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Doctor and physicist

Weapons, coat of arms, motto

The revolution

Notes and references

Appendices

Jean-Paul Marat

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Jean-Paul Marat
Drawing.
Joseph Boze, Portrait of Marat (1793),
Paris, Carnavalet museum.
Functions
Deputy for the Seine
September 9, 1792 – July 13, 1793
(10 months and 4 days)
Legislature National Legislative Assembly
National Convention
Montagnard political group
Biography
Birth name Jean-Paul Marat
Nickname “The People’s Friend”
Date of birth May 24, 1743
Place of birth Boudry, Principality of Neuchâtel
Date of death July 13, 1793 (aged 50)
Place of death Paris, France
French and Neuchâtel nationality
Profession Journalist, doctor, physicist
edit See the template documentation

Jean-Paul Marat, born May 24, 1743 in Boudry (Principality of Neuchâtel) and murdered in a bathtub on July 13, 1793 in Paris, is a French doctor, physicist, journalist and politician. A usurper of nobility before the fall of the monarchical regime, he became a mountain deputy to the Convention at the time of the Revolution. His assassination by Charlotte Corday allowed the Hébertists to make him a martyr of the Revolution and to install his remains in the Pantheon for a few months.
Doctor and physicist
Commemorative plaque on the birthplace of Jean-Paul Marat in Boudry.
View of Boudry

Marat was born in Boudry, in a house on the square now called Place Marat, in the principality of Neuchâtel (whose territory corresponds to that of the current canton of Neuchâtel in Switzerland); he is the son of Jean-Baptiste Marat, a defrocked Mercedarian priest of Sardinian origin1 born in Cagliari in 1704 and Indian designer converted to Calvinism, and of the Genevan Louise Cabrol2 whose Calvinist family was originally from Rouergue; The Mara family, originally from Spain3, gave birth to several remarkable personalities such as his younger brother David (1756-1821) who was a professor of French literature at the imperial high school of Tsarskoye Selo.

In 1759, after his studies at college, the future conventional left Neuchâtel and his family, and became for two years the tutor of the children of Pierre-Paul Nairac, a large Bordeaux slave shipowner. Marked by the theme of slavery, he later produced, in 1785, for the Academy of Bordeaux, a dissertation in praise of the anti-slavery ideas of the philosopher Montesquieu4.

After a stay in Paris from 1762 to 1765, where he completed his studies and acquired self-taught training as a doctor, he settled in London, then in Newcastle in 1770, where he worked as a doctor and veterinarian. Between 1770 and 1772, he wrote The Adventures of the Young Count Potowski, an epistolary novel in the style of the time, which remains unpublished. In 1772, he anonymously published An Essay on the Human Soul, then, after his return to the British capital, in 1773, a second philosophical work, A Philosophical Essay on Man, which was republished in 17753. A disciple of Rousseau, he attacks Helvétius several times, called a "false and superficial mind", in this work, but also Voltaire, whom he describes as "inconsistent" and who responds to him with persiflage in a small article5,6 published in the Journal of Politics and Literature on May 5, 17777.

In May 1774, Marat published Chains of Slavery in London, which took place in the context of the electoral campaign which saw the election of John Wilkes as Alderman, then Lord Mayor of London3.

During his stay in England, he was received as a Freemason in the “King Head Jerrard Street Soho” lodge. His elevation to the rank of master is dated July 15, 1774 according to his Masonic diploma found and sold in 1906 at the Hôtel Drouot. Although traces of visits to a Dutch lodge are documented, he does not seem to frequent a French lodge8.

After a short stay in the United Provinces (1774-1775)2 and obtaining his medical degree from the University of St Andrews (Scotland) on June 30, 1775, he settled in Paris, where he published in 1776 French edition of his treatise On Man2. On June 24, 1777, the Count of Artois granted him the medical certificate of his bodyguards9. He opened an experiment office where he carried out research in experimental physics, in particular on the nature of fire, light and medical electricity. In August 1783, this last theme earned him a crown from the Academy of Rouen2.
A page from Physical Research on Fire with handwritten corrections in Marat's hand.

In 1779, Benjamin Franklin was invited by his friend Jean-Baptiste Le Roy to attend the Marquis Maximilien de Châteauneuf de L'Aubespinen 1, in his grand hotel on rue de Bourgogne, at the experiments of Marat, who also wanted to prove himself both in physics and in medicine10. In 1778, he presented a memoir on the nature of fire, and Jean-Baptiste Le Roy, who was appointed member of the commission responsible for investigating the merits of Marat's theories, managed to attract Franklin. :

    “Having exposed his bald head to the focus of the solar microscope (instrument invented by Marat), we saw him surrounded by undulating vapors which ended in twisted points; they represented the kind of flame that painters have made the attribute of genius11. »

This research earned him unfavorable criticism from the Paris Academy of Sciences12.

In 1780, in his Plan for Criminal Legislation, he criticized inequalities and maintained that the right to existence was superior to the right to property:

    “The right to possess derives from the right to live: thus, everything that is essential to our existence is ours, and nothing superfluous can legitimately belong to us while others lack what is necessary. This is the legitimate foundation of all property both in the state of society and in the state of nature. »

Falling ill in 1782, in addition to his scientific troubles, he experienced reversals of fortune, before losing his position as doctor to the Count of Artois in 17842,13,14. In the 1780s, Marat continued to treat Claire de Choiseul, marquise de l'Aubépine de Châteauneuf (1751-1794) who supported him financially and with whom he had an interested affair, if we are to believe the publishers of Jacques- Pierre Brissot15.

Another contemporary who knew Marat and his family particularly well, the ex-abbot Jean-Louis Giraud-Soulavie, a republican who was sent as “resident” ambassador to Geneva in 1793 and 1794, confirmed16 this information later corroborated by Barère de Vieuzac:

    “Marat left Geneva in 1782 and fanaticized in London where he returned in 1790 because pursued by La Fayette, returned in 1791 to put himself at the head of the Cordeliers, the main agitators of the populace. His two colleagues are Gasc17, associate of d'Yvernois18 in the administration of English subsidies, and Jannot-Lançon. It was near these adventurers that I was sent by the French Republic and it was against them that I had to fight, especially when I proved to them that, under the deceptive veil of their democracy, they were the channel of distribution in Lyon sums sent by the court of London to the patriotic leaders and royalist leaders who devastated this central point of our commerce in 1793 2.19. »

Marat was once approached, without success, to found an academy in Madrid by the minister Floridablanca2, in 1788. Suffering from serious inflammatory attacks and believing his life was in danger, he even wrote his will in the summer of that year, which he entrusted to the Swiss watchmaker Abraham Breguet20.
Weapons, coat of arms, motto

When he was doctor to the stable and pages of the Count of Artois, brother of the king, Marat tried in vain to have his (false) Spanish nobility recognized and to register a coat of arms21 which we find in his correspondence between 1778 and 178922 .

    “On the 1st of (unknown enamel) to a half-eagle of (unknown enamel) with the moving lowered flight of the party; on the 2nd cut in chief of (unknown enamel), on the band or half-chevron of (unknown enamel), and in point of purple. »

— Shield surmounted by a count's crown23.
The revolution
Revolutionary beginnings
Marat by Claessens.

On July 25, 1789, the Constitution Committee presented to the Assembly, through the voice of the deputy Mounier, a first project. At this precise moment, Marat published, at the beginning of August, an 8° octavo sheet of 8 pages Le Moniteur patriote24, entirely devoted to criticism of the draft Constitution, a criticism nourished, among other things, by his experience of the English constitutional model. He also addressed this in this regard, at the end of August, to the National Assembly in a letter entitled “Table of the vices of the English Constitution, presented in August 1789 to the States-General as a series of pitfalls to avoid in the Government that they wanted to give to France”.
Journalist
Le Journal de Marat, l'Ami du peuple, no. 124 of June 5, 1790.
Plate 16 rue de l'Ancienne-Comédie (Paris).

On September 12, 1789, Marat published the first issue of Le Publiciste parisien, a political, free and impartial daily newspaper known under the title L'Ami du peuple. It normally contains 8 octavo pages, sometimes 10 or 12, sometimes 16. From September 1789 to September 1792, Marat published 685 issues. Under the Constituent Assembly, he defended the cause of passive citizens, victims of the silver mark. Indeed, to be an "active citizen", one had to pay a minimum annual tax corresponding to three days of work and to be eligible, one had to pay a direct annual contribution of at least one mark of silver (i.e. around 50 books)25. In addition, direct taxes from Paris were calculated on the price of rent according to the law of April 18, 1790. To be eligible for the National Assembly, it was therefore necessary to have not only a rent, but a rent of at least 750 pounds to pay the 50 pounds of tax required26. On June 30, 1790, we find in Marat's diary a “plea from the passive citizen” where we can read: “What will we have gained from destroying the aristocracy of the nobles, if it is replaced by the aristocracy of the rich ? And if we must groan under the yoke of these new upstarts […]. »

He even took a position on colonial questions, between May 1791 and April 1792. Imbued with the thought of Montesquieu, to whom he paid homage in a pre-revolutionary competition for the irony of his text On the Slavery of the Negroes27 in May 1791, he defended the cause of freed people of color, regrets the Rewbell amendment of May 15 which recognizes citizenship for some, but discriminates against others. After the total revocation of their rights by Barnave on September 24, he predicted: “Unlike Parisians, men of color are not cowards, they will not give in.” They will in fact rise up shortly after and impose on the legislative assembly, with the help of their Brissotin group, the egalitarian decree of Mars 24, 1792, which became law on April 4 after royal assent. On slavery, Marat published on May 18, 1791 a plan for the progressive abolition of black slavery with compensation for planters. In the fall of 1791, upon the announcement of the slave insurrection in Saint-Domingue, he radicalized his thinking, taking up the cause of the insurgents, whose access to independence he predicted on December 12, 179128. Just before his assassination, having received a letter from a Creole friend, Philippe Rose-Roume, imprisoned after an intrigue by white settlers, he prepared to speak again about the situation in Saint-Domingue in a letter to the Convention29. Roume will be released shortly after on the initiative of Chabot30.

Marat made two trips to England at the time of the Revolution. The first took place in the 1790s, and the second in the spring of 1792. When he returned to Paris, Marat broke away from the Duke of Orléans, whom he strongly defended under the Constituent Assembly, until July 1791, to contribute to developing the still embryonic movement of revolutionary exaggeration. , which began spectacularly with the massacres of September 1792, continued throughout 1793 and ended with the end of the Great Terror.
September Massacres
Main article: September Massacres.
Jean-François Garneray, Portrait of Jean-Paul Marat (end of the 18th century), Versailles, Lambinet museum.

After August 10, 1792, he encouraged the continuation of the movement by advocating the elimination of the imprisoned royalists. Unlike his previous calls for murder, this time he was followed by part of the press, notably from Gironde. The publication of the Ami du peuple ceased on August 21, and its last call for murder dates from the 19th; it is however probable that at least one anonymous placard from August 26 is in his handwriting31.

On September 2, 1792, he joined the Surveillance Committee of the Paris Commune32. In his diary, he recounts some two days earlier that [ref. desired] people were in great turmoil[ref. necessary] and that those responsible for the day of August 10, 1792 had remained unpunished[ref. desired]. It evokes those who ensured the defense of the Tuileries castle and the protection of the royal family. In fact, the tribunal of August 17 had already started functioning and three servants of the Tuileries were executed, in particular Arnaud de La Porte, the intendant of the civil list and the writer Farmian du Rosoy. The extremist sections, however, find that this tribunal acquits too easily, and judges too slowly. At the end of August, home visits to find weapons resulted in numerous arrests; on August 30, 1792, the prisons of Paris were full.

The revolutionaries then went to the prisons, and there massacred from September 2 to 6, first unsworn priests, then Swiss guards and bodyguards of the king, aristocrats suspected of conspiracy, finally numerous common law prisoners (in total, there there are approximately 1,500 deaths). On September 3, he signed, and probably wrote, the circular of September 3 printed on his presses and sent to departments and municipalities throughout France, and calling for the generalization of massacres33. This circular and his violent writings strongly contributed to making him the main person responsible for the massacres, but this vision of things has been abandoned by historians since the 1930s and the works of Louis Gottschalk34 and Gérard Walter35.

The parliamentary commissions of inquiry demanded by the Girondins were slow to be put in place.

The hardening of the Revolution also led to decisions to regulate speculation. In September 1792, the elections for the National Convention which was to succeed the Legislative Assembly took place, at two levels, according to the requirements of the Constitution of 1791.

On September 9, 1792, Marat was chosen by his section to be a deputy for Paris at the Convention. Marat, in September 1792 in the Council of the Commune, estimated by approximation at 40,000 the number of heads that had to be slaughtered. Six weeks later, the social abscess having grown prodigiously, the figure swelled proportionately: 270,000 heads were requested, again out of humanity to “ensure public tranquility”, on the condition that he himself was in charge. of this operation and this operation only, as a summary and temporary vigilante36.
Trial of Louis XVI and appearance before the revolutionary tribunal
Triumph of Marat
Marat carried in triumph by the people after his acquittal by the Revolutionary Tribunal. Anonymous engraving from 1793.
“Immortal defender of the people and their rights,
He struck down the great ones and overthrew the throne,
Founded equality on the fall of kings;
Of civic virtue let us offer him the crown! »
The Triumph of Marat (Louis-Léopold Boilly, 1794).

Paradoxically, he appears very legalistic about the fate to be inflicted on Louis XVI. Unlike Robespierre, Saint-Just, Jeanbon Saint-André, he wants a real trial which would shed light on the king's crimes. He also intends to expunge crimes and offenses prior to September 1791 (flight of the king to Varennes and shooting at the Champ-de-Mars) to the extent that they were amnestied. Only the Tuileries Day can therefore be held against Louis XVI as a duly established crime. He nevertheless voted for the death of the king within 24 hours and of course rejected the appeal to the people and the reprieve. Shortly after, he took the offensive against the so-called “statesmen” faction, that is to say the supporters of Brissot whom he denounced without respite. He particularly attacked Lebrun-Tondu, whom he accused of maintaining links with “foreign agents”, notably the banker Édouard de Wackiers, his family and representatives of the international bank37. Since he was elected president of the Jacobins on April 5, 1793, a circular calling for insurrection and a coup d'état was published under his signature. “The counter-revolution,” he affirmed, “is in the National Convention (…) Let us stand up, yes let us all stand up! Let us put under arrest all the enemies of our Revolution and all suspicious people. Let us mercilessly exterminate all the conspirators if we do not want to be exterminated ourselves (…) Dumouriez marches on Paris to reestablish royalty (…) To arms! »

On April 12, Elie Guadet read a few extracts from this manifesto and, in conclusion, demanded the arrest of Marat38. At the end of a heated debate39, the Convention voted for the arrest40 which was not carried out thanks to the support of his supporters41. The next day, April 13, the decree of accusation of Marat was issued, following a nominal vote, by the Conventions with a majority of 220 votes to 9,242. Forty-eight members recuse themselves.

On April 23, the indictment against Marat arrived at the Ministry of Justice and he became a prisoner43. Confronted on April 24 with his accusers and his defenders, Marat benefited from a jury which he had won in advance. Acquitted on April 24, Marat, crowned with laurels, was carried in triumph.
Denunciation of Necker's loans

Marat vigorously denounced the cost of the French public debt induced by the craze for life annuities, under the direction of the Minister of Finance at the end of the 1770s, Jacques Necker.
Latest issues of L'Ami du peuple
Copy of L'Ami du Peuple stained with the blood of Marat, 1792.

Under the Legislative Assembly, from the first half of December 1791 - and among the first future mountaineers engaged in this struggle - Marat vigorously combatted Girondin warmongering in L'Ami du peuple. On December 15, 1791, he published a defensive war plan44. After this date, for financial reasons, he had to suspend his publication until the beginning of April 1792, but from then on, more radically than Robespierre45, he resumed the course, even making a defeatist speech after April 20, 1792; the fear of seeing the war benefit La Fayette, whom the Girondin deputies did not want to dismiss, motivated his decision and exposed him to new legal proceedings46. In November 1792, he almost alone abstained in the vote on the annexation of Savoy to France; and with regard to the territories occupied by France, in the winter of 1792-1793 he preached moderation with regard to the aristocratic forces and the clergy that the Brissotins wanted to exclude from political life47. All this was not contradictory with his plea for all-out war against the Allied Powers, to the extent that it had become defensive. Just before his death on July 12, 1793, on the occasion of a renewal, he requested the ouster of Bertrand Barère from the Committee of Public Safety48 who, a non-Jacobin mountaineer, was always in favor of offensive warfare. It is all these data which make him appear by Thomas Paine and the so-called "moderate" conventionalists (but like Barère and Gironde, former warmongers) as the objective ally of William Pitt who welcomes Marat's "support" for “his warlike policy” and his active role in the first “bleeding” – the proscription of the Girondins – practiced within the Convention. And for good reason: it was they who once again declared war on England on February 1, 1793 (on the report of Brissot). In the British Parliament, the Prime Minister argues about the instability of the French government. It is imprudent, he claims, to deal with a committee "which is changed and renewed every fortnight", and whose members, supposing they want to conclude an arrangement, find themselves in the situation of being guillotined or hanged before the arrangement of ratifications. The British cabinet therefore immediately rejects any attempt at accommodation. “If we dealt with Marat, before the end of the negotiations, he would fall back into the popular dregs from which he left and would give way to a scoundrel even more desperate than him”49. However, from May 31 to June 2, 1793, Marat requested and obtained a relative indulgence for Gironde: Jean-Baptiste Boyer-Fonfrède, François Lanthenas, Jean Dussaulx and Jean-François Ducos were removed, at his request, from the proscription lists of the Gironde by the new mountain convention.
Assassination
Portrait of Charlotte Corday, Jean-Jacques Hauer, (18th century)

Since June 3, 1793, Marat has no longer appeared at the Convention. The progression of his illness prevents him from appearing in public. According to Doctor Souberbielle, the origin of the disease was herpetic. Doctor Cabanès suggested the probability of a serious form of eczema or the consequences of diabetes50. Other diseases are mentioned: dermatitis herpetiformis, scabiosis, seborrheic dermatitis51. The latest research favors the seborrheic dermatitis hypothesis.52,53 His skin disease started in his groin and then spread throughout his body, causing terrible itching and painful ulcers. From June 20, his condition worsened and forced him to continually take curative sulfur baths in his copper slipper bath, as well as wrapping his head in a handkerchief soaked in vinegar to relieve his migraines. But, from this bathtub equipped with a writing desk, he regularly sent letters to the Convention which were never discussed54.
Study by Jacques-Louis David: face of Marat from his death mask55, national museum of the Palace of Versailles.

Marie-Anne Charlotte de Corday d'Armont, from the nobility of Caen and a direct descendant of Pierre Corneille, became aware of the revolutionary events by meeting several Girondin deputies who took refuge in Caen after their indictment by the Convention. Although open to new ideas, the young woman is outraged by the excesses of the Revolution. Considering Marat as a tyrant and the main instigator of the revolutionary massacres, she decides to eliminate him.

On July 11, 1793, she arrived in Paris with the intention of assassinating Marat in the assembly, but had to revise her plans upon learning of his absence from the Convention56. On July 12, Marat received a visit from Jacobin deputies, including the painter Jacques-Louis David, who were the last to see him alive. On July 13, Charlotte Corday presented herself for the first time at the tribune's home, at 30 rue des Cordeliers, at the end of the morning but Simone Évrard, her companion, refused to let her enter. She tried a second time to make contact without success, but she passed on a letter she had written giving information about an alleged plot56. On the third attempt, it was Marat himself who asked to be let in. After an interview which, according to Simone Évrard, lasted about a quarter of an hour, Charlotte Corday took out a knife and struck Marat in the chest; the path of the blade which passed through the right lung, the aorta and the heart led to his death. in his bathtub57.

Charlotte Corday was arrested at the scene of the murder and, after her trial by the Revolutionary Tribunal, executed on July 17, 1793.
After the assassination

The painter and conventionalist Jacques-Louis David is responsible for preparing the funeral of Marat who, especially united with Lepeletier de Saint-Fargeau, is presented as a martyr for Liberty, with all the phraseology dear to the time. This episode of intense communication lasted only a few months, but had a strong impact, including historiographical. On July 15, David prepared the exhibition of the body at the Cordeliers, but the state of decomposition, due to intense heat, did not allow Marat to be shown to the public, the painter decided to cover him entirely with a sheet, except for the wound caused by the assassination58. A great organizer of ceremonies, David planned for Tuesday July 16, 1793 an impressive procession which left around 6 p.m. The convoy leaves from rue des Cordeliers, passes through rue de Thionville, the Pont-Neuf, the Quai de la Ferraille and goes up to the Théâtre-Français, to get to Les Cordeliers, where the burial takes place. The creation of the tomb was entrusted to his friend the sculptor François Martin59. An immense people parade all night, by the light of torches. The Club des Cordeliers asked to place the “heart” of Marat in the place of its sessions, it joins that of Buirette de Verrières which is already exhibited there. In the weeks that followed, hundreds of tributes were paid to the Friend of the People across France and statues of the “martyrs” were inaugurated almost everywhere[ref. desired].
Depictions of Marat's assassination

    Jacques-Louis David, The Death of Marat (1793), royal museums of fine arts of Belgium.

    Jacques-Louis David, The Death of Marat (1793), royal museums of fine arts of Belgium.
    The assassination of Marat by Isaac Cruikshank (1793).

    The assassination of Marat by Isaac Cruikshank (1793).
    The assassination of Marat in the 19th century by Baudry (1860).

    The assassination of Marat in the 19th century by Baudry (1860).
    Santiago Rebull, The Death of Marat (1875), location unknown.

    Santiago Rebull, The Death of Marat (1875), location unknown.
    The Assassination of Marat by Jean-Joseph Weerts (circa 1880).

    The Assassination of Marat by Jean-Joseph Weerts (circa 1880).

Tributes
Jean Baffier. Sculpture by Marat facing the entrance to the Museum of the French Revolution.

On July 25, 1793, rue des Cordeliers, where Marat was assassinated at his home, was named rue Marat, at the same time as rue de l'Observance was renamed, place de l'Ami du Peuple60. Marat was “pantheonized” in November 1793 and entered the Pantheon on September 21, 179461, but from February 8, 179562, a new decree depantheonized him, specifying that the image of no citizen would no longer appear in the Assembly or in any place any public until ten years after his death. The Moniteur of 16 Pluviôse Year III (February 4, 1795), relates how, two days earlier, “children carried around” a bust of Marat “overwhelming it with reproaches [and] then threw it into the sewer , shouting to him: “Marat, here is your Pantheon! »63 » On February 10, the monument erected in his memory on the Place du Carrousel was destroyed.

Then a vast movement of burnings and breaking of busts spread to the departments64. His remains were buried in the Sainte-Geneviève cemetery (disappeared today, partly covered by the buildings of the Sainte-Geneviève library), near the Saint-Étienne-du-Mont church, on February 2665. The painting was returned to its author who kept it until 1820 when it was entrusted to Antoine-Jean Gros who hid it in Paris until David's death66.

Following the assassination, several towns in France, such as Saint-Nazaire-sur-Charente67 or Le Havre68, were named “Marat”. It's a matter of a few months. We still find today some traces of these names, streets (Bordeaux, Ivry-sur-Seine, Décines-Charpieu) bear his name. In Mars 1921, the Russian battleship Petropavlovsk was renamed Marat until its dismantling in 195269. In 1989, on the occasion of the bicentenary of the Revolution, a television film entitled Les Jupons de la Révolution: Marat was devoted to the life of the revolutionary. The role of adult Marat being played by actor Richard Bohringer.

In 2012, a bronze sculpture by Jean-Paul Marat was made by the Barthélemy Art foundry, based on Jean Baffier's second plaster model from 1883, to be installed on the square in front of the Museum of the French Revolution in Vizille70. . A first bronze version from 1883 was purchased by the city of Paris and installed in various public parks, the Montsouris park then the gardens of the Carnavalet museum and finally the Buttes-Chaumont park before being melted down under the Vichy regime, in the context of the mobilization of non-ferrous metals. On the enormous block of stone supporting the sculpture, a quote from Marat's journal, L'Ami du peuple, is engraved: “You will therefore always allow yourself to be fooled, you chattering and stupid people. You will never understand that you must distrust those who flatter you.”
Notes and references
Notes

He was the descendant of Charles de L'Aubespine, keeper of the seals of Louis XIII, and son of the Marquis de l'Aubépine, brigadier of cavalry under Louis XV, married on October 2, 1770, under the auspices of Queen Marie-Antoinette, to Claire Adélaïde Antoinette de Choiseul-Beaupré, daughter of Antoine, marquis de Choiseul, and Michelle de Beauval.

    This concerns the Lyon uprising and its aftermath, the role played by Nathaniel Parker-Forth (1744-1809), an agent of the British secret services and paid by them (Marion Ward, Parker-Forth, 1982, p. 137) and of the notary Claude-Odile Baroud in this dramatic affair.

References

BiblioSanGavino, “Le origini sarde di Jean-Paul Marat - Biblioteca Multimediale di San Gavino M.le” [archive], on www.bibliotecadisangavino.net (accessed February 27, 2016).
Michel Vovelle, “Marat Jean-Paul”, in Albert Soboul (dir.), Historical Dictionary of the French Revolution, Paris, PUF, 1989; reed. Quadriga, 2005, pp. 709-713.
See the presentation by Michel Vovelle in Jean Paul Marat, The Chains of Slavery, Éditions Complexe, 1988, 326 pages, pp. IX-XXXVIII (ISBN 2-87027-257-X).
Danielle Pétrissans-Cavaillès, In the footsteps of the black slave trade in Bordeaux, Paris/Budapest/Torino, L'Harmattan, 2004, 124 p. (ISBN 2-7475-6674-9, read online [archive]), p. 106
Albert Keim, Helvétius, his life and his work, based on his works, various writings and unpublished documents, F. Alcan, 1907, 719 pages, p. 634.
Jean Philibert Damiron, Memoir on Helvétius, Paris, A. Durand, 1855, 181 pages, pp. 40-41, which cites an extract from Voltaire's response.
Louis Eugène Hatin, Historical and critical bibliography of the French periodical press: with extracts, historical, critical and moral notes, indication of the prices that the main newspapers achieved in public sales, etc., Paris, Firmin-Didot Frères, 1866 , 660 pages, p. 103 [archive].
* Daniel Ligou, Dictionary of Freemasonry, Paris, Presses universitaire de France, 2017, 5th ed. (1st ed. 1986), 1,376 p. (ISBN 2-13-055094-0), “Marat (Jean-Paul)”, p. 764
.
Charles Vatel, Charlotte de Corday and the Girondins, Paris, Henri Plon, 1864-1872, volume I, pp. 332-333 [archive], note 1.
See correspondence of Marat and Franklin in Marat before 1789 by Jean-Paul Marat and Jacques de Cock Éditions Fantasques, 2003 (ISBN 978-2-913846-10-4), pp. 127-128.
B.-G. Sage, Chemical analysis and concordance of the three kingdoms, Paris, 1786, I, p. 117 cited by A. Cabanès, Unknown Marat: the private man, the doctor, the scholar, Paris, pp. 63-66.
Jean Guilhaumou, The Death of Marat, p. 11.
Jean Guilhaumou, op. cit., p. 12.
According to Charles Vatel, Charlotte de Corday and the Girondins, Paris, Henri Plon, 1864-1872, volume I, pp. 332-333 [archive], note 1, a new medical certificate for the bodyguards of the Count of Artois was granted on April 23, 1786 to Mr. Enguehard, to succeed Marat.
Memoirs of Brissot, published by Ladvocat and Montrol, Paris, 1830-32, volume I, p. 347-350 (long notice by M. de Montrol).
Jean Louis Giraud-Soulavie, Historical and political memoirs of the reign of Louis XVI: from his marriage to his death: work composed on authentic documents, provided to the author before the revolution by several ministers and statesmen and on supporting documents, collected after August 10 in the offices of Louis XVI, at Versailles, and at the Château des Tuileries, Paris, Treuttel and Würtz, 1801. On Soulavie's reports, see Olivier Blanc, Les Espies de la Révolution et de l'Empire, Paris, 1995, p. 318.
Antoine Gasc, 39 years old in 1791, bourgeois native of Narbonne, bourgeois, living in Paris, 33, rue Mazarine. Albert Mathiez, The Cordeliers Club during the Varennes crisis and the Champ de Mars massacre: largely unpublished documents, H. Champion, 1910, 392 pages, p. 258.
Son of a Geneva merchant, Sir Francis (or François) d'Yvernois, born in Geneva in 1756, made himself known by publishing the works of Rousseau, whose friend he said he was. Influential State Councilor, enemy of France, banished from Geneva in 1782 with Marat and others, he was for twenty years, with his compatriot Mallet du Pan, the zealous agent of the British government. Universal, historical, critical, and bibliographical dictionary of Louis Mayeul Chaudon (Imprimerie de Prudhomme fils, 1812), volume XIX, pp. 558-560 [archive], and New biography of contemporaries: or Historical and reasoned dictionary of all the men who, since the French revolution, have acquired fame through their actions, their writings, their errors or their crimes, whether in France , or in the foreign countries of Antoine-Vincent Arnault, Antoine Jay, Etienne de Jouy and Jacques Marquet de Norvins, Paris, Librairie historique, 1825, volume XX, pp. 312-313 [archive].
Olivier Blanc, Les spies, Paris, 1997, p. 91-92.
See letter from Marat on this subject in Marat avant 1789, edited by Jacques De Cock, Fantasques éditions, 2003, p. 542 [read online [archive]].
See letter from Marat to the judge of arms on this subject in Marat before 1789, edited by Jacques De Cock, Fantasques éditions, 2003, p. 123 [read online [archive]].
According to Claudius Roux: “At that time, he called himself M. de Marat, tried in vain to be ennobled, having had in advance for this purpose engraved a stamp with the coats of arms of Geneva and Neuchâtel, surmounted by a crown of count, stamp of which I was able to find an intact imprint in the archives of the Academy of Sciences of Stockholm, and of which there is another imprint, broken, in the archives of the Academy of Lyon. »
Description of the stamp on a letter from Marat dated December 28, 1789 to Camille Desmoulin by A. Duleau, “Le blason de Marat”, Revue historique, héraldique et nobiliaire, pp. 84-85.
F. Chevremont, Marat - Bibliophile Index, 1876, p. 18 [archive].
https://www.editionsquartmonde.org/rqm/document.php?id=4158 [archive]
Political history of the French Revolution: Origins and development of democracy and the Republic (1789-1804), by Alphonse Aulard, Paperback, January 17, 2015
Marcel Dorigny (dir.), Montesquieu in the French Revolution, Paris, EDHIS, 1990, 3 vols., volume 1; Jean-Daniel Piquet, The emancipation of Blacks in the French Revolution 1789-1795, Paris, Karthala, 2002, p. 33-34 and 207-212.
Aimé Césaire, Toussaint-Louverture, the French Revolution and the Colonial Question, African Presence, 1962; Yves Benot, The French Revolution and the f