League of American Bicyclists

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
League of American Bicyclists
FoundedMay 30, 1880; 143 years ago[1]
FounderKirk Munroe and Charles Pratt
36-6206225[2]
Legal status501(c)(3)[3]
PurposeTo lead the movement to create a bicycle-friendly America for everyone.[2]
Location
OriginsNewport, Rhode Island, United States
Area served
United States
Ralph Monti[4]
Bill Nesper[5]
Revenue (2016)
$1,837,299[2]
Expenses (2016)$2,035,381[2]
Employees (2016)
14[2]
Volunteers (2016)
100[2]
Websitewww.bikeleague.org

The League of American Bicyclists (LAB), officially the League of American Wheelmen,[6][3] is a membership organization that promotes cycling for fun, fitness and transportation through advocacy and education.[7] A Section 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization,[3] the League is one of the largest membership organizations of cyclists in the United States.[8]

History[edit]

A memorial in Newport's Touro Park commemorates the centennial of the League's founding.

Founded in Newport, Rhode Island, on May 30, 1880,[1] as the League of American Wheelmen by Kirk Munroe and Charles E. Pratt, it soon became the leading national membership organization for cyclists in the United States.[9][10] The organization's first officers were Charles E. Pratt as president, T.K. Longstreet as vice president, O.S. Parsons as corresponding secretary, J.F. Furrell as recording secretary, and H.L. Willoughby as treasurer.[11] The board of directors consisted of two from each state having regularly organization clubs.[11]

Pratt served two terms as the organization's first president, from 1880 to 1882. He was the author in 1879 of the first cycling guidebook in the United States, The American Bicycler: a manual for the observer, the learner and the expert.[9]

The League was also the governing body for amateur bicycle racing in the U.S. during the late 19th century. Membership peaked at 103,000 in 1898.[12]

The 1880–1902 period[edit]

Bicyclists of the League of American Wheelmen pose before the second annual St. Louis County Bicycle Tour, 1892.
League of American Wheelman - Horse bibs - Good Roads, 1897

The League was a prominent advocacy group for the improvement of roads and highways in the United States[13] long before the advent of the automobile. The Good Roads Movement in the late 19th century was founded and led by the League, which began publishing Good Roads magazine in 1892.

In the mid-1890s, bicycling became accessible to the population at large with the advent of the mass-produced, chain-driven safety bicycle. A huge boom in bicycle sales occurred, then collapsed as the market became saturated. Bicycle manufacturers were no longer able to support the League financially, and the interest of its members, largely well-to-do hobbyists, turned elsewhere.

In 1894, the League voted to prohibit membership by non-white people, pushed by southern members.[14] Since the League was the governing body for bicycle racing at that time, the League's action effectively banned non-white people from most races in the United States.[15] Local clubs had some discretion, as well as a separate racing league being set up, yet racism was still prevalent. Efforts were made the following years to repeal the "white exclusive" clause, an 1895 amendment to reverse the decision was dropped, as a "continued and energetic resistance" ensued before the original League dissolved in 1902.[16] In 1999, a reformed League disavowed the 1894 action.[17]

At its height in 1898, the League had over 103,000 members.[18] Early members included three of the wealthiest men of the Gilded Age: Newport socialites John Jacob Astor, Diamond Jim Brady, and John D. Rockefeller.[18]

Amateur bicycle racing declined with the rise of professional racing. League membership declined to 76,944 in 1900 and only 8,692 in 1902. The League dissolved that year, when there were still only a very few motorized vehicles on the roads.[19] The American Automobile Association was founded the same year, 1902, and was, to an extent, a successor organization. It provided—and still provides—route information to members, as the League had provided. The League's Secretary, Abbott Bassett, produced a monthly publication under the League's name until 1924, but there was no League organization. Bassett's Scrap Book[20] covered topics such as Frank W. Weston's role in developing cycling in Boston.

The 1939–1955 revival[edit]

Bicycle club activity revived and was particularly strong in the Chicago area during the Great Depression of the 1930s. Attempts to revive the League were initiated by representatives of the bicycle industry in 1933 and continued through the 1930s, and consisted primarily of a number of exhibitions and races under the League's name. Chicago-area bicycle clubs formed the core of a revived League governed by recreational cyclists in 1939 and which adopted a constitution in April 1942. This incarnation of the League was primarily a social organization, holding group rides and annual conventions. World War II contributed to the success of the League through rationing of motor vehicle fuel and tires. Membership was 614 in 1945, with 200 honorary members in the armed services. However, in the late 1940s, the League went into decline. Factors included the increasing availability of motor vehicles; the "baby boom", which made for difficulties in pursuing recreational cycling; narrow highways; and conformist social attitudes, with a perception of bicycling as a children's activity. Membership was only 507 in 1950 and 238 in 1953. The League dissolved again in 1955.

1965–present[edit]

The League reorganized once again in 1965. By this time, highways had improved, the Eisenhower Interstate Highway System had drained traffic from many of them, and new interest in recreational cycling was spurred by the promotion of sports bicycles with derailleur gearing by the Schwinn Bicycle Company and others. Increasing awareness of the importance of physical fitness also contributed to the popularity of bicycling.

Through the end of the 20th century, the League existed as a national clearinghouse for cycling advocacy, but more so as a social organization, holding three or more regional rallies each year, usually in June, centered on public college campuses in various parts of the US. Each of these rallies featured mapped rides of various lengths, dormitory housing and meals, a variety of cycling-related lectures, and vendors selling products. At their peak, rallies would each attract as many as 2,000 cyclists.

With increasing popularity of bicycling, however, various other organizations adopted functions which the League dropped or did not pursue—most prominently, Bikecentennial (later renamed as the Adventure Cycling Association), which maps touring routes and provides services for touring bicyclists; the Rails-to-Trails Conservancy, which promotes conversion of abandoned rail lines to trails; and the Alliance for Biking and Walking[21] (formerly Thunderhead Alliance), a loosely organized consortium of state and local advocacy organizations which maintains communication over the Internet.

In the late 20th century, the League was criticized for its name: League of American Wheelmen. Also, the term Wheelmen was becoming increasingly obscure. In response, the League began doing business as the League of American Bicyclists in 1994.[22]

The League reached a peak of 24,000 paid memberships in 1997, then declined to around 20,000, where it has remained since (as of 2009), though it is able to cite larger numbers by using a multiplier for family memberships and counting the approximately 300,000 members of affiliated bicycle clubs and advocacy organizations.

The League's rallies became less successful as bicyclists became able to find similar events closer to home. Beginning in 2003, the League would no longer organize its own rallies, but rather, would designate an existing event in one part of the country or another as its National Rally.

A major change in the direction of the League occurred in 1997 when it moved its offices from Baltimore, Maryland, to Washington, D.C., and focused increasingly on advocacy at the federal level. The League has shed most of the services it once provided to individual members, other than its magazine, and now is primarily an advocacy organization. Its major annual event is now the National Bicycle Summit (which see, under Advocacy, below).

The League has continued to play a leading role in cycling issues into the 21st century. One example is the certification of cycling instructors, since the 1970s. The League's education program concentrates on practical bicycle handling and traffic skills, and has more than 1,000 active instructors as of 2009.[23] The League's Bicycle Friendly America program distributes awards to communities which have adopted measures to accommodate and encourage bicycle use.[24] The League manages liability insurance programs for its instructors and for bicycle clubs, an invaluable service to them.[25]

Advocacy[edit]

LAB is the voice for cyclists at the national level, and organizes an annual National Bike Summit to bring professionals and advocates in Washington, D.C., together with government representatives. The Summit has attracted around 500 attendees in recent years (as of 2009).

In addition to PeopleForBikes, LAB works in partnership with other organizations such as America Bikes ("leveraging federal transportation dollars for bicycling", primarily with PeopleForBikes money), the Alliance for Bicycling and Walking (lobbies for government money to encourage bicycle usage while receiving substantial industry funding), Federal Highway Administration, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA), NCUTCD and NCUTLO in order to "create a more bicycle-friendly America".

Education[edit]

The League offers cycling education for adults and children in many locations across the U.S. Originally the education consisted of a single Effective Cycling (EC) course developed by John Forester and given to the League in 1976. Later, citing poor attendance and blaming the 30-hour length of the EC course, the League developed a curriculum consisting of multiple shorter courses. Forester did not agree with some of the changes to the program and withdrew permission for the League to use the EC name.[26] The name of the League's program was then changed to "Bike Ed".[27] In 2008, the program was renamed "Smart Cycling".

In addition to sponsoring the biennial "Bicycle Education Leaders Conference", the League is active in "Safe Routes to School" programs at a national level.

Bicycle-friendly communities[edit]

As of May 2018, the League has formally recognized 450 communities across all 50 states as bicycle-friendly communities for "providing safe accommodation and facilities for bicyclists and encouraging residents to bike for transportation and recreation."[28] These are the communities:[29]

Diamond-level

  • No Diamond-level communities.

Platinum-level - 5 Communities

Gold-level - 33 Communities

Silver-level - 90 Communities

Bronze-level - 324 Communities

Bronze-level, continued

Bicycle-friendly universities[edit]

As of 2023, the league has formally recognized the following 221 universities, as bicycle-friendly institutions of higher education[30] for "promoting and providing a more bikeable campus for students, staff and visitors."[31] These are the universities:[32]

Platinum-level - 9 Schools

Gold-level - 31 Schools

Silver-level - 68 Schools

Bronze-level - 114 Schools


Amethyst

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see Amethyst (disambiguation).
Amethyst
Amethyst cluster from Artigas, Uruguay
General
CategorySilicate mineral
Formula
(repeating unit)		Silica (silicon dioxide, SiO2)
Crystal systemTrigonal
Crystal classTrapezohedral (32)
Space groupP3221 (no. 154)
Identification
ColorPurple, violet, dark purple
Crystal habit6-sided prism ending in 6-sided pyramid (typical)
TwinningDauphine law, Brazil law, and Japan law
CleavageNone
FractureConchoidal
Mohs scale hardness7–lower in impure varieties
LusterVitreous/glassy
StreakWhite
DiaphaneityTransparent to translucent
Specific gravity2.65 constant; variable in impure varieties
Optical propertiesUniaxial (+)
Refractive indexnω = 1.543–1.553
nε = 1.552–1.554
Birefringence+0.009 (B-G interval)
PleochroismWeak to moderate purple/reddish purple
Melting point1650±75 °C
SolubilityInsoluble in common solvents
Other characteristicsPiezoelectric

Amethyst is a violet variety of quartz. The name comes from the Koine Greek αμέθυστος amethystos from α- a-, "not" and μεθύσκω (Ancient Greek) methysko / μεθώ metho (Modern Greek), "intoxicate", a reference to the belief that the stone protected its owner from drunkenness.[1] Ancient Greeks wore amethyst and carved drinking vessels from it in the belief that it would prevent intoxication.

Amethyst, a semiprecious stone, is often used in jewelry.

Structure[edit]

Amethyst is a purple variety of quartz (SiO2) and owes its violet color to irradiation, impurities of iron (Fe3+) and in some cases other transition metals, and the presence of other trace elements, which result in complex crystal lattice substitutions.[2][3][4] The irradiation causes the iron Fe3+ ions that replace Si in the lattice to lose an electron and form a [FeO4]0 color center.[5] Amethyst is a three-dimensional network of tetrahedra where the silicon atoms are in the center and are surrounded by four oxygen atoms located at the vertices of a tetrahedron. This structure is quite rigid and results in quartz's hardness and resistance to weathering. The hardness of the mineral is the same as quartz, thus making it suitable for use in jewelry.

Hue and tone[edit]

Amethyst occurs in primary hues from a light lavender or pale violet to a deep purple. Amethyst may exhibit one or both secondary hues, red and blue.[6] High-quality amethyst can be found in Siberia, Sri Lanka, Brazil, Uruguay, and the Far East. The ideal grade, called "Deep Siberian", has a primary purple hue of around 75–80%, with 15–20% blue and (depending on the light source) red secondary hues.[7] "Rose de France" is defined by its markedly light shade of the purple, reminiscent of a lavender/lilac shade. These pale colors were once considered undesirable, but have recently become popular due to intensive marketing.[8]

Green quartz is sometimes called green amethyst; the scientific name is prasiolite.[9] Other names for green quartz are vermarine or lime citrine.

Amethyst frequently shows color zoning, with the most intense color typically found at the crystal terminations. One of a gem cutter’s tasks is to make a finished product with even color. Sometimes, only a thin layer of a natural, uncut amethyst is violet colored, or the color is very uneven. The uncut gem may have only a small portion that is suitable for faceting.[10][11]

Natural purple/violet amethyst
Heat-treated amethyst
Natural pink amethyst

The color of amethyst has been demonstrated to result from substitution by irradiation of trivalent iron (Fe3+) for silicon in the structure,[4][12] in the presence of trace elements of large ionic radius,[3] and to a certain extent, the amethyst color can naturally result from displacement of transition elements even if the iron concentration is low. Natural amethyst is dichroic in reddish violet and bluish violet,[4] but when heated, turns yellow-orange, yellow-brown, or dark brownish and may resemble citrine,[13] but loses its dichroism, unlike genuine citrine. When partially heated, amethyst can result in ametrine.

Amethyst can fade in tone if overexposed to light sources, and can be artificially darkened with adequate irradiation.[4] It does not fluoresce under either short-wave or long-wave UV light.

Geographic distribution[edit]

Amethyst is found in many locations around the world. Between 2000 and 2010, the greatest production was from Marabá and Pau d'Arco, Pará, and the Paraná Basin, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil; Sandoval, Santa Cruz, Bolivia; Artigas, Uruguay; Kalomo, Zambia; and Thunder Bay, Ontario. Lesser amounts are found in many other locations in Africa, Brazil, Spain, Argentina, Russia, Afghanistan, South Korea, Mexico, and the United States.[14]

Main amethyst-producing countries

Amethyst is produced in abundance in the state of Rio Grande do Sul in Brazil where it occurs in large geodes within volcanic rocks.[15][16][17][18] Many of the hollow agates of southwestern Brazil and Uruguay contain a crop of amethyst crystals in the interior. Artigas, Uruguay and neighboring Brazilian state Rio Grande do Sul are large world producers, with lesser quantities mined in Minas Gerais and Bahia states.[14]

An amethyst geode that formed when large crystals grew in open spaces inside the rock

The largest amethyst geode found as of 2007 was the Empress of Uruguay, found in Artigas, Uruguay in 2007. It stands at a height of 3.27 meters, lays open along its length, and weighs 2.5 tons.

Amethyst is also found and mined in South Korea.[19] The large opencast amethyst vein at Maissau, Lower Austria, was historically important,[1] but is no longer included among significant producers.[14] Much fine amethyst comes from Russia, especially near Mursinka in the Ekaterinburg district, where it occurs in drusy cavities in granitic rocks.[1][14] Amethyst was historically mined in many localities in south India,[1] though these are no longer significant producers.[14] One of the largest global amethyst producers is Zambia in southern Africa, with an annual production around 1000 tons.[20]

Amethyst occurs at many localities in the United States. The most important production is at Four Peaks, Gila and Maricopa Counties, Arizona, and Jackson's Crossroads, Wilkes County, Georgia.[14]

Smaller occurrences have been reported in the Red Feather Lakes, near Fort Collins, Colorado; Amethyst Mountain, Texas; Yellowstone National Park; Delaware County, Pennsylvania; Haywood County, North Carolina; Deer Hill and Stow, Maine, and in the Lake Superior region of Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan.[1]

Amethyst is relatively common in the Canadian provinces of Ontario and Nova Scotia. The largest amethyst mine in North America is located in Thunder Bay, Ontario.[14]

Amethyst is the official state gemstone of South Carolina. Several South Carolina amethysts are on display at the Smithsonian Museum of Natural History.[21]

History[edit]

Roman intaglio engraved gem of Caracalla in amethyst, once in the Treasury of Sainte-Chapelle
Uninscribed amethyst scarab at the center of a string of amethyst ball beads from Egypt

Amethyst was used as a gemstone by the ancient Egyptians and was largely employed in antiquity for intaglio engraved gems.[22]

The ancient Greeks believed amethyst gems could prevent intoxication,[23] while medieval European soldiers wore amethyst amulets as protection in battle in the belief that amethysts heal people and keep them cool-headed.[24] Beads of amethyst were found in Anglo-Saxon graves in England.[25] Anglican bishops wear an episcopal ring often set with an amethyst, an allusion to the description of the Apostles as "not drunk" at Pentecost in Acts 2:15.[26]

A large geode, or "amethyst-grotto", from near Santa Cruz in southern Brazil was presented at a 1902 exhibition in Düsseldorf, Germany.[1]

The meaning of amethyst varies from time to time and culture, which is why amethyst has different meanings in Feng Shui and focuses on increasing wealth. In ancient China, it was also used as a powerful tool to remove negative energies and drive away the hazards of daily life.[self-published source?]

Synthetic amethyst[edit]

Synthetic (laboratory-grown) amethyst is produced by a synthesis method called hydrothermal growth, which grows the crystals inside a high-pressure autoclave.

Synthetic amethyst is made to imitate the best quality amethyst. Its chemical and physical properties are the same as those of natural amethyst, and it cannot be differentiated with absolute certainty without advanced gemmological testing (which is often cost-prohibitive). One test based on "Brazil law twinning" (a form of quartz twinning where right- and left-hand quartz structures are combined in a single crystal[27]) can be used to identify most synthetic amethyst rather easily. Synthesizing twinned amethyst is possible, but this type is not available in large quantities in the market.[7]

Treated amethyst is produced by gamma ray, X-ray, or electron-beam irradiation of clear quartz (rock crystal), which has been first doped with ferric impurities. Exposure to heat partially cancels the irradiation effects and amethyst generally becomes yellow or even green. Much of the citrine, cairngorm, or yellow quartz of jewelry is said to be merely "burnt amethyst".[1][28]

Cultural history[edit]

Ancient Greece[edit]

Emerald cut amethyst

The Greek word amethystos may be translated as "not drunken", from Greek a-, "not" + methustos, "intoxicated". Amethyst was considered to be a strong antidote against drunkenness,[29] which is why wine goblets were often carved from it.[30] In his poem "L'Amethyste, ou les Amours de Bacchus et d'Amethyste" (Amethyst or the loves of Bacchus and Amethyste), the French poet Rémy Belleau (1528–1577) invented a myth in which Bacchus, the god of intoxication, of wine, and grapes was pursuing a maiden named Amethyste, who refused his affections. Amethyste prayed to the gods to remain chaste, a prayer which the chaste goddess Diana answered, transforming her into a white stone. Humbled by Amethyste's desire to remain chaste, Bacchus poured wine over the stone as an offering, dyeing the crystals purple.[31][32]

Variations of the story include that Dionysus had been insulted by a mortal and swore to slay the next mortal who crossed his path, creating fierce tigers to carry out his wrath. The mortal turned out to be a beautiful young woman, Amethystos, who was on her way to pay tribute to Artemis. Her life was spared by Artemis, who transformed the maiden into a statue of pure crystalline quartz to protect her from the brutal claws. Dionysus wept tears of wine in remorse for his action at the sight of the beautiful statue. The god's tears then stained the quartz purple.[33]

This myth and its variations are not found in classical sources. However, the goddess Rhea does present Dionysus with an amethyst stone to preserve the wine-drinker's sanity in historical text.[34]

Other cultural associations[edit]

Tibetans consider amethyst sacred to the Buddha and make prayer beads from it.[35] Amethyst is considered the birthstone of February.[36] In the Middle Ages, it was considered a symbol of royalty and used to decorate English regalia.[36] In the Old World, amethyst was considered one of the cardinal gems, in that it was one of the five gemstones considered precious above all others, until large deposits were found in Brazil.[37]

Value[edit]

Amethyst geodes displayed at the 2012 Tucson Gem & Mineral Show

Until the 18th century, amethyst was included in the cardinal, or most valuable, gemstones (along with diamond, sapphire, ruby, and emerald), but since the discovery of extensive deposits in locations such as Brazil, it has lost most of its value.[37] It is now considered a semiprecious stone.[38]

Collectors look for depth of color, possibly with red flashes if cut conventionally.[39] As amethyst is readily available in large structures, the value of the gem is not primarily defined by carat weight. This is different from most gemstones, since the carat weight typically exponentially increases the value of the stone. The biggest factor in the value of amethyst is the color displayed.[40]

The highest-grade amethyst (called "Deep Russian") is exceptionally rare. When one is found, its value is dependent on the demand of collectors. The highest-grade sapphires or rubies are still orders of magnitude more expensive than amethyst.[7]