to the dying, their death was gentle; if applied to the dead, they returned to life.[4]
By extension of its association with Mercury and Hermes, the caduceus is also a recognized symbol of commerce and negotiation, two realms in which balanced exchange and reciprocity are recognized as ideals.[5][6][7] This association is ancient, and consistent from the Classical period to modern times.[8][9] The caduceus is also used as a symbol representing printing, again by extension of the attributes of Mercury (in this case associated with writing and eloquence).
Although the Rod of Asclepius, which has only one snake and is never depicted with wings, is the traditional and more widely used symbol of medicine, the Caduceus is sometimes used by healthcare organizations. Given that the caduceus is primarily a symbol of commerce and other non-medical symbology, many healthcare professionals disapprove of this usage.[10]
Classical antiquity[edit]The Caduceus in classical imageryFresco from Pompeii of the punishment of Ixion: in the center is Mercury holding the caduceus
Iris with the caduceus in detail from an Attic red-figure pelike, middle of fifth century BC (Agrigento, Sicily)
Coin from Sardis (Turkey) with caduceus (c. 140-144 CE)
Mythology[edit]The Homeric hymn to Hermes relates how his half brother Apollo got enchanted by Hermes's music from his lyre fashioned from a tortoise shell, which Hermes kindly gave to him. Apollo in return gave Hermes the caduceus as a gesture of friendship.[11] The association with the serpent thus connects Hermes to Apollo, as later the serpent was associated with Asclepius, the "son of Apollo".[12]
The association of Apollo with the serpent is a continuation of the older Indo-European dragon-slayer motif. Wilhelm Heinrich Roscher (1913) pointed out that the serpent as an attribute of both Hermes and Asclepius is a variant of the "pre-historic semi-chthonic serpent hero known at Delphi as Python", who in classical mythology is slain by Apollo.[13]
One Greek myth of origin of the caduceus is part of the story of Tiresias,[14] who found two snakes copulating and killed the female with his staff. Tiresias was immediately turned into a woman, and so remained until he was able to repeat the act with the male snake seven years later. This staff later came into the possession of the god Hermes, along with its transformative powers.
Another myth suggests that Hermes (or Mercury) saw two serpents entwined in mortal combat. Separating them with his wand he brought about peace between them, and as a result the wand with two serpents came to be seen as a sign of peace.[15]
In Rome, Livy refers to the caduceator who negotiated peace arrangements under the diplomatic protection of the caduceus he carried.[16]
Iconography[edit]In some vase paintings ancient depictions of the Greek kerukeion are somewhat different from the commonly seen modern representation. These representations feature the two snakes atop the staff (or rod), crossed to create a circle with the heads of the snakes resembling horns. This old graphic form, with an additional crossbar to the staff, seems to have provided the basis for the graphical sign of Mercury (☿) used in Greek astrology from Late Antiquity.[17]
Origin and comparative mythology[edit]Further information: Serpent worshipHermes hastens bearing his kerukeion, on an Attic lekythos, c. 475 BC, attributed to the Tithonos PainterThe term kerukeion denoted any herald's staff, not necessarily associated with Hermes in particular.[18]
In his study of the cult of Hermes, Lewis Richard Farnell (1909) assumed that the two snakes had simply developed out of ornaments of the shepherd's crook used by heralds as their staff.[19] This view has been rejected by later authors pointing to parallel iconography in the Ancient Near East. It has been argued that the staff or wand entwined by two snakes was itself representing a god in the pre-anthropomorphic era. Like the herm or priapus, it would thus be a predecessor of the anthropomorphic Hermes of the classical era.[20]
Ancient Near East[edit]The Caduceus, symbol of God Ningishzida, on the libation vase of Sumerian ruler Gudea, circa 2100 BCE.Caduceus symbol on a punch-marked coin of king Ashoka in India, third to second century BCWilliam Hayes Ward (1910) discovered that symbols similar to the classical caduceus sometimes appeared on Mesopotamian cylinder seals. He suggested the symbol originated some time between 3000 and 4000 BC, and that it might have been the source of the Greek caduceus.[21] A.L. Frothingham incorporated Ward's research into his own work, published in 1916, in which he suggested that the prototype of Hermes was an "Oriental deity of Babylonian extraction" represented in his earliest form as a snake god. From this perspective, the caduceus was originally representative of Hermes himself, in his early form as the Underworld god Ningishzida, "messenger" of the "Earth Mother".[22] The caduceus is mentioned in passing by Walter Burkert[23] as "really the image of copulating snakes taken over from Ancient Near Eastern tradition".
In Egyptian iconography, the Djed pillar is depicted as containing a snake in a frieze of the Dendera Temple complex.
India[edit]The caduceus also appears as a symbol of the punch-marked coins of the Maurya Empire in India, in the third or second century BC. Numismatic research suggest that this symbol was the symbol of the Buddhist king Ashoka, his personal "Mudra".[24] This symbol was not used on the pre-Mauryan punch-marked coins, but only on coins of the Maurya period, together with the three arched-hill symbol, the "peacock on the hill", the triskelis and the Taxila mark.[25] It also appears carved in basalt rock in few temples of western ghats.
Early modern use[edit]During the early modern period, the caduceus was used as a symbol of rhetoric (associated with Mercury's eloquence).[26]
La Retorique (1633–35)
Allegory of Rhetoric (1650)
Current use[edit]Symbol of commerce[edit]A simplified variant of the caduceus is to be found in dictionaries, indicating a "commercial term" entirely in keeping with the association of Hermes with commerce. In this form the staff is often depicted with two winglets attached and the snakes are omitted (or reduced to a small ring in the middle).[5] The Customs Service of the former German Democratic Republic employed the caduceus, bringing its implied associations with thresholds, translators, and commerce, in the service medals they issued their staff. The caduceus is also the symbol of the Customs Agency of Bulgaria and of the Financial Administration of the Slovak Republic[27] (Tax and Customs administration). The emblems of Belarus Customs[28][29] and China Customs[30] are a caduceus crossing with a golden key. The emblem of the Federal Customs Service of Russia has a caduceus crossing with a torch on the shield. The coat of arms of Kyiv National University of Trade and Economics of Ukraine has two crossed torches surmounted by a caduceus on the shield.
Confusion with Rod of Asclepius[edit]Main article: Caduceus as a symbol of medicineThe US Army Medical Corps Branch Plaque. The adoption, in 1902, of the caduceus for US Army medical officer uniforms popularized the (mis)use of the symbol throughout the medical field in the United States.Rod of AsclepiusIt is relatively common, especially in the United States, to find the caduceus, with its two snakes and wings, used as a symbol of medicine instead of the Rod of Asclepius, with only a single snake. This usage was popularised largely as a result of the adoption of the caduceus as its insignia by the U.S. Army Medical Corps in 1902 at the insistence of a single officer (though there are conflicting claims as to whether this was Capt. Frederick P. Reynolds or Col. John R. van Hoff).[31][10]
The Rod of Asclepius is the dominant symbol for professional healthcare associations in the United States. One survey found that 62% of professional healthcare associations used the rod of Asclepius as their symbol.[32] The same survey found that 76% of commercial healthcare organizations used the Caduceus symbol. The author of the study suggests the difference exists because professional associations are more likely to have a historical understanding of the two symbols, whereas commercial organizations are more likely to be concerned with the visual impact a symbol will have in selling their products.[32]
The long-standing and abundantly attested historical associations of the caduceus with commerce have occasioned significant criticism of its use in a medical context. Many medical professionals argue that the Rod of Asclepius better represents the field of medicine and should be used instead.[33]
As god of the high-road and the market-place Hermes was perhaps above all else the patron of commerce and the fat purse: as a corollary, he was the special protector of the traveling salesman. As spokesman for the gods, he not only brought peace on earth (occasionally even the peace of death), but his silver-tongued eloquence could always make the worse appear the better cause.[34] From this latter point of view, would not his symbol be suitable for certain Congressmen, all medical quacks, book agents and purveyors of vacuum cleaners, rather than for the straight-thinking, straight-speaking therapeutist? As conductor of the dead to their subterranean abode, his emblem would seem more appropriate on a hearse than on a physician's car.
— Stuart L. Tyson, "The Caduceus", in The Scientific Monthly in 1932[35]
Princeton University91 languagesArticle
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Coordinates: 40°20′43″N 74°39′22″WFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia"Princeton" redirects here. For the municipality in New Jersey, see Princeton, New Jersey. For other uses, see Princeton (disambiguation).Princeton UniversityLatin: Universitas PrincetoniensisFormer namesCollege of New Jersey (1746–1896)MottoDei Sub Numine Viget (Latin)[1]
On seal: Vet[us] Nov[um] Testamentum (Latin)Motto in English"Under God's Power She Flourishes"[1]
On seal: "Old Testament and New Testament"TypePrivate research universityEstablishedOctober 22, 1746AccreditationMSCHEAcademic affiliationsAAU
Endowment$35.8 billion (2022)[2]PresidentChristopher L. EisgruberProvostJennifer RexfordAcademic staff1,068 (Fall 2021)[3]Total staff7,300[4]Students8,478 (Fall 2021)[3]Undergraduates5,321 (Fall 2021)[3]Postgraduates3,157 (Fall 2021)[3]Doctoral students2,631 (Fall 2019)[5]LocationPrinceton, New Jersey, United States
40°20′43″N 74°39′22″W[6]CampusSmall city, 600 acres (2.4 km2)[4]NewspaperThe Daily PrincetonianColorsBlack and orange[7]
NicknameTigersSporting affiliationsNCAA Division I FCS – Ivy League
MascotThe TigerWebsitewww.princeton.eduPrinceton University is a private Ivy League research university in Princeton, New Jersey. Founded in 1746 in Elizabeth as the College of New Jersey, Princeton is the fourth-oldest institution of higher education in the United States and one of the nine colonial colleges chartered before the American Revolution.[8][9][a] The institution moved to Newark in 1747, and then to the current site nine years later. It officially became a university in 1896 and was subsequently renamed Princeton University.
The university is governed by the Trustees of Princeton University and has an endowment of $37.7 billion, the largest endowment per student in the United States. Princeton provides undergraduate and graduate instruction in the humanities, social sciences, natural sciences, and engineering to approximately 8,500 students on its 600 acres (2.4 km2) main campus. It offers postgraduate degrees through the Princeton School of Public and International Affairs, the School of Engineering and Applied Science, the School of Architecture and the Bendheim Center for Finance. The university also manages the Department of Energy's Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory and is home to the NOAA's Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory. It is classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity" and has one of the largest university libraries in the world.[14]
Princeton uses a residential college system and is known for its upperclassmen eating clubs. The university has over 500 student organizations. Princeton students embrace a wide variety of traditions from both the past and present. The university is a NCAA Division I school and competes in the Ivy League. The school's athletic team, the Princeton Tigers, has won the most titles in its conference and has sent many students and alumni to the Olympics.
As of October 2021, 75 Nobel laureates, 16 Fields Medalists and 16 Turing Award laureates have been affiliated with Princeton University as alumni, faculty members, or researchers. In addition, Princeton has been associated with 21 National Medal of Science awardees, 5 Abel Prize awardees, 11 National Humanities Medal recipients, 217 Rhodes Scholars, 137 Marshall Scholars, and 62 Gates Cambridge Scholars. Two U.S. Presidents, twelve U.S. Supreme Court Justices (three of whom currently serve on the court) and numerous living industry and media tycoons and foreign heads of state are all counted among Princeton's alumni body. Princeton has graduated many members of the U.S. Congress and the U.S. Cabinet, including eight Secretaries of State, three Secretaries of Defense and two Chairmen of the Joint Chiefs of Staff.
History[edit]Main article: History of Princeton UniversityFounding[edit]The Log College, an influential aspect of Princeton's developmentPrinceton University, founded as the College of New Jersey, was shaped much in its formative years by the "Log College", a seminary founded by the Reverend William Tennent at Neshaminy, Pennsylvania, in about 1726. While no legal connection ever existed, many of the pupils and adherents from the Log College would go on to financially support and become substantially involved in the early years of the university.[12] While early writers considered it as the predecessor of the university,[15] the idea has been rebuked by Princeton historians.[16][12]
The founding of the university itself originated from a split in the Presbyterian church following the Great Awakening.[17] In 1741, New Light Presbyterians were expelled from the Synod of Philadelphia in defense of how the Log College ordained ministers.[18] The four founders of the College of New Jersey, who were New Lights, were either expelled or withdrew from the Synod and devised a plan to establish a new college, for they were disappointed with Harvard and Yale's opposition to the Great Awakening and dissatisfied with the limited instruction at the Log College.[18][17] They convinced three other Presbyterians to join them and decided on New Jersey as the location for the college, as at the time, there was no institution between Yale College in New Haven, Connecticut, and the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia; it was also where some of the founders preached.[19] Although their initial request was rejected by the Anglican governor Lewis Morrison, the acting governor after Morrison's death, John Hamilton, granted a charter for the College of New Jersey on October 22, 1746.[20][19] In 1747, approximately five months after acquiring the charter, the trustees elected Jonathan Dickinson as president and opened in Elizabeth, New Jersey,[20] where classes were held in Dickinson's parsonage.[21] With its founding, it became the fourth-oldest institution of higher education in the United States, and one of nine colonial colleges charted before the American Revolution.[8][9] The founders aimed for the college to have an expansive curriculum to teach people of various professions, not solely ministerial work.[22][20] Though the school was open to those of any religious denomination,[23] with many of the founders being of Presbyterian faith, the college became the educational and religious capital of Scotch-Irish Presbyterian America.[24]
Colonial and early years[edit]From 1760, the first picture of Nassau HallIn 1747, following the death of then President Jonathan Dickinson, the college moved from Elizabeth to Newark, New Jersey, as that was where presidential successor Aaron Burr Sr.'s parsonage was located.[20] That same year, Princeton's first charter came under dispute by Anglicans, but on September 14, 1748, the recently appointed governor Jonathan Belcher granted a second charter.[25][26] Belcher, a Congregationalist, had become alienated from his alma mater, Harvard, and decided to "adopt" the infant college.[25][23] Belcher would go on to raise funds for the college and donate his 474-volume library, making it one of the largest libraries in the colonies.[25][27]
In 1756, the college moved again to its present home in Princeton, New Jersey, because Newark was felt to be too close to New York.[28][29] Princeton was chosen for its central location in New Jersey and by strong recommendation by Belcher.[25][30] The college's home in Princeton was Nassau Hall, named for the royal William III of England, a member of the House of Orange-Nassau.[31] The trustees of the College of New Jersey initially suggested that Nassau Hall be named in recognition of Belcher because of his interest in the institution; the governor vetoed the request.[25]
John Witherspoon, President of the college (1768–94) and signer of the Declaration of IndependenceBurr, who would die in 1757, devised a curriculum for the school and enlarged the student body.[32] Following the untimely death of Burr and the college's next three presidents,[33] John Witherspoon became president in 1768 and remained in that post until his death in 1794.[34] With his presidency, Witherspoon focused the college on preparing a new generation of both educated clergy and secular leadership in the new American nation.[35][36] To this end, he tightened academic standards, broadened the curriculum, solicited investment for the college, and grew its size.[37][36]
A signer of the Declaration of Independence, Witherspoon and his leadership led the college to becoming influential to the American Revolution.[34][38][39] In 1777, the college became the site for the Battle of Princeton.[34] During the battle, British soldiers briefly occupied Nassau Hall before eventually surrendering to American forces led by General George Washington.[40] During the summer and fall of 1783, the Continental Congress and Washington met in Nassau Hall, making Princeton the country's capital for four months;[41] Nassau Hall is where Congress learned of the peace treaty between the colonies and the British.[42][43] The college did suffer from the revolution, with a depreciated endowment and hefty repair bills for Nassau Hall.[44]
19th century[edit]In 1795, President Samuel Stanhope Smith took office, the first alumnus to become president.[45] Nassau Hall suffered a large fire that destroyed its interior in 1802, which Smith blamed on rebellious students.[46] The college raised funds for reconstruction, as well as the construction of two new buildings.[47] In 1807, a large student riot occurred at Nassau Hall, spurred by underlying distrust of educational reforms by Smith away from the Church.[45][48] Following Smith's mishandling of the situation, falling enrollment, and faculty resignations, the trustees of the university offered resignation to Smith, which he accepted.[47] In 1812, Ashbel Green was unanimously elected by the trustees of the College to become the eighth president.[49] After the liberal tenure of Smith, Green represented the conservative "Old Side," in which he introduced rigorous disciplinary rules and heavily embraced religion.[50][51] Even so, believing the College was not religious enough, he took a prominent role in establishing the Princeton Theological Seminary next door.[50][49] While student riots were a frequent occurrence during Green's tenure, enrollment did increase under his administration.[52]
In 1823, James Carnahan became president, arriving as an unprepared and timid leader.[53][54] With the college riven by conflicting views between students, faculty, and trustees, and enrollment hitting its lowest in years, Carnahan considered closing the university.[53] Carnahan's successor, John Maclean Jr., who was only a professor at the time, recommended saving the university with the help of alumni; as a result, Princeton's alumni association, led by James Madison, was created and began raising funds.[53][55] With Carnahan and Maclean, now vice-president, working as partners, enrollment and faculty increased, tensions decreased, and the college campus expanded.[55] Maclean took over the presidency in 1854, and led the university through the American Civil War.[56] When Nassau Hall burned down again in 1855,[57] Maclean raised funds and used the money to rebuild Nassau Hall and run the university on an austerity budget during the war years.[56] With a third of students from the college being from the South, enrollment fell.[58] Once many of the Southerners left, the campus became a sharp proponent for the Union,[59] even bestowing an honorary degree to President Lincoln.[60]
James McCosh, President of the college (1868–88)James McCosh became the college's president in 1868, and lifted the institution out of a low period that had been brought about by the war.[61] During his two decades of service, he overhauled the curriculum, oversaw an expansion of inquiry into the sciences, recruited distinguished faculty, and supervised the addition of a number of buildings in the High Victorian Gothic style to the campus.[61][62] McCosh's tenure also saw the creation and rise of many extracurricular activities, like the Princeton Glee Club, the Triangle Club, the first intercollegiate football team, and the first permanent eating club,[63] as well as the elimination of fraternities and sororities.[64] In 1879, Princeton conferred its first doctorates on James F. Williamson and William Libby, both members of the Class of 1877.[65]
Francis Patton took the presidency in 1888, and although his election was not met by unanimous enthusiasm, he was well received by undergraduates.[66] Patton's administration was marked with great change, for Princeton's enrollment and faculty had doubled. At the same time, the college underwent large expansion and social life was changing in reflection of the rise in eating clubs and burgeoning interest in athletics.[67] In 1893, the honor system was established, allowing for unproctored exams.[68][69] In 1896, the college officially became a university,[70] and as a result, it officially changed its name to Princeton University.[71] In 1900, the Graduate School was formally established.[70] Even with such accomplishments, Patton's administration remained lackluster with its administrative structure[72] and towards its educational standards.[68] Due to profile changes in the board of trustees and dissatisfaction with his administration, he was forced to resign in 1902.[72]
20th century[edit]Woodrow Wilson, President of Princeton University (1902–10) and 28th president of the United StatesFollowing Patton's resignation, Woodrow Wilson, an alumnus and popular professor, was elected the 13th president of the university.[73][74] Noticing falling academic standards, Wilson orchestrated significant changes to the curriculum, where freshman and sophomores followed a unified curriculum while juniors and seniors concentrated study in one discipline.[75] Ambitious seniors were allowed to undertake independent work, which would eventually shape Princeton's emphasis on the practice for the future.[76] Wilson further reformed the educational system by introducing the preceptorial system in 1905,[75] a then-unique concept in the United States that augmented the standard lecture method of teaching with a more personal form in which small groups of students, or precepts, could interact with a single instructor, or preceptor, in their field of interest.[77] The changes brought about many new faculty and cemented Princeton's academics for the first half of the 20th century.[78] Due to the tightening of academic standards, enrollment declined severely until 1907.[75] In 1906, the reservoir Lake Carnegie was created by Andrew Carnegie,[79] and the university officially became nonsectarian.[80] Before leaving office, Wilson strengthened the science program to focus on "pure" research and broke the Presbyterian lock on the board of trustees.[73][81] However, he did fail in winning support for the permanent location of the Graduate School and the elimination of the eating clubs, which he proposed replacing with quadrangles, a precursor to the residential college system.[82] Wilson also continued to keep Princeton closed off from accepting Black students.[83] When an aspiring Black student wrote a letter to Wilson, he got his secretary to reply telling him to attend a university where he would be more welcome.[84]
John Grier Hibben became president in 1912, and would remain in the post for two decades.[85] On October 2, 1913, the Princeton University Graduate College was dedicated.[79] When the United States entered World War I in 1917, Hibben allocated all available University resources to the government. As a result, military training schools opened on campus and laboratories and other facilities were used for research and operational programs. Overall, more than 6,000 students served in the armed forces, with 151 dying during the war.[86] After the war, enrollment spiked and the trustees established the system of selective admission in 1922.[87] From the 1920s to the 1930s, the student body featured many students from preparatory schools, zero Black students, and dwindling Jewish enrollment because of quotas.[88] Aside from managing Princeton during WWI, Hibben introduced the senior thesis in 1923 as a part of The New Plan of Study.[89][90] He also brought about great expansion to the university, with the creation of the School of Architecture in 1919, the School of Engineering in 1921, and the School of Public and International Affairs in 1930.[91] By the end of his presidency, the endowment had increased by 374 percent, the total area of the campus doubled, the faculty experienced impressive growth, and the enrollment doubled.[92][90]
Hibben's successor, Harold Willis Dodds would lead the university through the Great Depression, World War II, and the Korean Conflict.[93] With the Great Depression, many students were forced to withdraw due to financial reasons.[94] At the same time, Princeton's reputation in physics and mathematics surged as many European scientists left for the United States due to uneasy tension caused by Nazi Germany.[95] In 1930, the Institute for Advanced Study was founded to provide a space for the influx of scientists, such as Albert Einstein.[96] Many Princeton scientists would work on the Manhattan Project during the war, [97] including the entire physics department.[98] During World War II, Princeton offered an accelerated program for students to graduate early before entering the armed forces.[99] Student enrollment fluctuated from month to month, and many faculty were forced to teach unfamiliar subjects. Still, Dodds maintained academic standards and would establish a program for servicemen, so they could resume their education once discharged.[100]
1945 to present[edit]Post-war years saw scholars renewing broken bonds through numerous conventions, expansion of the campus, and the introduction of distribution requirements.[101][102] The period saw the desegregation of Princeton, which was stimulated by changes to the New Jersey constitution.[103] Princeton began undertaking a sharper focus towards research in the years after the war, with the construction of Firestone Library in 1948 and the establishment of the Forrestal Research Center in the 1950s.[104] Government sponsored research increased sharply, particularly in the physics and engineering departments,[105] with much of it occurring at the new Forrestal campus.[106] Though, as the years progressed, scientific research at the Forrestal campus declined, and in 1973, some of the land was converted to commercial and residential spaces.[107]
Robert Goheen would succeed Dodds by unanimous vote and serve as president until 1972.[108] Goheen's presidency was characterized as being more liberal than previous presidents, and his presidency would see a rise in Black applicants,[109] as well as the eventual coeducation of the university in 1969.[110] During this period of rising diversity, the Third World Center (now known as the Carl A. Fields Center) was dedicated in 1971.[111] Goheen also oversaw great expansion for the university, with square footage increasing by 80 percentage.[112]
Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, Princeton experienced unprecedented activism, with most of it centered on the Vietnam War.[113][114] While Princeton activism initially remained relatively timid compared to other institutions,[113] protests began to grow with the founding of a local chapter of Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) in 1965, which organized many of the later Princeton protests.[113] In 1966, the SDS gained prominence on campus following picketing against a speech by President Lyndon B. Johnson, which gained frontpage coverage by the New York Times.[115][116] A notable point of contention on campus was the Institute for Defense Analyses (IDA) and would feature multiple protests,[113] some of which required police action.[117] As the years went on, the protests' agenda broadened to investments in South Africa, environmental issues, and women's rights.[113][118] In response to these broadening protests, the Council of the Princeton University Community (CPUC) was founded to serve as a method for greater student voice in governance.[119] Activism culminated in 1970 with a student, faculty, and staff member strike, so the university could become an "institution against expansion of the war."[120][b] Princeton's protests would taper off later that year, with The Daily Princetonian saying that, "Princeton 1970–71 was an emotionally burned out university."
In 1982, the residential college system was officially established under Goheen's successor William G. Bowen, who would serve until 1988.[121][122] During his presidency, Princeton's endowment increased from $625 million to $2 billion, and a major fundraising drive known as "A Campaign for Princeton" was conducted.[122] President Harold T. Shapiro would succeed Bowen and remain president until 2001. Shapiro would continue to increase the endowment, expand academic programs, raise student diversity, and oversee the most renovations in Princeton's history.[123] One of Shapiro's initiatives was the formation of the multidisciplinary Princeton Environmental Institute in 1994, renamed the High Meadows Environmental Institute in 2020.[124][125] In 2001, Princeton shifted the financial aid policy to a system that replaced all loans with grants.[126] That same year, Princeton elected its first female president, Shirley M. Tilghman.[127] Before retiring in 2012, Tilghman expanded financial aid offerings and conducted several major construction projects like the Lewis Center for the Arts and a sixth residential college.[128] Tilghman also lead initiatives for more global programs, the creation of an office of sustainability, and investments into the sciences.[129]
Princeton's 20th and current president Christopher Eisgruber was elected in 2013.[130] In 2017, Princeton University unveiled a large-scale public history and digital humanities investigation into its historical involvement with slavery called the Princeton & Slavery Project. The project saw the publication of hundreds of primary sources, 80 scholarly essays, a scholarly conference, a series of short plays, and an art project.[131] In April 2018, university trustees announced that they would name two public spaces for James Collins Johnson and Betsey Stockton, enslaved people who lived and worked on Princeton's campus and whose stories were publicized by the project.[132] In 2019, large-scale student activism again entered the mainstream concerning the school's implementation of federal Title IX policy relating to Campus sexual assault.[133][134] The activism consisted of sit-ins in response to a student's disciplinary sentence.[135]
Coeducation[edit]Princeton explicitly prohibited the admission of women from its founding in 1746 until 1969. Since it lacked an affiliated women's college, it was often referred to as a "monastery", both lovingly and derisively, by members of the Princeton community.[136][137] For about a decade, from 1887 to 1897, nearby Evelyn College for Women was largely comprised of daughters of professors and sisters of Princeton undergraduates. While no legal connection existed, many Princeton professors taught there and several Princeton administrations, like Francis Patton, were on its board of trustees. It closed in 1897 following the death of its founder, Joshua McIlvaine.[138]
Pyne Hall, where the first female students lived on campus.In 1947, three female members of the library staff enrolled in beginner Russian courses to deal with an increase in Russian literature in the library.[110]
In 1961, Princeton admitted its first female graduate student, Sabra Follett Meservey,[136] who would go on to be the first woman to earn a master's degree at Princeton.[110] Meservey was, at the time of her admission, already a member of the faculty at Douglass College within Princeton. The dean of the graduate school issued a statement clarifying that Meservey's admission was an exception, and that "Princeton may permit other women in the future as special cases, but does not plan to make general admissions of women graduate students."[139] The student-run Daily Princetonian ran four articles about Meservey in one issue,[139][140][141][142] including an editorial lamenting the potential "far reaching implications" of Meservey's admission which concluded: "Princeton is unique as an undergraduate men's college and must remain so."[142] Eight more women enrolled the following year in the Graduate School.[136] In 1964, T'sai-ying Cheng became the first woman at Princeton to receive a Ph.D. In 1963, five women came to Princeton for one year to study "critical languages" as undergraduates, but were not candidates for a Princeton degree.[110] Following abortive discussions with Sarah Lawrence College to relocate the women's college to Princeton and merge it with the university in 1967,[143] the administration commissioned a report on admitting women. The final report was issued in January 1969, supporting the idea.[110] That same month, Princeton's trustees voted 24–8 in favor of coeducation and began preparing the institution for the transition.[144] The university finished these plans in April 1969 and announced there would be coeducation in September.[145] Ultimately, 101 female freshman and 70 female transfer students enrolled at Princeton in September 1969.[146][145][c] Those admitted were housed in Pyne Hall, a fairly isolated dormitory; a security system was added, although the women deliberately broke it within a day.[148]
In 1971, Mary St. John Douglas and Susan Savage Speers became the first female trustees,[110] and in 1974, quotas for men and women were eliminated.[149] Following a 1979 lawsuit, the eating clubs were required to go coeducational in 1991, after an appeal to the U.S. Supreme Court was denied.[150] In 2001, Princeton elected its first female president.[127]
Campus[edit]The eastern side of the Washington Road Elm Allée, one of the entrances to the campusThe main campus consists of more than 200 buildings on 600 acres (2.4 km2) in Princeton, New Jersey.[4] The James Forrestal Campus, a smaller location designed mainly as a research and instruction complex, is split between nearby Plainsboro and South Brunswick. The campuses are situated about one hour from both New York City and Philadelphia on the train.[151] The university also owns more than 520 acres (2.1 km2) of property in West Windsor Township,[4] and is where Princeton is planning to construct a graduate student housing complex, which will be known as "Lake Campus North".[152]
The first building on campus was Nassau Hall, completed in 1756, and situated on the northern edge of the campus facing Nassau Street.[153] The campus expanded steadily around Nassau Hall during the early and middle 19th century.[154][155] The McCosh presidency (1868–88) saw the construction of a number of buildings in the High Victorian Gothic and Romanesque Revival styles, although many of them are now gone, leaving the remaining few to appear out of place.[156] At the end of the 19th century, much of Princeton's architecture was designed by the Cope and Stewardson firm (led by the same University of Pennsylvania professors of architecture who designed a large part of Washington University in St. Louis and University of Pennsylvania) resulting in the Collegiate Gothic style for which Princeton is known for today.[157] Implemented initially by William Appleton Potter,[157] and later enforced by the university's supervising architect, Ralph Adams Cram,[158] the Collegiate Gothic style remained the standard for all new building on the Princeton campus until 1960.[159][160] A flurry of construction projects in the 1960s produced a number of new buildings on the south side of the main campus, many of which have been poorly received.[161] Several prominent architects have contributed some more recent additions, including Frank Gehry (Lewis Library),[162] I. M. Pei (Spelman Halls),[163] Demetri Porphyrios (Whitman College, a Collegiate Gothic project),[164] Robert Venturi and Denise Scott Brown (Frist Campus Center, among several others),[165] Minoru Yamasaki (Robertson Hall),[166] and Rafael Viñoly (Carl Icahn Laboratory).[167]
A group of 20th-century sculptures scattered throughout the campus forms the Putnam Collection of Sculpture. It includes works by Alexander Calder (Five Disks: One Empty), Jacob Epstein (Albert Einstein), Henry Moore (Oval with Points), Isamu Noguchi (White Sun), and Pablo Picasso (Head of a Woman).[168] Richard Serra's The Hedgehog and The Fox is located between Peyton and Fine halls next to Princeton Stadium and the Lewis Library.[169]
At the southern edge of the campus is Lake Carnegie, an artificial lake named for Andrew Carnegie. Carnegie financed the lake's construction in 1906 at the behest of a friend and his brother who were both Princeton alumni.[170] Carnegie hoped the opportunity to take up rowing would inspire Princeton students to forsake football, which he considered "not gentlemanly."[171] The Shea Rowing Center on the lake's shore continues to serve as the headquarters for Princeton rowing.[172]
Princeton's grounds were designed by Beatrix Farrand between 1912 and 1943. Her contributions were most recently recognized with the naming of a courtyard for her.[173] Subsequent changes to the landscape were introduced by Quennell Rothschild & Partners in 2000. In 2005, Michael Van Valkenburgh was hired as the new consulting landscape architect for Princeton's 2016 Campus Plan.[174] Lynden B. Miller was invited to work with him as Princeton's consulting gardening architect, focusing on the 17 gardens that are distributed throughout the campus.[175]
Buildings[edit]Nassau Hall[edit]Nassau Hall, the university's oldest building and former capitol of the United States. Pictured in front is Cannon Green.Nassau Hall is the oldest building on campus. Begun in 1754 and completed in 1756,[176] it was the first seat of the New Jersey Legislature in 1776,[177] was involved in the Battle of Princeton in 1777,[178] and was the seat of the Congress of the Confederation (and thus capitol of the United States) from June 30, 1783, to November 4, 1783.[179] Since 1911, the front entrance has been flanked by two bronze tigers, a gift of the Princeton Class of 1879, which replaced two lions previously given in 1889.[180] Starting in 1922, commencement has been held on the front lawn of Nassau Hall when there is good weather.[181] In 1966, Nassau Hall was added to the National Register of Historic Places.[182] Nowadays, it houses the office of the university president and other administrative offices.[183][184]
To the south of Nassau Hall lies a courtyard that is known as Cannon Green.[185] Buried in the ground at the center is the "Big Cannon," which was left in Princeton by British troops as they fled following the Battle of Princeton. It remained in Princeton until the War of 1812, when it was taken to New Brunswick.[186] In 1836, the cannon was returned to Princeton and placed at the eastern end of town. Two years later, it was moved to the campus under cover of night by Princeton students, and in 1840, it was buried in its current location.[187] A second "Little Cannon" is buried in the lawn in front of nearby Whig Hall. The cannon, which may also have been captured in the Battle of Princeton, was stolen by students of Rutgers University in 1875. The theft ignited the Rutgers-Princeton Cannon War. A compromise between the presidents of Princeton and Rutgers ended the war and forced the return of the Little Cannon to Princeton.[187] The protruding cannons are occasionally painted scarlet by Rutgers students who continue the traditional dispute.[188][189]