Check out my other new & used items>>>>>>HERE! (click me)A spooky-cute Halloween decoration for your yard or home
TOTALLY GHOUL "SISAL SKELETON DOG"
DETAILS:
It's a cute dog skeleton in sisal form!
Accent
your Halloween time decorations with the macabre yet whimsical "Sisal
Skeleton Dog" by Totally Ghoul. The cute, costumed dog is depicted as a
disarming skeleton wearing a partial witch costume (purple witch hat and
matching bow tie collar). The skeleton dog Halloween decoration has a
design that looks like the combination of a character dreamt up by the
fantastic film maker and artist, Tim Burton, and a cutesy kawaii-like
Japanese cartoon character. The skeleton dog's elongated face reminds us
of a sandworm from Tim Burton's classic fantasy/comedy/horror film, Beetlejuice.
We see similarities in the head shape, colors, and the eye shape,
though the dog has solid black facial features. The lightweight figure
are covered in colored and textured sisal fibres (a durable fibre used
to make rope) and the black portions are also covered in black glitter.
Inside the quirky skeleton figure are 25 incandescent light bulbs that
give the Halloween time decoration a lovely glow. The "Sisal Skeleton
Dog" was designed for indoor or outdoor use. The light appears warm
yellow in the photos but in person the color of the light is more white.
Includes instructions, 2 replacement bulbs and a fuse.
Natural sisal!
Sisal
is "a species of flowering plant native to southern Mexico but widely
cultivated and naturalized in many other countries. It yields a stiff
fibre used in making rope and various other products. The sisal fibre is
traditionally used for rope and twine, and has many other uses,
including paper, cloth, footwear, hats, bags, carpets, geotextiles, and
dartboards. It is also used as fibre reinforcements for composite
fibre-glass, rubber and cement products." (wikipedia.org)
For indoor or outdoor use!
Dimensions:
16.5" x 7.7" x 20.5" (41.9 x 19.5 x 52 cm)
A retired Kmart product!
The
"Sisal Skeleton Dog" was created by Kmart for sale exclusively at Kmart
retail stores under the brand name, Totally Ghoul. Year of manufacture
is unknown but this Halloween decoration was retired at the end of that
year's Halloween season and has not been reproduced since - making it
hard to find and now collectible.
CONDITION:
New
with box wear. The item is in new condition however the box has
acquired some storage wear. We've had a couple of these skeleton dogs,
our last one is in similar or better condition than the one shown.
Please see photos.
*To ensure safe delivery all items are carefully packaged before shipping out.*
THANK YOU FOR LOOKING. QUESTIONS? JUST ASK.
*ALL PHOTOS AND TEXT ARE INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY OF SIDEWAYS STAIRS CO. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.*
"Halloween
or Hallowe'en (a contraction of "All Hallows' evening"),[5] also known
as Allhalloween,[6] All Hallows' Eve,[7] or All Saints' Eve,[8] is a
celebration observed in many countries on 31 October, the eve of the
Western Christian feast of All Hallows' Day. It begins the observance of
Allhallowtide,[9] the time in the liturgical year dedicated to
remembering the dead, including saints (hallows), martyrs, and all the
faithful departed.[10][11]
One theory holds that many Halloween
traditions may have been influenced by ancient Celtic harvest festivals,
particularly the Gaelic festival Samhain, which may have had pagan
roots;[12][13][14][15] some scholars hold that Samhain may have been
Christianized as All Hallow's Day, along with its eve, by the early
Church.[16] Other academics believe, however, that Halloween began
solely as a Christian holiday, being the vigil of All Hallow's
Day.[17][18][19][20]
Halloween activities include
trick-or-treating (or the related guising and souling), attending
Halloween costume parties, carving pumpkins into jack-o'-lanterns,
lighting bonfires, apple bobbing, divination games, playing pranks,
visiting haunted attractions, telling scary stories, as well as watching
horror films.[21] In many parts of the world, the Christian religious
observances of All Hallows' Eve, including attending church services and
lighting candles on the graves of the dead, remain popular,[22][23][24]
although elsewhere it is a more commercial and secular
celebration.[25][26][27] Some Christians historically abstained from
meat on All Hallows' Eve, a tradition reflected in the eating of certain
vegetarian foods on this vigil day, including apples, potato pancakes,
and soul cakes....
Etymology
The word appears as the title of Robert Burns' "Halloween" (1785), a poem traditionally recited by Scots.
The
word Halloween or Hallowe'en dates to about 1745[32] and is of
Christian origin.[33] The word "Hallowe'en" means "Saints' evening".[34]
It comes from a Scottish term for All Hallows' Eve (the evening before
All Hallows' Day).[35] In Scots, the word "eve" is even, and this is
contracted to e'en or een.[36] Over time, (All) Hallow(s) E(v)en evolved
into Hallowe'en. Although the phrase "All Hallows'" is found in Old
English, "All Hallows' Eve" is itself not seen until 1556.[35][37]
History
Gaelic influence
An early 20th-century Irish Halloween mask displayed at the Museum of Country Life
Today's
Halloween customs are thought to have been influenced by folk customs
and beliefs from the Celtic-speaking countries, some of which are
believed to have pagan roots.[38] Jack Santino, a folklorist, writes
that "there was throughout Ireland an uneasy truce existing between
customs and beliefs associated with Christianity and those associated
with religions that were Irish before Christianity arrived".[39]
Historian Nicholas Rogers, exploring the origins of Halloween, notes
that while "some folklorists have detected its origins in the Roman
feast of Pomona, the goddess of fruits and seeds, or in the festival of
the dead called Parentalia, it is more typically linked to the Celtic
festival of Samhain, which comes from the Old Irish for 'summer's
end'."[40]
Samhain was the first and most important of the four
quarter days in the medieval Gaelic calendar and was celebrated on 31
October – 1 November[41] in Ireland, Scotland and the Isle of
Man.[42][43] A kindred festival was held at the same time of year by the
Brittonic Celts, called Calan Gaeaf in Wales, Kalan Gwav in Cornwall
and Kalan Goañv in Brittany; a name meaning "first day of winter". For
the Celts, the day ended and began at sunset; thus the festival began on
the evening before 7 November by modern reckoning (the half point
between equinox and solstice).[44] Samhain is mentioned in some of the
earliest Irish literature. The names have been used by historians to
refer to Celtic Halloween customs up until the 19th century,[45] and are
still the Gaelic and Welsh names for Halloween.
Snap-Apple Night, painted by Daniel Maclise in 1833, shows people feasting and playing divination games on Halloween in Ireland.
Samhain
marked the end of the harvest season and the beginning of winter or the
'darker half' of the year.[46][47] Like Beltane/Calan Mai, it was seen
as a liminal time, when the boundary between this world and the
Otherworld thinned. This meant the Aos Sí, the 'spirits' or 'fairies',
could more easily come into this world and were particularly
active.[48][49] Most scholars see the Aos Sí as "degraded versions of
ancient gods [...] whose power remained active in the people's minds
even after they had been officially replaced by later religious
beliefs".[50] The Aos Sí were both respected and feared, with
individuals often invoking the protection of God when approaching their
dwellings.[51][52] At Samhain, it was believed that the Aos Sí needed to
be propitiated to ensure that the people and their livestock survived
the winter. Offerings of food and drink, or portions of the crops, were
left outside for the Aos Sí.[53][54][55] The souls of the dead were also
said to revisit their homes seeking hospitality.[56] Places were set at
the dinner table and by the fire to welcome them.[57] The belief that
the souls of the dead return home on one night of the year and must be
appeased seems to have ancient origins and is found in many cultures
throughout the world.[58] In 19th century Ireland, "candles would be lit
and prayers formally offered for the souls of the dead. After this the
eating, drinking, and games would begin".[59]
Throughout Ireland
and Britain, the household festivities included rituals and games
intended to foretell one's future, especially regarding death and
marriage.[60] Apples and nuts were often used in these divination
rituals. They included apple bobbing, nut roasting, scrying or
mirror-gazing, pouring molten lead or egg whites into water, dream
interpretation, and others.[61] Special bonfires were lit and there were
rituals involving them. Their flames, smoke and ashes were deemed to
have protective and cleansing powers, and were also used for
divination.[46] In some places, torches lit from the bonfire were
carried sunwise around homes and fields to protect them.[45] It is
suggested that the fires were a kind of imitative or sympathetic magic –
they mimicked the Sun, helping the "powers of growth" and holding back
the decay and darkness of winter.[57][62][63] In Scotland, these
bonfires and divination games were banned by the church elders in some
parishes.[64] In Wales, bonfires were lit to "prevent the souls of the
dead from falling to earth".[65] Later, these bonfires served to keep
"away the devil".[66]
photograph
A plaster cast of a traditional Irish Halloween turnip (rutabaga) lantern on display in the Museum of Country Life, Ireland[67]
From
at least the 16th century,[68] the festival included mumming and
guising in Ireland, Scotland, the Isle of Man and Wales.[69] This
involved people going house-to-house in costume (or in disguise),
usually reciting verses or songs in exchange for food. It may have
originally been a tradition whereby people impersonated the Aos Sí, or
the souls of the dead, and received offerings on their behalf, similar
to the custom of souling (see below). Impersonating these beings, or
wearing a disguise, was also believed to protect oneself from them.[70]
It is suggested that the mummers and guisers "personify the old spirits
of the winter, who demanded reward in exchange for good fortune".[71] In
parts of southern Ireland, the guisers included a hobby horse. A man
dressed as a Láir Bhán (white mare) led youths house-to-house reciting
verses – some of which had pagan overtones – in exchange for food. If
the household donated food it could expect good fortune from the 'Muck
Olla'; not doing so would bring misfortune.[72] In Scotland, youths went
house-to-house with masked, painted or blackened faces, often
threatening to do mischief if they were not welcomed.[69] F. Marian
McNeill suggests the ancient festival included people in costume
representing the spirits, and that faces were marked (or blackened) with
ashes taken from the sacred bonfire.[68] In parts of Wales, men went
about dressed as fearsome beings called gwrachod.[69] In the late 19th
and early 20th century, young people in Glamorgan and Orkney
cross-dressed.[69]
Elsewhere in Europe, mumming and hobby horses
were part of other yearly festivals. However, in the Celtic-speaking
regions, they were "particularly appropriate to a night upon which
supernatural beings were said to be abroad and could be imitated or
warded off by human wanderers".[69] From at least the 18th century,
"imitating malignant spirits" led to playing pranks in Ireland and the
Scottish Highlands. Wearing costumes and playing pranks at Halloween
spread to England in the 20th century.[69] Traditionally, pranksters
used hollowed out turnips or mangel wurzels often carved with grotesque
faces as lanterns.[69] By those who made them, the lanterns were
variously said to represent the spirits,[69] or were used to ward off
evil spirits.[73][74] They were common in parts of Ireland and the
Scottish Highlands in the 19th century,[69] as well as in Somerset (see
Punkie Night). In the 20th century they spread to other parts of England
and became generally known as jack-o'-lanterns.[69]
Christian influence
Today's
Halloween customs are thought to have been influenced by Christian
dogma and practices derived from it.[75] Halloween is the evening before
the Christian holy days of All Hallows' Day (also known as All Saints'
or Hallowmas) on 1 November and All Souls' Day on 2 November, thus
giving the holiday on 31 October the full name of All Hallows' Eve
(meaning the evening before All Hallows' Day).[76] Since the time of the
early Church,[77] major feasts in Christianity (such as Christmas,
Easter and Pentecost) had vigils that began the night before, as did the
feast of All Hallows'.[78] These three days are collectively called
Allhallowtide and are a time for honoring the saints and praying for the
recently departed souls who have yet to reach Heaven. Commemorations of
all saints and martyrs were held by several churches on various dates,
mostly in springtime.[79] In 609, Pope Boniface IV re-dedicated the
Pantheon in Rome to "St Mary and all martyrs" on 13 May. This was the
same date as Lemuria, an ancient Roman festival of the dead, and the
same date as the commemoration of all saints in Edessa in the time of
Ephrem the Syrian.[80]
The feast of All Hallows', on its current
date in the Western Church, may be traced to Pope Gregory III's
(731–741) founding of an oratory in St Peter's for the relics "of the
holy apostles and of all saints, martyrs and confessors".[81][82] In
835, All Hallows' Day was officially switched to 1 November, the same
date as Samhain, at the behest of Pope Gregory IV.[83] Some suggest this
was due to Celtic influence, while others suggest it was a Germanic
idea,[83] although it is claimed that both Germanic and Celtic-speaking
peoples commemorated the dead at the beginning of winter.[84] They may
have seen it as the most fitting time to do so, as it is a time of
'dying' in nature.[83][84] It is also suggested that the change was made
on the "practical grounds that Rome in summer could not accommodate the
great number of pilgrims who flocked to it", and perhaps because of
public health considerations regarding Roman Fever – a disease that
claimed a number of lives during the sultry summers of the region.[85]
On
All Hallows' Eve, Christians in some parts of the world visit
cemeteries to pray and place flowers and candles on the graves of their
loved ones.[86] The top photograph shows Bangladeshi Christians lighting
candles on the headstone of a relative, while the bottom photograph
shows Lutheran Christians praying and lighting candles in front of the
central crucifix of a graveyard.
By the end of the 12th century
they had become holy days of obligation across Europe and involved such
traditions as ringing church bells for the souls in purgatory. In
addition, "it was customary for criers dressed in black to parade the
streets, ringing a bell of mournful sound and calling on all good
Christians to remember the poor souls."[87] "Souling", the custom of
baking and sharing soul cakes for all christened souls,[88] has been
suggested as the origin of trick-or-treating.[89] The custom dates back
at least as far as the 15th century[90] and was found in parts of
England, Flanders, Germany and Austria.[58] Groups of poor people, often
children, would go door-to-door during Allhallowtide, collecting soul
cakes, in exchange for praying for the dead, especially the souls of the
givers' friends and relatives.[90][91][92] Soul cakes would also be
offered for the souls themselves to eat,[58] or the 'soulers' would act
as their representatives.[93] As with the Lenten tradition of hot cross
buns, Allhallowtide soul cakes were often marked with a cross,
indicating that they were baked as alms.[94] Shakespeare mentions
souling in his comedy The Two Gentlemen of Verona (1593).[95] On the
custom of wearing costumes, Christian minister Prince Sorie Conteh
wrote: "It was traditionally believed that the souls of the departed
wandered the earth until All Saints' Day, and All Hallows' Eve provided
one last chance for the dead to gain vengeance on their enemies before
moving to the next world. In order to avoid being recognized by any soul
that might be seeking such vengeance, people would don masks or
costumes to disguise their identities".[96]
It is claimed that in
the Middle Ages, churches that were too poor to display the relics of
martyred saints at Allhallowtide let parishioners dress up as saints
instead.[97][98] Some Christians continue to observe this custom at
Halloween today.[99] Lesley Bannatyne believes this could have been a
Christianization of an earlier pagan custom.[100] While souling,
Christians would carry with them "lanterns made of hollowed-out
turnips".[101] It has been suggested that the carved jack-o'-lantern, a
popular symbol of Halloween, originally represented the souls of the
dead.[102] On Halloween, in medieval Europe, fires served a dual
purpose, being lit to guide returning souls to the homes of their
families, as well as to deflect demons from haunting sincere Christian
folk.[103][104] Households in Austria, England and Ireland often had
"candles burning in every room to guide the souls back to visit their
earthly homes". These were known as "soul lights".[105][106][107] Many
Christians in mainland Europe, especially in France, believed "that once
a year, on Hallowe'en, the dead of the churchyards rose for one wild,
hideous carnival" known as the danse macabre, which has often been
depicted in church decoration.[108] Christopher Allmand and Rosamond
McKitterick write in The New Cambridge Medieval History that "Christians
were moved by the sight of the Infant Jesus playing on his mother's
knee; their hearts were touched by the Pietà; and patron saints
reassured them by their presence. But, all the while, the danse macabre
urged them not to forget the end of all earthly things."[109] This danse
macabre was enacted at village pageants and at court masques, with
people "dressing up as corpses from various strata of society", and may
have been the origin of modern-day Halloween costume
parties.[101][110][111]
In parts of Britain, these customs came
under attack during the Reformation as some Protestants berated
purgatory as a "popish" doctrine incompatible with their notion of
predestination. Thus, for some Nonconformist Protestants, the theology
of All Hallows' Eve was redefined; without the doctrine of purgatory,
"the returning souls cannot be journeying from Purgatory on their way to
Heaven, as Catholics frequently believe and assert. Instead, the
so-called ghosts are thought to be in actuality evil spirits. As such
they are threatening."[106] Other Protestants maintained belief in an
intermediate state, known as Hades (Bosom of Abraham),[112] and
continued to observe the original customs, especially souling, candlelit
processions and the ringing of church bells in memory of the
dead.[76][113] Mark Donnelly, a professor of medieval archaeology, and
historian Daniel Diehl, with regard to the evil spirits, on Halloween,
write that "barns and homes were blessed to protect people and livestock
from the effect of witches, who were believed to accompany the
malignant spirits as they traveled the earth."[114]
In the 19th
century, in some rural parts of England, families gathered on hills on
the night of All Hallows' Eve. One held a bunch of burning straw on a
pitchfork while the rest knelt around him in a circle, praying for the
souls of relatives and friends until the flames went out. This was known
as teen'lay.[115] Other customs included the tindle fires in Derbyshire
and all-night vigil bonfires in Hertfordshire which were lit to pray
for the departed.[116] The rising popularity of Guy Fawkes Night (5
November) from 1605 onward, saw many Halloween traditions appropriated
by that holiday instead, and Halloween's popularity waned in Britain,
with the noteworthy exception of Scotland.[117] There and in Ireland,
they had been celebrating Samhain and Halloween since at least the early
Middle Ages, and the Scottish kirk took a more pragmatic approach to
Halloween, seeing it as important to the life cycle and rites of passage
of communities and thus ensuring its survival in the country.[117]
In
France, some Christian families, on the night of All Hallows' Eve,
prayed beside the graves of their loved ones, setting down dishes full
of milk for them.[105] On Halloween, in Italy, some families left a
large meal out for ghosts of their passed relatives, before they
departed for church services.[118] In Spain, on this night, special
pastries are baked, known as "bones of the holy" (Spanish: Huesos de
Santo) and put them on the graves of the churchyard, a practice that
continues to this day.[119]
Spread to North America
The annual Greenwich Village Halloween Parade in Manhattan is the world's largest Halloween parade.
Lesley
Bannatyne and Cindy Ott write that Anglican colonists in the southern
United States and Catholic colonists in Maryland "recognized All
Hallow's Eve in their church calendars",[120][121] although the Puritans
of New England maintained strong opposition to the holiday, along with
other traditional celebrations of the established Church, including
Christmas.[122] Almanacs of the late 18th and early 19th century give no
indication that Halloween was widely celebrated in North America.[123]
It was not until mass Irish and Scottish immigration in the 19th century
that Halloween became a major holiday in America,[123] confined to the
immigrant communities during the mid-19th century. It was gradually
assimilated into mainstream society and was celebrated coast to coast by
people of all social, racial, and religious backgrounds by the first
decade of the 20th century.[124] "In Cajun areas, a nocturnal Mass was
said in cemeteries on Halloween night. Candles that had been blessed
were placed on graves, and families sometimes spent the entire night at
the graveside".[125] The yearly Greenwich Village Halloween Parade was
begun in 1974 by puppeteer and mask maker Ralph Lee of Greenwich
Village; it is the world's largest Halloween parade and America's only
major nighttime parade, attracting more than 60,000 costumed
participants, two million spectators, and a worldwide television
audience.[126]
Symbols
At Halloween, yards, public spaces, and
some houses may be decorated with traditionally macabre symbols
including witches, skeletons, ghosts, cobwebs, and headstones.
Development
of artifacts and symbols associated with Halloween formed over time.
Jack-o'-lanterns are traditionally carried by guisers on All Hallows'
Eve in order to frighten evil spirits.[102][127] There is a popular
Irish Christian folktale associated with the jack-o'-lantern,[128] which
in folklore is said to represent a "soul who has been denied entry into
both heaven and hell":[129]
On route home after a night's
drinking, Jack encounters the Devil and tricks him into climbing a tree.
A quick-thinking Jack etches the sign of the cross into the bark, thus
trapping the Devil. Jack strikes a bargain that Satan can never claim
his soul. After a life of sin, drink, and mendacity, Jack is refused
entry to heaven when he dies. Keeping his promise, the Devil refuses to
let Jack into hell and throws a live coal straight from the fires of
hell at him. It was a cold night, so Jack places the coal in a hollowed
out turnip to stop it from going out, since which time Jack and his
lantern have been roaming looking for a place to rest.[130]
In
Ireland and Scotland, the turnip has traditionally been carved during
Halloween,[131][132] but immigrants to North America used the native
pumpkin, which is both much softer and much larger – making it easier to
carve than a turnip.[131] The American tradition of carving pumpkins is
recorded in 1837[133] and was originally associated with harvest time
in general, not becoming specifically associated with Halloween until
the mid-to-late 19th century.[134]
Decorated house in Weatherly, Pennsylvania
The
modern imagery of Halloween comes from many sources, including
Christian eschatology, national customs, works of Gothic and horror
literature (such as the novels Frankenstein and Dracula) and classic
horror films (such as Frankenstein and The Mummy).[135][136] Imagery of
the skull, a reference to Golgotha in the Christian tradition, serves as
"a reminder of death and the transitory quality of human life" and is
consequently found in memento mori and vanitas compositions;[137] skulls
have therefore been commonplace in Halloween, which touches on this
theme.[138] Traditionally, the back walls of churches are "decorated
with a depiction of the Last Judgment, complete with graves opening and
the dead rising, with a heaven filled with angels and a hell filled with
devils", a motif that has permeated the observance of this
triduum.[139] One of the earliest works on the subject of Halloween is
from Scottish poet John Mayne, who, in 1780, made note of pranks at
Halloween; "What fearfu' pranks ensue!", as well as the supernatural
associated with the night, "Bogies" (ghosts), influencing Robert Burns'
"Halloween" (1785).[140] Elements of the autumn season, such as
pumpkins, corn husks, and scarecrows, are also prevalent. Homes are
often decorated with these types of symbols around Halloween. Halloween
imagery includes themes of death, evil, and mythical monsters.[141]
Black cats, which have been long associated with witches, are also a
common symbol of Halloween. Black, orange, and sometimes purple are
Halloween's traditional colors.[142]
Trick-or-treating and guising
Main article: Trick-or-treating
Trick-or-treaters in Sweden
Trick-or-treating
is a customary celebration for children on Halloween. Children go in
costume from house to house, asking for treats such as candy or
sometimes money, with the question, "Trick or treat?" The word "trick"
implies a "threat" to perform mischief on the homeowners or their
property if no treat is given.[89] The practice is said to have roots in
the medieval practice of mumming, which is closely related to
souling.[143] John Pymm wrote that "many of the feast days associated
with the presentation of mumming plays were celebrated by the Christian
Church."[144] These feast days included All Hallows' Eve, Christmas,
Twelfth Night and Shrove Tuesday.[145][146] Mumming practiced in
Germany, Scandinavia and other parts of Europe,[147] involved masked
persons in fancy dress who "paraded the streets and entered houses to
dance or play dice in silence".[148]
Girl in a Halloween costume in
1928, Ontario, Canada, the same province where the Scottish Halloween
custom of guising is first recorded in North America
In England,
from the medieval period,[149] up until the 1930s,[150] people practiced
the Christian custom of souling on Halloween, which involved groups of
soulers, both Protestant and Catholic,[113] going from parish to parish,
begging the rich for soul cakes, in exchange for praying for the souls
of the givers and their friends.[91] In the Philippines, the practice of
souling is called Pangangaluwa and is practiced on All Hallow's Eve
among children in rural areas.[21] People drape themselves in white
cloths to represent souls and then visit houses, where they sing in
return for prayers and sweets.[21]
In Scotland and Ireland,
guising – children disguised in costume going from door to door for food
or coins – is a traditional Halloween custom.[151] It is recorded in
Scotland at Halloween in 1895 where masqueraders in disguise carrying
lanterns made out of scooped out turnips, visit homes to be rewarded
with cakes, fruit, and money.[132][152] In Ireland, the most popular
phrase for kids to shout (until the 2000s) was "Help the Halloween
Party".[151] The practice of guising at Halloween in North America is
first recorded in 1911, where a newspaper in Kingston, Ontario, Canada
reported children going "guising" around the neighborhood.[153]
American
historian and author Ruth Edna Kelley of Massachusetts wrote the first
book-length history of Halloween in the US; The Book of Hallowe'en
(1919), and references souling in the chapter "Hallowe'en in
America".[154] In her book, Kelley touches on customs that arrived from
across the Atlantic; "Americans have fostered them, and are making this
an occasion something like what it must have been in its best days
overseas. All Halloween customs in the United States are borrowed
directly or adapted from those of other countries".[155]
While
the first reference to "guising" in North America occurs in 1911,
another reference to ritual begging on Halloween appears, place unknown,
in 1915, with a third reference in Chicago in 1920.[156] The earliest
known use in print of the term "trick or treat" appears in 1927, in the
Blackie Herald, of Alberta, Canada.[157]
An automobile trunk at a trunk-or-treat event at St. John Lutheran Church and Early Learning Center in Darien, Illinois
The
thousands of Halloween postcards produced between the turn of the 20th
century and the 1920s commonly show children but not
trick-or-treating.[158] Trick-or-treating does not seem to have become a
widespread practice in North America until the 1930s, with the first US
appearances of the term in 1934,[159] and the first use in a national
publication occurring in 1939.[160]
A popular variant of
trick-or-treating, known as trunk-or-treating (or Halloween tailgating),
occurs when "children are offered treats from the trunks of cars parked
in a church parking lot", or sometimes, a school parking lot.[119][161]
In a trunk-or-treat event, the trunk (boot) of each automobile is
decorated with a certain theme,[162] such as those of children's
literature, movies, scripture, and job roles.[163] Trunk-or-treating has
grown in popularity due to its perception as being more safe than going
door to door, a point that resonates well with parents, as well as the
fact that it "solves the rural conundrum in which homes [are] built a
half-mile apart".[164][165]
Costumes
Main article: Halloween costume
Halloween
costumes are traditionally modeled after supernatural figures such as
vampires, monsters, ghosts, skeletons, witches, and devils.[89] Over
time, the costume selection extended to include popular characters from
fiction, celebrities, and generic archetypes such as ninjas and
princesses.
Halloween shop in Derry, Northern Ireland, selling masks
Dressing
up in costumes and going "guising" was prevalent in Scotland and
Ireland at Halloween by the late 19th century.[132] A Scottish term, the
tradition is called "guising" because of the disguises or costumes worn
by the children.[152] In Ireland the masks are known as 'false
faces'.[166] Costuming became popular for Halloween parties in the US in
the early 20th century, as often for adults as for children, and when
trick-or-treating was becoming popular in Canada and the US in the 1920s
and 1930s.[157][167]
Eddie J. Smith, in his book Halloween,
Hallowed is Thy Name, offers a religious perspective to the wearing of
costumes on All Hallows' Eve, suggesting that by dressing up as
creatures "who at one time caused us to fear and tremble", people are
able to poke fun at Satan "whose kingdom has been plundered by our
Saviour". Images of skeletons and the dead are traditional decorations
used as memento mori.[168][169]
"Trick-or-Treat for UNICEF" is a
fundraising program to support UNICEF,[89] a United Nations Programme
that provides humanitarian aid to children in developing countries.
Started as a local event in a Northeast Philadelphia neighborhood in
1950 and expanded nationally in 1952, the program involves the
distribution of small boxes by schools (or in modern times, corporate
sponsors like Hallmark, at their licensed stores) to trick-or-treaters,
in which they can solicit small-change donations from the houses they
visit. It is estimated that children have collected more than $118
million for UNICEF since its inception. In Canada, in 2006, UNICEF
decided to discontinue their Halloween collection boxes, citing safety
and administrative concerns; after consultation with schools, they
instead redesigned the program.[170][171]
Since the late 2010s,
ethnic stereotypes as costumes have increasingly come under scrutiny in
the United States.[172] Such and other potentially offensive costumes
have been met with increasing public disapproval.[173][174]
Pet costumes
According
to a 2018 report from the National Retail Federation, 30 million
Americans will spend an estimated $480 million on Halloween costumes for
their pets in 2018. This is up from an estimated $200 million in 2010.
The most popular costumes for pets are the pumpkin, followed by the hot
dog, and the bumble bee in third place.[175]
Games and other activities
In
this 1904 Halloween greeting card, divination is depicted: the young
woman looking into a mirror in a darkened room hopes to catch a glimpse
of her future husband.
There are several games traditionally
associated with Halloween. Some of these games originated as divination
rituals or ways of foretelling one's future, especially regarding death,
marriage and children. During the Middle Ages, these rituals were done
by a "rare few" in rural communities as they were considered to be
"deadly serious" practices.[176] In recent centuries, these divination
games have been "a common feature of the household festivities" in
Ireland and Britain.[60] They often involve apples and hazelnuts. In
Celtic mythology, apples were strongly associated with the Otherworld
and immortality, while hazelnuts were associated with divine
wisdom.[177] Some also suggest that they derive from Roman practices in
celebration of Pomona.[89]
Children bobbing for apples at Hallowe'en
The
following activities were a common feature of Halloween in Ireland and
Britain during the 17th–20th centuries. Some have become more widespread
and continue to be popular today. One common game is apple bobbing or
dunking (which may be called "dooking" in Scotland)[178] in which apples
float in a tub or a large basin of water and the participants must use
only their teeth to remove an apple from the basin. A variant of dunking
involves kneeling on a chair, holding a fork between the teeth and
trying to drive the fork into an apple. Another common game involves
hanging up treacle or syrup-coated scones by strings; these must be
eaten without using hands while they remain attached to the string, an
activity that inevitably leads to a sticky face. Another once-popular
game involves hanging a small wooden rod from the ceiling at head
height, with a lit candle on one end and an apple hanging from the
other. The rod is spun round and everyone takes turns to try to catch
the apple with their teeth.[179]
Image from the Book of Hallowe'en (1919) showing several Halloween activities, such as nut roasting
Several
of the traditional activities from Ireland and Britain involve
foretelling one's future partner or spouse. An apple would be peeled in
one long strip, then the peel tossed over the shoulder. The peel is
believed to land in the shape of the first letter of the future spouse's
name.[180][181] Two hazelnuts would be roasted near a fire; one named
for the person roasting them and the other for the person they desire.
If the nuts jump away from the heat, it is a bad sign, but if the nuts
roast quietly it foretells a good match.[182][183] A salty oatmeal
bannock would be baked; the person would eat it in three bites and then
go to bed in silence without anything to drink. This is said to result
in a dream in which their future spouse offers them a drink to quench
their thirst.[184] Unmarried women were told that if they sat in a
darkened room and gazed into a mirror on Halloween night, the face of
their future husband would appear in the mirror.[185] However, if they
were destined to die before marriage, a skull would appear. The custom
was widespread enough to be commemorated on greeting cards[186] from the
late 19th century and early 20th century.
Another popular Irish
game was known as púicíní ("blindfolds"); a person would be blindfolded
and then would choose between several saucers. The item in the saucer
would provide a hint as to their future: a ring would mean that they
would marry soon; clay, that they would die soon, perhaps within the
year; water, that they would emigrate; rosary beads, that they would
take Holy Orders (become a nun, priest, monk, etc.); a coin, that they
would become rich; a bean, that they would be
poor.[187][188][189][190][191] The game features prominently in the
James Joyce short story "Clay" (1914).[192][193][194]
In Ireland
and Scotland, items would be hidden in food – usually a cake, barmbrack,
cranachan, champ or colcannon – and portions of it served out at
random. A person's future would be foretold by the item they happened to
find; for example, a ring meant marriage and a coin meant wealth.[195]
Up
until the 19th century, the Halloween bonfires were also used for
divination in parts of Scotland, Wales and Brittany. When the fire died
down, a ring of stones would be laid in the ashes, one for each person.
In the morning, if any stone was mislaid it was said that the person it
represented would not live out the year.[45]
Telling ghost
stories, listening to Halloween-themed songs and watching horror films
are common fixtures of Halloween parties. Episodes of television series
and Halloween-themed specials (with the specials usually aimed at
children) are commonly aired on or before Halloween, while new horror
films are often released before Halloween to take advantage of the
holiday.
Haunted attractions
Main article: Haunted attraction (simulated)
Humorous tombstones in front of a house in California
File:US Utah Ogden 25th Street Halloween 2019.ogvPlay media
Humorous display window in Historic 25th Street, Ogden, Utah
Haunted
attractions are entertainment venues designed to thrill and scare
patrons. Most attractions are seasonal Halloween businesses that may
include haunted houses, corn mazes, and hayrides,[196] and the level of
sophistication of the effects has risen as the industry has grown.
The
first recorded purpose-built haunted attraction was the Orton and
Spooner Ghost House, which opened in 1915 in Liphook, England. This
attraction actually most closely resembles a carnival fun house, powered
by steam.[197][198] The House still exists, in the Hollycombe Steam
Collection.
It was during the 1930s, about the same time as
trick-or-treating, that Halloween-themed haunted houses first began to
appear in America. It was in the late 1950s that haunted houses as a
major attraction began to appear, focusing first on California.
Sponsored by the Children's Health Home Junior Auxiliary, the San Mateo
Haunted House opened in 1957. The San Bernardino Assistance League
Haunted House opened in 1958. Home haunts began appearing across the
country during 1962 and 1963. In 1964, the San Manteo Haunted House
opened, as well as the Children's Museum Haunted House in
Indianapolis.[199]
The haunted house as an American cultural icon
can be attributed to the opening of the Haunted Mansion in Disneyland
on 12 August 1969.[200] Knott's Berry Farm began hosting its own
Halloween night attraction, Knott's Scary Farm, which opened in
1973.[201] Evangelical Christians adopted a form of these attractions by
opening one of the first "hell houses" in 1972.[202]
The first
Halloween haunted house run by a nonprofit organization was produced in
1970 by the Sycamore-Deer Park Jaycees in Clifton, Ohio. It was
cosponsored by WSAI, an AM radio station broadcasting out of Cincinnati,
Ohio. It was last produced in 1982.[203] Other Jaycees followed suit
with their own versions after the success of the Ohio house. The March
of Dimes copyrighted a "Mini haunted house for the March of Dimes" in
1976 and began fundraising through their local chapters by conducting
haunted houses soon after. Although they apparently quit supporting this
type of event nationally sometime in the 1980s, some March of Dimes
haunted houses have persisted until today.[204]
On the evening of
11 May 1984, in Jackson Township, New Jersey, the Haunted Castle (Six
Flags Great Adventure) caught fire. As a result of the fire, eight
teenagers perished.[205] The backlash to the tragedy was a tightening of
regulations relating to safety, building codes and the frequency of
inspections of attractions nationwide. The smaller venues, especially
the nonprofit attractions, were unable to compete financially, and the
better funded commercial enterprises filled the vacuum.[206][207]
Facilities that were once able to avoid regulation because they were
considered to be temporary installations now had to adhere to the
stricter codes required of permanent attractions.[208][209][210]
In
the late 1980s and early 1990s, theme parks entered the business
seriously. Six Flags Fright Fest began in 1986 and Universal Studios
Florida began Halloween Horror Nights in 1991. Knott's Scary Farm
experienced a surge in attendance in the 1990s as a result of America's
obsession with Halloween as a cultural event. Theme parks have played a
major role in globalizing the holiday. Universal Studios Singapore and
Universal Studios Japan both participate, while Disney now mounts
Mickey's Not-So-Scary Halloween Party events at its parks in Paris, Hong
Kong and Tokyo, as well as in the United States.[211] The theme park
haunts are by far the largest, both in scale and attendance.[212]
Food
Pumpkins for sale during Halloween
On
All Hallows' Eve, many Western Christian denominations encourage
abstinence from meat, giving rise to a variety of vegetarian foods
associated with this day.[213]
A candy apple
Because in the
Northern Hemisphere Halloween comes in the wake of the yearly apple
harvest, candy apples (known as toffee apples outside North America),
caramel apples or taffy apples are common Halloween treats made by
rolling whole apples in a sticky sugar syrup, sometimes followed by
rolling them in nuts.
At one time, candy apples were commonly
given to trick-or-treating children, but the practice rapidly waned in
the wake of widespread rumors that some individuals were embedding items
like pins and razor blades in the apples in the United States.[214]
While there is evidence of such incidents,[215] relative to the degree
of reporting of such cases, actual cases involving malicious acts are
extremely rare and have never resulted in serious injury. Nonetheless,
many parents assumed that such heinous practices were rampant because of
the mass media. At the peak of the hysteria, some hospitals offered
free X-rays of children's Halloween hauls in order to find evidence of
tampering. Virtually all of the few known candy poisoning incidents
involved parents who poisoned their own children's candy.[216]
One
custom that persists in modern-day Ireland is the baking (or more often
nowadays, the purchase) of a barmbrack (Irish: báirín breac), which is a
light fruitcake, into which a plain ring, a coin, and other charms are
placed before baking.[217] It is considered fortunate to be the lucky
one who finds it.[217] It has also been said that those who get a ring
will find their true love in the ensuing year. This is similar to the
tradition of king cake at the festival of Epiphany.
A jack-o'-lantern Halloween cake with a witches hat
List of foods associated with Halloween:
Barmbrack (Ireland)
Bonfire toffee (Great Britain)
Candy apples/toffee apples (Great Britain and Ireland)
Candy apples, candy corn, candy pumpkins (North America)
Chocolate
Monkey nuts (peanuts in their shells) (Ireland and Scotland)
Caramel apples
Caramel corn
Colcannon (Ireland; see below)
Halloween cake
Sweets/candy
Novelty candy shaped like skulls, pumpkins, bats, worms, etc.
Roasted pumpkin seeds
Roasted sweet corn
Soul cakes
Pumpkin Pie
Christian religious observances
The Vigil of All Hallows' is being celebrated at an Episcopal Christian church on Hallowe'en
On
Hallowe'en (All Hallows' Eve), in Poland, believers were once taught to
pray out loud as they walk through the forests in order that the souls
of the dead might find comfort; in Spain, Christian priests in tiny
villages toll their church bells in order to remind their congregants to
remember the dead on All Hallows' Eve.[218] In Ireland, and among
immigrants in Canada, a custom includes the Christian practice of
abstinence, keeping All Hallows' Eve as a meat-free day, and serving
pancakes or colcannon instead.[219] In Mexico children make an altar to
invite the return of the spirits of dead children (angelitos).[220]
The
Christian Church traditionally observed Hallowe'en through a vigil.
Worshippers prepared themselves for feasting on the following All
Saints' Day with prayers and fasting.[221] This church service is known
as the Vigil of All Hallows or the Vigil of All Saints;[222][223] an
initiative known as Night of Light seeks to further spread the Vigil of
All Hallows throughout Christendom.[224][225] After the service,
"suitable festivities and entertainments" often follow, as well as a
visit to the graveyard or cemetery, where flowers and candles are often
placed in preparation for All Hallows' Day.[226][227] In Finland,
because so many people visit the cemeteries on All Hallows' Eve to light
votive candles there, they "are known as valomeri, or seas of
light".[228]
Halloween Scripture Candy with gospel tract
Today,
Christian attitudes towards Halloween are diverse. In the Anglican
Church, some dioceses have chosen to emphasize the Christian traditions
associated with All Hallow's Eve.[229][230] Some of these practices
include praying, fasting and attending worship services.[1][2][3]
O LORD our God, increase, we pray thee, and multiply upon us the gifts
of thy grace: that we, who do prevent the glorious festival of all thy
Saints, may of thee be enabled joyfully to follow them in all virtuous
and godly living. Through Jesus Christ, Our Lord, who liveth and
reigneth with thee, in the unity of the Holy Ghost, ever one God, world
without end. Amen. —Collect of the Vigil of All Saints, The Anglican
Breviary[231]
Votive candles in the Halloween section of Walmart
Other
Protestant Christians also celebrate All Hallows' Eve as Reformation
Day, a day to remember the Protestant Reformation, alongside All
Hallow's Eve or independently from it.[232] This is because Martin
Luther is said to have nailed his Ninety-five Theses to All Saints'
Church in Wittenberg on All Hallows' Eve.[233] Often, "Harvest
Festivals" or "Reformation Festivals" are held on All Hallows' Eve, in
which children dress up as Bible characters or Reformers.[234] In
addition to distributing candy to children who are trick-or-treating on
Hallowe'en, many Christians also provide gospel tracts to them. One
organization, the American Tract Society, stated that around 3 million
gospel tracts are ordered from them alone for Hallowe'en
celebrations.[235] Others order Halloween-themed Scripture Candy to pass
out to children on this day.[236][237]
Belizean children dressed up as Biblical figures and Christian saints
Some
Christians feel concerned about the modern celebration of Halloween
because they feel it trivializes – or celebrates – paganism, the occult,
or other practices and cultural phenomena deemed incompatible with
their beliefs.[238] Father Gabriele Amorth, an exorcist in Rome, has
said, "if English and American children like to dress up as witches and
devils on one night of the year that is not a problem. If it is just a
game, there is no harm in that."[239] In more recent years, the Roman
Catholic Archdiocese of Boston has organized a "Saint Fest" on
Halloween.[240] Similarly, many contemporary Protestant churches view
Halloween as a fun event for children, holding events in their churches
where children and their parents can dress up, play games, and get candy
for free. To these Christians, Halloween holds no threat to the
spiritual lives of children: being taught about death and mortality, and
the ways of the Celtic ancestors actually being a valuable life lesson
and a part of many of their parishioners' heritage.[241] Christian
minister Sam Portaro wrote that Halloween is about using "humor and
ridicule to confront the power of death".[242]
In the Roman
Catholic Church, Halloween's Christian connection is acknowledged, and
Halloween celebrations are common in many Catholic parochial schools in
the United States.[243][244] Many fundamentalist and evangelical
churches use "Hell houses" and comic-style tracts in order to make use
of Halloween's popularity as an opportunity for evangelism.[245] Others
consider Halloween to be completely incompatible with the Christian
faith due to its putative origins in the Festival of the Dead
celebration.[246] Indeed, even though Eastern Orthodox Christians
observe All Hallows' Day on the First Sunday after Pentecost, The
Eastern Orthodox Church recommends the observance of Vespers or a
Paraklesis on the Western observance of All Hallows' Eve, out of the
pastoral need to provide an alternative to popular celebrations.[247]
Analogous celebrations and perspectives
Judaism
According
to Alfred J. Kolatch in the Second Jewish Book of Why, in Judaism,
Halloween is not permitted by Jewish Halakha because it violates
Leviticus 18:3, which forbids Jews from partaking in gentile customs.
Many Jews observe Yizkor communally four times a year, which is vaguely
similar to the observance of Allhallowtide in Christianity, in the sense
that prayers are said for both "martyrs and for one's own family".[248]
Nevertheless, many American Jews celebrate Halloween, disconnected from
its Christian origins.[249] Reform Rabbi Jeffrey Goldwasser has said
that "There is no religious reason why contemporary Jews should not
celebrate Halloween" while Orthodox Rabbi Michael Broyde has argued
against Jews' observing the holiday.[250]
Islam
Sheikh Idris
Palmer, author of A Brief Illustrated Guide to Understanding Islam, has
ruled that Muslims should not participate in Halloween, stating that
"participation in Halloween is worse than participation in Christmas,
Easter, ... it is more sinful than congratulating the Christians for
their prostration to the crucifix".[251] It has also been ruled to be
haram by the National Fatwa Council of Malaysia because of its alleged
pagan roots stating "Halloween is celebrated using a humorous theme
mixed with horror to entertain and resist the spirit of death that
influence humans".[252][253] Dar Al-Ifta Al-Missriyyah disagrees
provided the celebration is not referred to as an 'eid' and that
behaviour remains in line with Islamic principles.[254]
Hinduism
Hindus
remember the dead during the festival of Pitru Paksha, during which
Hindus pay homage to and perform a ceremony "to keep the souls of their
ancestors at rest". It is celebrated in the Hindu month of Bhadrapada,
usually in mid-September.[255] The celebration of the Hindu festival
Diwali sometimes conflicts with the date of Halloween; but some Hindus
choose to participate in the popular customs of Halloween.[256] Other
Hindus, such as Soumya Dasgupta, have opposed the celebration on the
grounds that Western holidays like Halloween have "begun to adversely
affect our indigenous festivals".[257]
Neopaganism
There is no
consistent rule or view on Halloween amongst those who describe
themselves as Neopagans or Wiccans. Some Neopagans do not observe
Halloween, but instead observe Samhain on 1 November,[258] some
neopagans do enjoy Halloween festivities, stating that one can observe
both "the solemnity of Samhain in addition to the fun of Halloween".
Some neopagans are opposed to the celebration of Hallowe'en, stating
that it "trivializes Samhain",[259] and "avoid Halloween, because of the
interruptions from trick or treaters".[260] The Manitoban writes that
"Wiccans don't officially celebrate Halloween, despite the fact that 31
Oct. will still have a star beside it in any good Wiccan's day planner.
Starting at sundown, Wiccans celebrate a holiday known as Samhain.
Samhain actually comes from old Celtic traditions and is not exclusive
to Neopagan religions like Wicca. While the traditions of this holiday
originate in Celtic countries, modern day Wiccans don't try to
historically replicate Samhain celebrations. Some traditional Samhain
rituals are still practised, but at its core, the period is treated as a
time to celebrate darkness and the dead – a possible reason why Samhain
can be confused with Halloween celebrations."[258]
Around the world
Main article: Geography of Halloween
Halloween display in Kobe, Japan
The
traditions and importance of Halloween vary greatly among countries
that observe it. In Scotland and Ireland, traditional Halloween customs
include children dressing up in costume going "guising", holding
parties, while other practices in Ireland include lighting bonfires, and
having firework displays.[151][261][262] In Brittany children would
play practical jokes by setting candles inside skulls in graveyards to
frighten visitors.[263] Mass transatlantic immigration in the 19th
century popularized Halloween in North America, and celebration in the
United States and Canada has had a significant impact on how the event
is observed in other nations.[151] This larger North American influence,
particularly in iconic and commercial elements, has extended to places
such as Ecuador, Chile,[264] Australia,[265] New Zealand,[266] (most)
continental Europe, Finland,[267] Japan, and other parts of East Asia."
(wikipedia.org)
"Sisal
(/ˈsaɪsəl/,[2] Spanish: [siˈsal]), with the botanical name Agave
sisalana, is a species of flowering plant native to southern Mexico but
widely cultivated and naturalized in many other countries. It yields a
stiff fibre used in making rope and various other products. The term
sisal may refer either to the plant's common name or the fibre,
depending on the context. It is sometimes referred to as "sisal hemp",
because for centuries hemp was a major source for fibre, and other fibre
sources were named after it.
The sisal fibre is traditionally
used for rope and twine, and has many other uses, including paper,
cloth, footwear, hats, bags, carpets, geotextiles, and dartboards. It is
also used as fibre reinforcements for composite fibre-glass, rubber and
cement products....
Taxonomy
The
native origin of Agave sisalana is uncertain. Traditionally it was
deemed to be a native of the Yucatán Peninsula, but there are no records
of botanical collections from there. They were originally shipped from
the Spanish colonial port of Sisal in Yucatán (thus the name). The
Yucatán plantations now cultivate henequen (Agave fourcroydes).[citation
needed]
H.S. Gentry hypothesized a Chiapas origin, on the
strength of traditional local usage. Evidence of an indigenous cottage
industry there suggests it as the original habitat location, possibly as
a cross of Agave angustifolia and Agave kewensis. The species is now
naturalized in other parts of Mexico, as well as in Spain, Libya,
Morocco, the Canary Islands, Cape Verde, many parts of Africa,
Madagascar, Réunion, Seychelles, China, the Ryukyu Islands, India,
Pakistan, Nepal, Burma, Cambodia, Thailand, the Solomon Islands,
Queensland, Polynesia, Micronesia, Fiji, Hawaii, Florida, Central
America, Ecuador, and the West Indies.[3]
Plant description
Sisal
plants, Agave sisalana, consist of a rosette of sword-shaped leaves
about 1.5–2 metres (4 ft 11 in–6 ft 7 in) tall. Young leaves may have a
few minute teeth along their margins, but lose them as they mature.[4]
The
sisal plant has a 7–10 year life-span and typically produces 200–250
commercially usable leaves. Each leaf contains an average of around 1000
fibres. The fibres account for only about 4% of the plant by weight.
Sisal is considered a plant of the tropics and subtropics, since
production benefits from temperatures above 25 °C (77 °F) and
sunshine.[5]
Inflorescence in Goa, India.
Flowers in Goa, India.
Cultivation
Sisal was used by the Aztecs and the Mayans to make fabrics and paper.[6]
In
the 19th century, sisal cultivation spread to Florida, the Caribbean
islands, and Brazil (Paraiba and Bahia), as well as to countries in
Africa, notably Tanzania and Kenya, and Asia. Sisal reportedly "came to
Africa from Florida, through the mechanism of a remarkable German
botanist, by the name of Hindorf."[7]
In Cuba its cultivation was introduced in 1880, by Fernando Heydrich in Matanzas.[8]
The
first commercial plantings in Brazil were made in the late 1930s and
the first sisal fibre exports from there were made in 1948. It was not
until the 1960s that Brazilian production accelerated and the first of
many spinning mills was established. Today Brazil is the major world
producer of sisal. There are both positive and negative environmental
impacts from sisal growing.[citation needed]
Propagation
Propagation
of sisal is generally by using bulbils produced from buds in the flower
stalk or by suckers growing around the base of the plant, which are
grown in nursery fields until large enough to be transplanted to their
final position. These methods offer no potential for genetic
improvement. In vitro multiplication of selected genetic material using
meristematic tissue culture (MST) offers considerable potential for the
development of improved genetic material.[9]
Fibre extraction
Fibre
is extracted by a process known as decortication, where leaves are
crushed, beaten, and brushed away by a rotating wheel set with blunt
knives, so that only fibres remain. Alternatively, in East Africa, where
production is typically on large estates,[10][11] the leaves are
transported to a central decortication plant, where water is used to
wash away the waste parts of the leaf.[12]
The fibre is then
dried, brushed and baled for export. Proper drying is important as fibre
quality depends largely on moisture content. Artificial drying has been
found to result in generally better grades of fibre than sun drying,
but is not always feasible in the less industrialised countries where
sisal is produced. In the drier climate of north-east Brazil, sisal is
mainly grown by smallholders and the fibre is extracted by teams using
portable raspadors which do not use water.[13]
Fibre is
subsequently cleaned by brushing. Dry fibres are machine combed and
sorted into various grades, largely on the basis of the previous
in-field separation of leaves into size groups.[13]
Baled Brazilian sisal fibre
Sisal fibre drying machine in Java.
A sisal plantation in Morogoro, Tanzania. The Uluguru Mountains can be seen in the background.
Historical image showing a sisal plantation on Java.
Environmental impacts
Sisal
farming initially caused environmental degradation, because sisal
plantations replaced native forests, but is still considered less
damaging than many types of farming. Nos are used in
sisal production, and although are occasionally used, even
this impact may be eliminated, since most weeding is done by hand.[14]
The effluent from the decortication process causes serious pollution
when it is allowed to flow into watercourses.[15] In Tanzania there are
plans to use the waste as bio-fuel.[16]
Sisal is considered to be an invasive species in Hawaii and Florida.[17]
Uses
Traditionally,
sisal has been the leading material for agricultural twine (binder
twine and baler twine) because of its strength, durability, ability to
stretch, affinity for certain dyestuffs, and resistance to deterioration
in saltwater.[18] The importance of this traditional use is diminishing
with competition from polypropylene and the development of other
haymaking techniques, while new higher-valued sisal products have been
developed.[5]
Apart from ropes, twines, and general cordage,
sisal is used in low-cost and specialty paper, dartboards, buffing
cloth, filters, geotextiles, mattresses, carpets, handicrafts, wire rope
cores, and macramé.[5] Sisal has been utilized as an environmentally
friendly strengthening agent to replace asbestos and fibreglass in
composite materials in various uses including the automobile
industry.[5] The lower-grade fibre is processed by the paper industry
because of its high content of cellulose and hemicelluloses. The
medium-grade fibre is used in the cordage industry for making ropes,
baler and binder twine. Ropes and twines are widely employed for marine,
agricultural, and general industrial use. The higher-grade fibre after
treatment is converted into yarns and used by the carpet industry.[18]
Other
products developed from sisal fibre include spa products, cat
scratching posts, lumbar support belts, rugs, slippers, cloths, and disc
buffers. Sisal wall covering meets the abrasion and tearing resistance
standards of the American Society for Testing and Materials and of the
National Fire Protection Association.[14]
Weaving a door mat in Uganda
As
extraction of fibre uses only a small percentage of the plant, some
attempts to improve economic viability have focused on utilizing the
waste material for production of biogas, for stockfeed, or the
extraction of pharmaceutical materials.[citation needed]
Sisal is
a valuable forage for honey bees because of its long flowering period.
It is particularly attractive to them during pollen shortage. The honey
produced is however dark and has a strong and unpleasant flavour.[19]
Because sisal is an agave, it can be distilled to make mezcal.[20] In India it may be an ingredient in some street snacks.[21]
Carpets
Despite
the yarn durability sisal is known for, slight matting of sisal
carpeting may occur in high-traffic areas.[5] Sisal carpet does not
build up static nor does it trap dust, so vacuuming is the only
maintenance required. High-spill areas should be treated with a fibre
sealer and for spot removal, a drycleaning powder is recommended.
Depending on climatic conditions, sisal will absorb air humidity or
release it, causing expansion or contraction. Sisal is not recommended
for areas that receive wet spills or rain or snow.[5] Sisal is used by
itself in carpets or in blends with wool and acrylic for a softer
hand.[22]
Global production and trade patterns
Major sisal
producers—2013
(thousands of tonnes)[23] Brazil 150.6
Tanzania 34.9
Kenya 28.0
Madagascar 18.9
People's Republic of China 16.5
Mexico 12.0
Haiti 9.0
World total 281.6
Global
production of sisal fibre in 2013 amounted to 281 thousand tonnes of
which Brazil, the largest producing country, produced 150,584
tonnes.[23]
Tanzania produced approximately 34,875 tons, Kenya
produced 28,000 tonnes, Madagascar 18,950 tonnes and 16,500 tonnes were
produced in China (mainland). Venezuela contributed 4,826 tons with
smaller amounts coming from Morocco, South Africa, Mozambique, and
Angola. Sisal occupies 6th place among fibre plants, representing 2% of
the world's production of plant fibres (plant fibres provide 65% of the
world's fibres).[13]
As one of the world's important natural
fibres, sisal was included in the scope of the International Year of
Natural Fibres, 2009.[citation needed]
Heraldry
The sisal plant appears in the arms of Barquisimeto, Venezuela.[24]
An unofficial coat of arms for the Yucatán State in Mexico features a deer bounding over a sisal plant.[25]
In literature
Journalist
John Gunther wrote of sisal in 1953 that "if it had not been for the
fact that sisal is a difficult crop, there might not have been a Munich
in 1939. Neville Chamberlain started out life as a sisal planter in the
Bahamas, and only returned to Britain and entered politics when he found
that this obdurate vegetable was too hard to grow."" (wikipedia.org)
"Mysticism
is popularly known as becoming one with God or the Absolute,[1][2] but
may refer to any kind of ecstasy or altered state of consciousness which
is given a religious or spiritual meaning.[web 1] It may also refer to
the attainment of insight in ultimate or hidden truths, and to human
transformation supported by various practices and experiences.[web 2]
The
term "mysticism" has Ancient Greek origins with various historically
determined meanings.[web 1][web 2] Derived from the Greek word μύω múō,
meaning "to close" or "to conceal",[web 2] mysticism referred to the
biblical, liturgical, spiritual, and contemplative dimensions of early
and medieval Christianity.[3] During the early modern period, the
definition of mysticism grew to include a broad range of beliefs and
ideologies related to "extraordinary experiences and states of mind."[4]
In
modern times, "mysticism" has acquired a limited definition, with broad
applications, as meaning the aim at the "union with the Absolute, the
Infinite, or God".[web 1] This limited definition has been applied to a
wide range of religious traditions and practices,[web 1] valuing
"mystical experience" as a key element of mysticism.
Since the
1960s scholars have debated the merits of perennial and constructionist
approaches in the scientific research of "mystical
experiences".[5][6][7] The perennial position is now "largely dismissed
by scholars",[8] most scholars using a contextualist approach, which
considers the cultural and historical context.[9]
Etymology
See also: Christian contemplation and Henosis
"Mysticism"
is derived from the Greek μύω, meaning "I conceal",[web 2] and its
derivative μυστικός, mystikos, meaning 'an initiate'. The verb μύω has
received a quite different meaning in the Greek language, where it is
still in use. The primary meanings it has are "induct" and "initiate".
Secondary meanings include "introduce", "make someone aware of
something", "train", "familiarize", "give first experience of
something".[web 3]
The related form of the verb μυέω (mueó or
myéō) appears in the New Testament. As explained in Strong's
Concordance, it properly means shutting the eyes and mouth to experience
mystery. Its figurative meaning is to be initiated into the "mystery
revelation". The meaning derives from the initiatory rites of the pagan
mysteries.[web 4] Also appearing in the New Testament is the related
noun μυστήριον (mustérion or mystḗrion), the root word of the English
term "mystery". The term means "anything hidden", a mystery or secret,
of which initiation is necessary. In the New Testament it reportedly
takes the meaning of the counsels of God, once hidden but now revealed
in the Gospel or some fact thereof, the Christian revelation generally,
and/or particular truths or details of the Christian revelation.[web 5]
According
to Thayer's Greek Lexicon, the term μυστήριον in classical Greek meant
"a hidden thing", "secret". A particular meaning it took in Classical
antiquity was a religious secret or religious secrets, confided only to
the initiated and not to be communicated by them to ordinary mortals. In
the Septuagint and the New Testament the meaning it took was that of a
hidden purpose or counsel, a secret will. It is sometimes used for the
hidden wills of humans, but is more often used for the hidden will of
God. Elsewhere in the Bible it takes the meaning of the mystic or hidden
sense of things. It is used for the secrets behind sayings, names, or
behind images seen in visions and dreams. The Vulgate often translates
the Greek term to the Latin sacramentum (sacrament).[web 5]
The
related noun μύστης (mustis or mystis, singular) means the initiate, the
person initiated to the mysteries.[web 5] According to Ana Jiménez San
Cristobal in her study of Greco-Roman mysteries and Orphism, the
singular form μύστης and the plural form μύσται are used in ancient
Greek texts to mean the person or persons initiated to religious
mysteries. These followers of mystery religions belonged to a select
group, where access was only gained through an initiation. She finds
that the terms were associated with the term βάκχος (Bacchus), which was
used for a special class of initiates of the Orphic mysteries. The
terms are first found connected in the writings of Heraclitus. Such
initiates are identified in texts with the persons who have been
purified and have performed certain rites. A passage of Cretans by
Euripides seems to explain that the μύστης (initiate) who devotes
himself to an ascetic life, renounces sexual activities, and avoids
contact with the dead becomes known as βάκχος. Such initiates were
believers in the god Dionysus Bacchus who took on the name of their god
and sought an identification with their deity.[10]
Until the
sixth century the practice of what is now called mysticism was referred
to by the term contemplatio, c.q. theoria.[11] According to Johnston,
"[b]oth contemplation and mysticism speak of the eye of love which is
looking at, gazing at, aware of divine realities."[11]
Definitions
According
to Peter Moore, the term "mysticism" is "problematic but
indispensable."[12] It is a generic term which joins together into one
concept separate practices and ideas which developed separately.[12]
According to Dupré, "mysticism" has been defined in many ways,[13] and
Merkur notes that the definition, or meaning, of the term "mysticism"
has changed through the ages.[web 1] Moore further notes that the term
"mysticism" has become a popular label for "anything nebulous, esoteric,
occult, or supernatural."[12]
Parsons warns that "what might at
times seem to be a straightforward phenomenon exhibiting an unambiguous
commonality has become, at least within the academic study of religion,
opaque and controversial on multiple levels".[14] Because of its
Christian overtones, and the lack of similar terms in other cultures,
some scholars regard the term "mysticism" to be inadequate as a useful
descriptive term.[12] Other scholars regard the term to be an
inauthentic fabrication,[12][web 1] the "product of post-Enlightenment
universalism."[12]
Union with the Divine or Absolute and mystical experience
See also: Hesychasm, Contemplative prayer, and Apophatic theology
Deriving
from Neo-Platonism and Henosis, mysticism is popularly known as union
with God or the Absolute.[1][2] In the 13th century the term unio
mystica came to be used to refer to the "spiritual marriage," the
ecstasy, or rapture, that was experienced when prayer was used "to
contemplate both God’s omnipresence in the world and God in his
essence."[web 1] In the 19th century, under the influence of
Romanticism, this "union" was interpreted as a "religious experience,"
which provides certainty about God or a transcendental reality.[web
1][note 1]
An influential proponent of this understanding was
William James (1842–1910), who stated that "in mystic states we both
become one with the Absolute and we become aware of our oneness."[16]
William James popularized this use of the term "religious
experience"[note 2] in his The Varieties of Religious
Experience,[18][19][web 2] contributing to the interpretation of
mysticism as a distinctive experience, comparable to sensory
experiences.[20][web 2] Religious experiences belonged to the "personal
religion,"[21] which he considered to be "more fundamental than either
theology or ecclesiasticism".[21] He gave a Perennialist interpretation
to religious experience, stating that this kind of experience is
ultimately uniform in various traditions.[note 3]
McGinn notes
that the term unio mystica, although it has Christian origins, is
primarily a modern expression.[22] McGinn argues that "presence" is more
accurate than "union", since not all mystics spoke of union with God,
and since many visions and miracles were not necessarily related to
union. He also argues that we should speak of "consciousness" of God's
presence, rather than of "experience", since mystical activity is not
simply about the sensation of God as an external object, but more
broadly about "new ways of knowing and loving based on states of
awareness in which God becomes present in our inner acts."[23]
However,
the idea of "union" does not work in all contexts. For example, in
Advaita Vedanta, there is only one reality (Brahman) and therefore
nothing other than reality to unite with it—Brahman in each person
(atman) has always in fact been identical to Brahman all along. Dan
Merkur also notes that union with God or the Absolute is a too limited
definition, since there are also traditions which aim not at a sense of
unity, but of nothingness, such as Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite and
Meister Eckhart.[web 1] According to Merkur, Kabbala and Buddhism also
emphasize nothingness.[web 1] Blakemore and Jennett note that
"definitions of mysticism [...] are often imprecise." They further note
that this kind of interpretation and definition is a recent development
which has become the standard definition and understanding.[web 6][note
4]
According to Gelman, "A unitive experience involves a
phenomenological de-emphasis, blurring, or eradication of multiplicity,
where the cognitive significance of the experience is deemed to lie
precisely in that phenomenological feature".[web 2][note 5]
Religious ecstasies and interpretative context
Main
articles: Religious ecstasy, Altered state of consciousness, Cognitive
science of religion, Neurotheology, and Attribution (psychology)
Mysticism
involves an explanatory context, which provides meaning for mystical
and visionary experiences, and related experiences like trances.
According to Dan Merkur, mysticism may relate to any kind of ecstasy or
altered state of consciousness, and the ideas and explanations related
to them.[web 1][note 6] Parsons stresses the importance of
distinguishing between temporary experiences and mysticism as a process,
which is embodied within a "religious matrix" of texts and
practices.[26][note 7] Richard Jones does the same.[27] Peter Moore
notes that mystical experience may also happen in a spontaneous and
natural way, to people who are not committed to any religious tradition.
These experiences are not necessarily interpreted in a religious
framework.[28] Ann Taves asks by which processes experiences are set
apart and deemed religious or mystical.[29]
Intuitive insight and enlightenment
Main articles: Enlightenment (spiritual), Divine illumination, and Subitism
Some
authors emphasize that mystical experience involves intuitive
understanding of the meaning of existence and of hidden truths, and the
resolution of life problems. According to Larson, "mystical experience
is an intuitive understanding and realization of the meaning of
existence."[30][note 8] According to McClenon, mysticism is "the
doctrine that special mental states or events allow an understanding of
ultimate truths."[web 7][note 9] According to James R. Horne, mystical
illumination is "a central visionary experience [...] that results in
the resolution of a personal or religious problem.[5][note 10]
According
to Evelyn Underhill, illumination is a generic English term for the
phenomenon of mysticism. The term illumination is derived from the Latin
illuminatio, applied to Christian prayer in the 15th century.[31]
Comparable Asian terms are bodhi, kensho and satori in Buddhism,
commonly translated as "enlightenment", and vipassana, which all point
to cognitive processes of intuition and comprehension. According to
Wright, the use of the western word enlightenment is based on the
supposed resemblance of bodhi with Aufklärung, the independent use of
reason to gain insight into the true nature of our world, and there are
more resemblances with Romanticism than with the Enlightenment: the
emphasis on feeling, on intuitive insight, on a true essence beyond the
world of appearances.[32]
Spiritual life and re-formation
Main articles: Spirituality, Spiritual development, Self-realization, and Ego death
Other
authors point out that mysticism involves more than "mystical
experience." According to Gellmann, the ultimate goal of mysticism is
human transformation, not just experiencing mystical or visionary
states.[web 2][note 13][note 14] According to McGinn, personal
transformation is the essential criterion to determine the authenticity
of Christian mysticism.[23][note 15]
History of the term
Hellenistic world
In
the Hellenistic world, 'mystical' referred to "secret" religious
rituals like the Eleusinian Mysteries.[web 2] The use of the word lacked
any direct references to the transcendental.[14] A "mystikos" was an
initiate of a mystery religion.
Early Christianity - theoria (contemplation)
Main articles: Greco-Roman mysteries, Early Christianity, and Esoteric Christianity
In
early Christianity the term "mystikos" referred to three dimensions,
which soon became intertwined, namely the biblical, the liturgical and
the spiritual or contemplative.[3] The biblical dimension refers to
"hidden" or allegorical interpretations of Scriptures.[web 2][3] The
liturgical dimension refers to the liturgical mystery of the Eucharist,
the presence of Christ in the Eucharist.[web 2][3] The third dimension
is the contemplative or experiential knowledge of God.[3]
Until
the sixth century, the Greek term theoria, meaning "contemplation" in
Latin, was used for the mystical interpretation of the Bible.[11] and
the vision of God. The link between mysticism and the vision of the
Divine was introduced by the early Church Fathers, who used the term as
an adjective, as in mystical theology and mystical contemplation.[14]
Theoria
enabled the Fathers to perceive depths of meaning in the biblical
writings that escape a purely scientific or empirical approach to
interpretation.[36] The Antiochene Fathers, in particular, saw in every
passage of Scripture a double meaning, both literal and spiritual.[37]
Later,
theoria or contemplation came to be distinguished from intellectual
life, leading to the identification of θεωρία or contemplatio with a
form of prayer[38] distinguished from discursive meditation in both
East[39] and West.[40]
Medieval meaning
See also: Middle Ages
This
threefold meaning of "mystical" continued in the Middle Ages.[3]
According to Dan Merkur, the term unio mystica came into use in the 13th
century as a synonym for the "spiritual marriage," the ecstasy, or
rapture, that was experienced when prayer was used "to contemplate both
God’s omnipresence in the world and God in his essence."[web 1] Under
the influence of Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite the mystical theology
came to denote the investigation of the allegorical truth of the
Bible,[3] and "the spiritual awareness of the ineffable Absolute beyond
the theology of divine names."[41] Pseudo-Dionysius' Apophatic theology,
or "negative theology", exerted a great influence on medieval monastic
religiosity, although it was mostly a male religiosity, since women were
not allowed to study.[42] It was influenced by Neo-Platonism, and very
influential in Eastern Orthodox Christian theology. In western
Christianity it was a counter-current to the prevailing Cataphatic
theology or "positive theology". Mysticism was also manifested in
various sects of the time such as the Waldensians.[43]
Early modern meaning
See also: Early modern period
The Appearance of the Holy Spirit before Saint Teresa of Ávila, Peter Paul Rubens
In
the sixteenth and seventeenth century mysticism came to be used as a
substantive.[14] This shift was linked to a new discourse,[14] in which
science and religion were separated.[44]
Luther dismissed the
allegorical interpretation of the bible, and condemned Mystical
theology, which he saw as more Platonic than Christian.[45] "The
mystical", as the search for the hidden meaning of texts, became
secularised, and also associated with literature, as opposed to science
and prose.[46]
Science was also distinguished from religion. By
the middle of the 17th century, "the mystical" is increasingly applied
exclusively to the religious realm, separating religion and "natural
philosophy" as two distinct approaches to the discovery of the hidden
meaning of the universe.[47] The traditional hagiographies and writings
of the saints became designated as "mystical", shifting from the virtues
and miracles to extraordinary experiences and states of mind, thereby
creating a newly coined "mystical tradition".[4] A new understanding
developed of the Divine as residing within human, an essence beyond the
varieties of religious expressions.[14]
Contemporary meaning
See also: Western esotericism, Theosophy (Blavatskian), Syncretism, Spirituality, and New Age
The
19th century saw a growing emphasis on individual experience, as a
defense against the growing rationalism of western society.[19][web 1]
The meaning of mysticism was considerably narrowed:[web 1]
The competition between the perspectives of theology and science
resulted in a compromise in which most varieties of what had
traditionally been called mysticism were dismissed as merely
psychological phenomena and only one variety, which aimed at union with
the Absolute, the Infinite, or God—and thereby the perception of its
essential unity or oneness—was claimed to be genuinely mystical. The
historical evidence, however, does not support such a narrow conception
of mysticism.[web 1]
Under the influence of Perennialism, which
was popularised in both the west and the east by Unitarianism,
Transcendentalists and Theosophy, mysticism has been applied to a broad
spectrum of religious traditions, in which all sorts of esotericism and
religious traditions and practices are joined together.[48][49][19] The
term mysticism was extended to comparable phenomena in non-Christian
religions,[web 1] where it influenced Hindu and Buddhist responses to
colonialism, resulting in Neo-Vedanta and Buddhist modernism.[49][50]
In
the contemporary usage "mysticism" has become an umbrella term for all
sorts of non-rational world views,[51] parapsychology and
pseudoscience.[52][53][54][55] William Harmless even states that
mysticism has become "a catch-all for religious weirdness".[56] Within
the academic study of religion the apparent "unambiguous commonality"
has become "opaque and controversial".[14] The term "mysticism" is being
used in different ways in different traditions.[14] Some call to
attention the conflation of mysticism and linked terms, such as
spirituality and esotericism, and point at the differences between
various traditions.[57]
Variations of mysticism
Based on
various definitions of mysticism, namely mysticism as an experience of
union or nothingness, mysticism as any kind of an altered state of
consciousness which is attributed in a religious way, mysticism as
"enlightenment" or insight, and mysticism as a way of transformation,
"mysticism" can be found in many cultures and religious traditions, both
in folk religion and organized religion. These traditions include
practices to induce religious or mystical experiences, but also ethical
standards and practices to enhance self-control and integrate the
mystical experience into daily life.
Dan Merkur notes, though,
that mystical practices are often separated from daily religious
practices, and restricted to "religious specialists like monastics,
priests, and other renunciates.[web 1]
Shamanism
Main article: Shamanism
Shaman
According
to Dan Merkur, shamanism may be regarded as a form of mysticism, in
which the world of spirits is accessed through religious ecstasy.[web 1]
According to Mircea Eliade shamanism is a "technique of religious
ecstasy."[58]
Shamanism involves a practitioner reaching an
altered state of consciousness in order to perceive and interact with
spirits, and channel transcendental energies into this world.[59] A
shaman is a person regarded as having access to, and influence in, the
world of benevolent and malevolent spirits, who typically enters into
trance during a ritual, and practices divination and healing.[60]
Neoshamanism
refers to "new"' forms of shamanism, or methods of seeking visions or
healing, typically practiced in Western countries. Neoshamanism
comprises an eclectic range of beliefs and practices that involve
attempts to attain altered states and communicate with a spirit world,
and is associated with New Age practices.[61][62]
Western mysticism
Mystery religions
Main article: Greco-Roman mysteries
The
Eleusinian Mysteries, (Greek: Ἐλευσίνια Μυστήρια) were annual
initiation ceremonies in the cults of the goddesses Demeter and
Persephone, held in secret at Eleusis (near Athens) in ancient
Greece.[63] The mysteries began in about 1600 B.C. in the Mycenean
period and continued for two thousand years, becoming a major festival
during the Hellenic era, and later spreading to Rome.[64] Numerous
scholars have proposed that the power of the Eleusinian Mysteries came
from the kykeon's functioning as an entheogen.[65]
Christian mysticism
Part of a series on
Christian mysticism
Transfiguration of Jesus
Theology · Philosophy
Practices
People (by era or century)
Main articles: Christian contemplation, Christian mysticism, Mystical theology, Apophatic theology, and German mysticism
Early Christianity
The
apophatic theology, or "negative theology", of Pseudo-Dionysius the
Areopagite (6th c.) exerted a great influence on medieval monastic
religiosity, both in the East and (by Latin translation) in the
West.[42] Pseudo-Dionysius applied Neoplatonic thought, particularly
that of Proclus, to Christian theology.
Eastern Orthodox Christianity
The
Eastern Orthodox Church has a long tradition of theoria (intimate
experience) and hesychia (inner stillness), in which contemplative
prayer silences the mind to progress along the path of theosis
(deification).
Theosis, practical unity with and conformity to
God, is obtained by engaging in contemplative prayer, the first stage of
theoria,[66][note 16] which results from the cultivation of
watchfulness (nepsis). In theoria, one comes to behold the "divisibly
indivisible" divine operations (energeia) of God as the "uncreated
light" of transfiguration, a grace which is eternal and proceeds
naturally from the blinding darkness of the incomprehensible divine
essence.[note 17][66] It is the main aim of hesychasm, which was
developed in the thought St. Symeon the New Theologian, embraced by the
monastic communities on Mount Athos, and most notably defended by St.
Gregory Palamas against the Greek humanist philosopher Barlaam of
Calabria. According to Roman Catholic critics, hesychastic practice has
its roots to the introduction of a systematic practical approach to
quietism by Symeon the New Theologian.[note 18]
The
High Middle Ages saw a flourishing of mystical practice and
theorization in western Roman Catholicism, corresponding to the
flourishing of new monastic orders, with such figures as Guigo II,
Hildegard of Bingen, Bernard of Clairvaux, the Victorines, all coming
from different orders, as well as the first real flowering of popular
piety among the laypeople.
The Late Middle Ages saw the clash
between the Dominican and Franciscan schools of thought, which was also a
conflict between two different mystical theologies: on the one hand
that of Dominic de Guzmán and on the other that of Francis of Assisi,
Anthony of Padua, Bonaventure, and Angela of Foligno. This period also
saw such individuals as John of Ruysbroeck, Catherine of Siena and
Catherine of Genoa, the Devotio Moderna, and such books as the Theologia
Germanica, The Cloud of Unknowing and The Imitation of Christ.
Moreover,
there was the growth of groups of mystics centered around geographic
regions: the Beguines, such as Mechthild of Magdeburg and Hadewijch
(among others); the Rhineland mystics Meister Eckhart, Johannes Tauler
and Henry Suso; and the English mystics Richard Rolle, Walter Hilton and
Julian of Norwich. The Spanish mystics included Teresa of Avila, John
of the Cross and Ignatius Loyola.
The later post-reformation
period also saw the writings of lay visionaries such as Emanuel
Swedenborg and William Blake, and the foundation of mystical movements
such as the Quakers. Catholic mysticism continued into the modern period
with such figures as Padre Pio and Thomas Merton.
The philokalia, an ancient method of Eastern Orthodox mysticism, was promoted by the twentieth century Traditionalist School.
Western esotericism and modern spirituality
Main articles: Western esotericism, Spirituality, and New Age
Many
western esoteric traditions and elements of modern spirituality have
been regarded as "mysticism," such as Gnosticism, Transcendentalism,
Theosophy, the Fourth Way,[70] Martinus, spiritual science, and
Neo-Paganism. Modern western spiritually and transpersonal psychology
combine western psycho-therapeutic practices with religious practices
like meditation to attain a lasting transformation. Nature mysticism is
an intense experience of unification with nature or the cosmic totality,
which was popular with Romantic writers.[71]
Jewish mysticism
Jewish mysticism
Dead Sea Enoch Scroll c.200-150 BCE
Forms
Main articles: Jewish mysticism and Kabbalah
Portrait of Abraham Abulafia, Medieval Jewish mystic and founder of Prophetic Kabbalah
In
the common era, Judaism has had two main kinds of mysticism: Merkabah
mysticism and Kabbalah. The former predated the latter, and was focused
on visions, particularly those mentioned in the Book of Ezekiel. It gets
its name from the Hebrew word meaning "chariot", a reference to
Ezekiel's vision of a fiery chariot composed of heavenly beings.
Kabbalah
is a set of esoteric teachings meant to explain the relationship
between an unchanging, eternal and mysterious Ein Sof (no end) and the
mortal and finite universe (his creation). Inside Judaism, it forms the
foundations of mystical religious interpretation.
Kabbalah
originally developed entirely within the realm of Jewish thought.
Kabbalists often use classical Jewish sources to explain and demonstrate
its esoteric teachings. These teachings are thus held by followers in
Judaism to define the inner meaning of both the Hebrew Bible and
traditional Rabbinic literature, their formerly concealed transmitted
dimension, as well as to explain the significance of Jewish religious
observances.[72]
Kabbalah emerged, after earlier forms of Jewish
mysticism, in 12th to 13th century Southern France and Spain, becoming
reinterpreted in the Jewish mystical renaissance of 16th-century Ottoman
Palestine. It was popularised in the form of Hasidic Judaism from the
18th century forward. 20th-century interest in Kabbalah has inspired
cross-denominational Jewish renewal and contributed to wider non-Jewish
contemporary spirituality, as well as engaging its flourishing emergence
and historical re-emphasis through newly established academic
investigation.
Islamic mysticism
Part of a series on Islam
Sufism
Tomb of Abdul Qadir Gilani, Baghdad, Iraq
Ideas
Practices
Sufi orders
List of sufis
Topics in Sufism
Islam portal
Classical Sufi scholars have defined Sufism as
[A] science whose objective is the reparation of the heart and turning it away from all else but God.[76]
A
practitioner of this tradition is nowadays known as a ṣūfī (صُوفِيّ),
or, in earlier usage, a dervish. The origin of the word "Sufi" is
ambiguous. One understanding is that Sufi means wool-wearer; wool
wearers during early Islam were pious ascetics who withdrew from urban
life. Another explanation of the word "Sufi" is that it means
'purity'.[77]
Sufis generally belong to a halaqa, a circle or
group, led by a Sheikh or Murshid. Sufi circles usually belong to a
Tariqa which is the Sufi order and each has a Silsila, which is the
spiritual lineage, which traces its succession back to notable Sufis of
the past, and often ultimately to Muhammed or one of his close
associates. The turuq (plural of tariqa) are not enclosed like Christian
monastic orders; rather the members retain an outside life. Membership
of a Sufi group often passes down family lines. Meetings may or may not
be segregated according to the prevailing custom of the wider society.
An existing Muslim faith is not always a requirement for entry,
particularly in Western countries.
Mawlānā Rumi's tomb, Konya, Turkey
Sufi practice includes
Dhikr, or remembrance (of God), which often takes the form of rhythmic chanting and breathing exercises.
Sama, which takes the form of music and dance — the whirling dance of
the Mevlevi dervishes is a form well known in the West.
Muraqaba or meditation.
Visiting holy places, particularly the tombs of Sufi saints, in order
to remember death and the greatness of those who have passed.
The
aims of Sufism include: the experience of ecstatic states (hal),
purification of the heart (qalb), overcoming the lower self (nafs),
extinction of the individual personality (fana), communion with God
(haqiqa), and higher knowledge (marifat). Some sufic beliefs and
practices have been found unorthodox by other Muslims; for instance
Mansur al-Hallaj was put to death for blasphemy after uttering the
phrase Ana'l Haqq, "I am the Truth" (i.e. God) in a trance.
Notable
classical Sufis include Jalaluddin Rumi, Fariduddin Attar, Sultan
Bahoo, Sayyed Sadique Ali Husaini, Saadi Shirazi and Hafez, all major
poets in the Persian language. Omar Khayyam, Al-Ghazzali and Ibn Arabi
were renowned scholars. Abdul Qadir Jilani, Moinuddin Chishti, and
Bahauddin Naqshband founded major orders, as did Rumi. Rabia Basri was
the most prominent female Sufi.
Sufism first came into contact
with the Judeo-Christian world during the Moorish occupation of Spain.
An interest in Sufism revived in non-Muslim countries during the modern
era, led by such figures as Inayat Khan and Idries Shah (both in the
UK), Rene Guenon (France) and Ivan Aguéli (Sweden). Sufism has also long
been present in Asian countries that do not have a Muslim majority,
such as India and China.[78]
Indic religions
Hinduism
Main article: Hinduism
In
Hinduism, various sadhanas (spiritual disciplines) aim at overcoming
ignorance (avidya) and transcending one's identification with body, mind
and ego to attain moksha, liberation from the cycle of birth and death.
Hinduism has a number of interlinked ascetic traditions and
philosophical schools which aim at moksha [79] and the acquisition of
higher powers.[80] With the onset of the British colonisation of India,
those traditions came to be interpreted in Western terms such as
"mysticism", resulting in comparisons with Western terms and
practices.[81]
Yoga is a term for physical, mental, and spiritual
practices or disciplines which aim to attain a state of permanent
peace.[82] Various traditions of yoga are found in Hinduism, Buddhism
and Jainism.[83][84][85] The Yoga Sūtras of Patañjali define yoga as
"the stilling of the changing states of the mind,"[86] culminating in
the state of samadhi.
Classical Vedanta gives philosophical
interpretations and commentaries of the Upanishads, a vast collection of
ancient hymns. At least ten schools of Vedanta are known,[87] of which
Advaita Vedanta, Vishishtadvaita, and Dvaita are the best known.[88]
Advaita Vedanta, as expounded by Adi Shankara, states that there is no
difference between Atman (the world-soul) and Brahman (the divine). The
best-known subschool is Kevala Vedanta or mayavada as expounded by Adi
Shankara. Advaita Vedanta has acquired a broad acceptance in Indian
culture and beyond as the paradigmatic example of Hindu
spirituality.[89] In contrast Bhedabheda-Vedanta emphasizes that Atman
and Brahman are both the same and not the same,[90] while Dvaita Vedanta
states that Atman and God are fundamentally different.[90] In modern
times, the Upanishads have been interpreted by Neo-Vedanta as being
"mystical".[81]
Various Shaivist, Shakta and Tantric traditions are strongly nondualistic, among them Kashmir Shaivism and Sri Vidya.
Tantra
Main article: Tantra
Mysticism
in the Sikh faith began with its founder, Guru Nanak, who, from his
childhood, had profound mystical experiences.[96] Guru Nanak stressed
that God must be seen with 'the inward eye', or the 'heart', of a human
being.[97] Guru Arjan, the fifth Sikh Guru, added works from various
religions' mystics (bhagat) into the holy scriptures that would
eventually become the Guru Granth Sahib.
R.
C. Zaehner distinguishes three fundamental types of mysticism, namely
theistic, monistic and panenhenic ("all-in-one") or natural
mysticism.[6] The theistic category includes most forms of Jewish,
Christian and Islamic mysticism and occasional Hindu examples such as
Ramanuja and the Bhagavad Gita.[6] The monistic type, which according to
Zaehner is based upon an experience of the unity of one's soul,[6][note
23] includes Buddhism and Hindu schools such as Samkhya and Advaita
vedanta.[6] Nature mysticism seems to refer to examples that do not fit
into one of these two categories.[6]
Walter Terence Stace, in his
book Mysticism and Philosophy (1960), distinguished two types of
mystical experience, namely extrovertive and introvertive
mysticism.[129][6][130] Extrovertive mysticism is an experience of the
unity of the external world, whereas introvertive mysticism is "an
experience of unity devoid of perceptual objects; it is literally an
experience of 'no-thing-ness'."[130] The unity in extrovertive mysticism
is with the totality of objects of perception. While perception stays
continuous, "unity shines through the same world"; the unity in
introvertive mysticism is with a pure consciousness, devoid of objects
of perception,[131] "pure unitary consciousness, wherein awareness of
the world and of multiplicity is completely obliterated."[132] According
to Stace such experiences are nonsensous and nonintellectual, under a
total "suppression of the whole empirical content."[133]
Stace
argues that doctrinal differences between religious traditions are
inappropriate criteria when making cross-cultural comparisons of
mystical experiences.[6] Stace argues that mysticism is part of the
process of perception, not interpretation, that is to say that the unity
of mystical experiences is perceived, and only afterwards interpreted
according to the perceiver's background. This may result in different
accounts of the same phenomenon. While an atheist describes the unity as
"freed from empirical filling", a religious person might describe it as
"God" or "the Divine".[134]
Mystical experiences
Since the
19th century, "mystical experience" has evolved as a distinctive
concept. It is closely related to "mysticism" but lays sole emphasis on
the experiential aspect, be it spontaneous or induced by human behavior,
whereas mysticism encompasses a broad range of practices aiming at a
transformation of the person, not just inducing mystical experiences.
William
James' The Varieties of Religious Experience is the classic study on
religious or mystical experience, which influenced deeply both the
academic and popular understanding of "religious
experience".[18][19][20][web 2] He popularized the use of the term
"religious experience"[note 24] in his "Varieties",[18][19][web 2] and
influenced the understanding of mysticism as a distinctive experience
which supplies knowledge of the transcendental:[20][web 2]
Under the influence of William James' The Varieties of Religious
Experience, heavily centered on people's conversion experiences, most
philosophers' interest in mysticism has been in distinctive, allegedly
knowledge-granting "mystical experiences.""[web 2]
Yet, Gelman
notes that so-called mystical experience is not a transitional event, as
William James claimed, but an "abiding consciousness, accompanying a
person throughout the day, or parts of it. For that reason, it might be
better to speak of mystical consciousness, which can be either fleeting
or abiding."[web 2]
Most mystical traditions warn against an
attachment to mystical experiences, and offer a "protective and
hermeneutic framework" to accommodate these experiences.[135] These same
traditions offer the means to induce mystical experiences,[135] which
may have several origins:
The
theoretical study of mystical experience has shifted from an
experiential, privatized and perennialist approach to a contextual and
empirical approach.[135] The experientalist approach sees mystical
experience as a private expression of perennial truths, separate from
its historical and cultural context. The contextual approach, which also
includes constructionism and attribution theory, takes into account the
historical and cultural context.[135][29][web 2] Neurological research
takes an empirical approach, relating mystical experiences to
neurological processes.
Perennialism versus constructionism
The
term "mystical experience" evolved as a distinctive concept since the
19th century, laying sole emphasis on the experiential aspect, be it
spontaneous or induced by human behavior. Perennialists regard those
various experience traditions as pointing to one universal
transcendental reality, for which those experiences offer the proof. In
this approach, mystical experiences are privatised, separated from the
context in which they emerge.[135] Well-known representatives are
William James, R.C. Zaehner, William Stace and Robert Forman.[9] The
perennial position is "largely dismissed by scholars",[8] but "has lost
none of its popularity."[8]
In contrast, for the past decades
most scholars have favored a constructionist approach, which states that
mystical experiences are fully constructed by the ideas, symbols and
practices that mystics are familiar with.[9] Critics of the term
"religious experience" note that the notion of "religious experience" or
"mystical experience" as marking insight into religious truth is a
modern development,[136] and contemporary researchers of mysticism note
that mystical experiences are shaped by the concepts "which the mystic
brings to, and which shape, his experience".[137] What is being
experienced is being determined by the expectations and the conceptual
background of the mystic.[138]
Richard Jones draws a distinction
between "anticonstructivism" and "perennialism": constructivism can be
rejected with respect to a certain class of mystical experiences without
ascribing to a perennialist philosophy on the relation of mystical
doctrines.[139] One can reject constructivism without claiming that
mystical experiences reveal a cross-cultural "perennial truth". For
example, a Christian can reject both constructivism and perennialism in
arguing that there is a union with God free of cultural construction.
Constructivism versus anticonstructivism is a matter of the nature of
mystical experiences while perennialism is a matter of mystical
traditions and the doctrines they espouse.
Contextualism and attribution theory
Main articles: Attribution (psychology) and Neurotheology
The
perennial position is now "largely dismissed by scholars",[8] and the
contextual approach has become the common approach.[135] Contextualism
takes into account the historical and cultural context of mystical
experiences.[135] The attribution approach views "mystical experience"
as non-ordinary states of consciousness which are explained in a
religious framework.[29] According to Proudfoot, mystics unconsciously
merely attribute a doctrinal content to ordinary experiences. That is,
mystics project cognitive content onto otherwise ordinary experiences
having a strong emotional impact.[140][29] This approach has been
further elaborated by Ann Taves, in her Religious Experience
Reconsidered. She incorporates both neurological and cultural approaches
in the study of mystical experience. " (wikipedia.org)
"Kmart
Corporation (/ˈkeɪmɑːrt/ KAY-mart, doing business as Kmart and stylized
as kmart) is an American big box department store chain headquartered
in Hoffman Estates, Illinois, United States. The company was
incorporated in 1899 as S. S. Kresge Corporation and renamed Kmart
Corporation in 1977.[3] The first store with the Kmart name opened in
1962.[4] At its peak in 1994, Kmart operated 2,486 stores globally,
including 2,323 discount stores and Super Kmart Center locations in the
United States.[5][6][7][8] From 2005 through 2019, Kmart was a
subsidiary of Sears Holdings Corporation and is now a subsidiary of
Transform SR Brands LLC....
The company also began to offer exclusive merchandise
by Martha Stewart, Kathy Ireland, Jaclyn Smith, Lauren Hutton, and
Thalía. Other recognizable brands included exclusively licensed
merchandising of products relating to Sesame Street and Disney. Actress
and television personality Rosie O'Donnell and actress/director and
producer Penny Marshall became among the company's most recognized
spokespersons.[35]
Kmart's red classic logo (1990–2004)
The Super
Kmart Center logo that was used primarily in the early 1990s, but was
also used for some stores that opened in 2001. This logo was also used
on the former Super Kmart Center stores in Mexico during the 1990s
Kmart's
profitability and sales peaked in 1992, and have since declined due to
competition with Walmart, Target, and internet shopping.[3] In 1994,
Kmart announced they would close 110 stores.[43] Unlike its competitors
Walmart and Target, Kmart failed to invest in computer technology to
manage its supply chain. Furthermore, Kmart maintained a high dividend,
which reduced the amount of money that was available for improving its
stores. Many business analysts also faulted the company for failing to
create a coherent brand image.
In September 1995, Kmart sold its
money-losing in-store auto repair centers to Penske Corporation for $112
million to operate them as Penske Auto Centers.[44][45] Penske later
closed the auto repair centers in 2002 as a result of a payment dispute
with Kmart.[46][47]
In 1997, Kmart launched the Kmart Cash Card
as a replacement for the paper gift certificates and to facilitate the
return process.[48] In July 1999, Kmart hired SuperValu and Fleming to
distribute $3.9 billion worth of food and other related products to all
Kmart stores.[49]
Also
in 2000, Kmart expanded the Martha Stewart Everyday Garden Collection
to include live plants and seeds.[51] Kmart also launched the Martha
Stewart Everyday Kitchen, which is a complete line of housewares
essentials.[52]
In February
2001, Japanese video game company Sega sued Kmart for failure to pay
$2.2 million of $25.9 million for Sega Dreamcast game systems.
Kmart is a chain of discount department stores that are usually
free-standing or located in strip malls. They carry compact discs (CDs),
DVDs, TV shows on DVD, electronics, bedding, household hardware,
sporting goods, clothing, toys, jewelry, office supplies, health and
beauty products, over-the-counter medications, home decor, and a limited
selection of food items. Many also have a garden center, a Jackson
Hewitt tax center, a pharmacy, and a K-Cafe or a deli serving Nathan's
Hot Dogs and pizza. Kmart stores range from 80,000–110,000 sq ft
(7,400–10,200 m2). Most of them were either converted to or rebranded as
Big Kmart while some were converted into Super Kmart stores.
A
Little Caesars in a Kmart in Hollywood, Florida (store #3818) in August
2013. This Little Caesars location closed soon after and the Kmart
location closed in February 2020 along with 95 other Kmart and Sears
stores.
A Super Kmart Center store in Lorain, Ohio (store #3910) in
February 2013. This store closed on September 18, 2016. This location
was demolished and is now a Meijer.
A Super Kmart Center store with
Super Kmart signage in Southgate, Michigan (store #4995) in July 2014.
As indicated on the banner, this store began a liquidation sale one
month earlier and closed on October 12, 2014. This location is now a
Kroger Marketplace.
Former
A Kmart location in Redwood City,
California (store #4349) in August 2016. This store was closed in April
2020 along with 43 other Sears and Kmart stores.
A Kmart Express gas
station in Cleveland, Ohio in February 2013. The Kmart Super Center
(store #4966) near it, as well as this Kmart Express, closed in 2014.
These locations were demolished and is now a Menards.
Big Kmart is
a chain of discount department stores that carried everything a regular
Kmart carries, but emphasizes home decor, children's clothing, and more
food items such as meat and poultry, baked goods, frozen foods and an
extended, but limited section of garden produce. Big Kmart stores ranged
from 84,000 to 120,000 sq ft (7,800–11,100 m2). Big Kmart stores also
featured a garden center, a pharmacy, a branch of a local bank, a
Jackson Hewitt tax center, an Olan Mills portrait studio, an arcade, a
K-Café or Little Caesars Pizza Station, and sometimes a Kmart Express
gas station. As noted above, Kmart introduced the Big Kmart brand
company-wide when it was introduced in 1997. Some Big Kmart locations
were either closed or converted to normal Kmart stores.
BlueLight
Internet service. In 1999 Kmart began offering a dial-up Internet
service called BlueLight, which was eventually spun off as an
independent company. BlueLight was initially free and supported by
banner ads. BlueLight dropped the free service in February 2001 and was
reacquired by Kmart in July 2001. In 2002 United Online, which also owns
NetZero and Juno, bought the BlueLight service after Kmart filed for
bankruptcy. In August 2006, Bluelight dropped the banners. In August
2006, the service cost $14.95 a month and had around 165,000
subscribers.
Borders Books was a chain of bookstores acquired by
Kmart in 1992. In 1994, Borders merged with the Kmart chain Waldenbooks
to form Borders-Walden Group, which was sold in 1995. In February 2011,
Borders filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy and announced plans to liquidate
in July after failing to find a buyer to keep the chain's remaining 399
stores in operation. The remaining stores closed in September.
Builders Square was a home improvement superstore. In 1997, it was sold to Hechinger, which went out of business in 1999.
Designer Depot: A discount clothing store chain operated in Metro
Detroit in the 1980s.[164] The first opened in a former S. S. Kresge
dime store in St. Clair Shores, Michigan in 1982, selling brand names
such as Yves Saint Laurent, Izod Lacoste, and Calvin Klein at discount
prices.[165]
K-Café was an in-store restaurant that served a
fairly standard menu of hamburgers, hot dogs, French fries, grilled
cheese sandwiches and Philly cheesesteak. They also offered a full
breakfast menu of baked goods, bagels and egg platters with bacon or
sausage and such snacks as nachos, pretzels, popcorn and ice cream. In
addition to the café's menu, hot food items could also be purchased at
the deli and eaten in the Deli Café at Super Kmart Center stores.
However, K-Café has been discontinued in almost all of their
stores.[when?] Most restaurants that were located at Super Kmart Center
stores were instead known as Super K-Café. However, some Kmart stores
have Nathan's Famous Hot Dog Eateries and Little Caesars Pizza Stations
instead of K-Cafés, like the Kmart store in Marshall, Michigan and
another located in Guam.[citation needed]
KDollar was a chain of
discount stores/dollar stores that sold Kmart merchandise at a discount.
The stores were often former Kmart or Big Kmart stores. Sears Brands
filed for a trademark on the KDollar name on November 6, 2012.[166] The
first opened in a former regular Kmart store in Bloomfield Hills,
Michigan in 2013.[167] A second KDollar store opened in Waukegan,
Illinois.
Kmart Chef restaurants were a small chain of
free-standing fast-food restaurants owned by Kmart, started in 1967 with
the first location on the parking lot of a Kmart in Pontiac, Michigan.
The "limited, high-turnover menu" (as Kmart founder S.S. Kresge put it)
consisted of hamburgers, French fries, hot dogs, and soft drinks. The
Kmart Chef chain folded in 1974 after peaking at 11 locations.[168]
Kmart Dental was an in-store dental office located in Kmart stores.
There was only one such prototype in a Kmart store, in Miami, Florida.
Despite the name, Kmart Dental was never technically owned by
Kmart.[169]
Kmart Express was a chain of gas stations/convenience
stores located in out-parcels at some Kmart and Super Kmart stores,
particularly in the Midwest. In the early 2000s, there were plans to
expand this concept to most Kmarts, but the plan for more locations was
canceled after Kmart's bankruptcy in 2002. The final Kmart Express, in
Ionia, MI, closed in 2017.
Kmart Food Stores was a supermarket
chain founded in 1962. Most Kmart Food locations were paired with Kmart
stores, often operated by a local grocery chain but always branded as
Kmart Food. The chain was discontinued in the early 1980s.
Kwash
was an attached-to-store laundromat launched in May 2010. Only one such
prototype existed. It was in a former auto bay in Iowa City, Iowa. It
featured a separate entrance, laundromat attendants and free wi-fi along
with a limited selection of laundry goods available for purchase. The
Kwash closed along with the Kmart in 2017.[170]
Makro, a Dutch
warehouse club chain, operated locations in the U.S. from February 1981
to 1989, in Atlanta, Philadelphia, and the Washington, D.C. suburb of
Largo, Maryland.[171] Kmart bought the chain's entire American holdings
in 1989, having owned a 49 percent share before.[172] The Makro stores
were later converted to Pace or closed in 1990.[173]
Office
Square was a chain selling office supplies and office furniture which
was a spin-off of Builders Square. In 1991, OfficeMax was acquired by
Kmart and Office Square was merged into OfficeMax stores.
OfficeMax is a chain selling office supplies and office furniture which
was acquired in 1991 and sold in 1995. It was acquired by Office Depot
in 2013.
Pace Membership Warehouse was Kmart's warehouse club
brand, until the chain was purchased by Walmart. In 1993, Walmart
converted most of the stores into its Sam's Club brand, and sold others
to chains such as Bradlees.
PayLess Drugs was a chain of drug
stores acquired by Kmart in 1985[174] and later sold to TCH Corporation
in 1994.[175] The resulting entity, Thrifty PayLess, was acquired by
Rite Aid in 1996, which converted all of the PayLess and Thrifty stores
into Rite Aid stores in 1999. The PayLess division also owned Bi-Mart,
which was spun off along with sister stores such as Pay 'n Save.
The Sports Authority was a chain of sporting goods stores which was
acquired in 1990 and sold in 1995. The Sports Authority went out of
business in 2016.
Super Kmart Center was a chain of superstores
that carried everything a regular Kmart carries, but also had a full
grocery section with meat and poultry, baked goods, a delicatessen,
garden produce, and fresh seafood. Kmart Super Centers ranged from
140,000 to 190,000 sq ft (13,000 to 18,000 m2). The first store opened
in Medina, Ohio on July 25, 1991 which downsized to a regular Kmart
before closing for good in 2012. In 1997 a few days after Kmart opened
its first Big Kmart store in Chicago, the Super Kmart Center brand was
renamed to Super Kmart. Super Kmart Center stores also featured a garden
center, a video rental store, a branch of a local bank, an arcade, a
portrait studio, a Jackson Hewitt tax center, a pharmacy, and usually a
deli café or Little Caesars Pizza Station. Many of these services were
closed and discontinued in recent years. Several locations also included
Kmart Express gas stations, and most had an auto center. Most Super
Kmarts were closed during the two rounds of closures in 2002 and 2003,
and many had their groceries removed, converting them into regular Kmart
locations.[176] A typical Super Center sold around $30 million of
merchandise during one fiscal year. In 2015, some stores were converted
into a regular Kmart with a concept called K-Fresh. These stores feature
an expanded pantry and a fresh-food department, though these types of
items are no longer prepared on-site and are now prepackaged. The deli,
butcher and bakery operations were also closed. Kmart gradually closed
its Super Kmart stores; the last location was in Warren, Ohio and closed
on April 8, 2018. It is scheduled to be replaced by Kmart competitor
Meijer.[177]
U-Pak was a single "no-frills" supermarket which
sold items out of boxes instead of on shelves, and featured reduced
hours. It opened adjacent to a Kmart on Opdyke Boulevard in Pontiac,
Michigan in 1979 and closed less than a month later due to poor
sales.[178]
Variety Outlet. A closeout chain, typically operated
out of closed Kmart stores. The first opened in Rome, Georgia in
1994.[179][180]
Waldenbooks was a chain consisting primarily of
shopping-mall–based book stores which was acquired in 1984. In 1994,
Kmart chain Borders merged with Waldenbooks to form Borders-Walden
Group, which was sold in 1995 (the company was subsequently renamed
Borders Group, and went out of business in 2011)." (wikipedia.org)
"A
haunted house, spook house or ghost house in ghostlore is a house or
other building often perceived as being inhabited by disembodied spirits
of the deceased who may have been former residents or were otherwise
connected with the property. Parapsychologists often attribute haunting
to the spirits of the dead who have suffered from violent or tragic
events in the building's past such as murder, accidental death, or
suicide.[1]
In a majority of cases, upon scientific
investigation, alternative causes to supernatural phenomenon are found
to be at fault, such as hoaxes, environmental effects, hallucinations or
confirmation biases. Common symptoms of hauntings, like cold spots and
creaking or knocking sounds, can be found in most homes regardless of
suspected paranormal presences. People are more likely to experience a
haunting when they are about to fall asleep, when waking, if they are
intoxicated or sleep deprived. Carbon monoxide poisoning has been cited
as a cause of suspected hauntings. If there is an expectation of a
preternatural encounter, it is more likely that one will be perceived or
reported. ...
Halloween-themed haunted houses
Halloween
themed haunted houses began appearing around the same time as "trick or
treat", during the Great Depression, as a way to distract young people
whose Halloween pranks had escalated to vandalism and harassment of
passersby.[where?] These first haunted houses were low quality, being
put together by groups of families in their basements. People would
travel from home to home to experience a variety of frightening
situations, such as hearing weird moans and howls, cardboard cutouts of
black cats, damp sponges and hair nets hanging from the ceiling to touch
people's faces, hanging fur on the walls of darkened hallways, and
having to crawl through long dark tunnels.[40]
In 1972 Jerry
Falwell and Liberty University introduced one of the first "hell houses"
as an anti-Halloween attraction.[40] Some Christian churches run these,
which while being haunted houses, also promote their interpretation of
the Christian gospel message. According to USA Today, in hell houses,
"participants walk through several 'scenes' depicting the consequences
of things like abortion, homosexuality and drunkenness."[41]
Commercial haunted houses
Fuji-Q – Super Scary Labyrinth of Fear, haunted hospital.
The
concept of the haunted house was capitalized on as early as 1915 with
the Orton and Spooner Haunted House in the Hollycombe Steam Collection
(England).[42] The haunted house became a cultural icon when
Disneyland's Haunted Mansion was opened in 1969.[40] By the 1970s,
commercial haunted houses had sprung up all over the United States in
cities like Louisville, Kentucky and Cincinnati, Ohio.[43] These houses
are stereotypically Gilded Age homes because changing tastes of the
nouveau riche left these homes abandoned or poorly maintained.[44]
Hollywood
slasher films such as Halloween, A Nightmare on Elm Street and Friday
the 13th had a large influence on commercial haunted houses in the 1980s
and 1990s. Many of these houses included characters such as Freddy
Krueger and Jason. A less popular film titled Monster House suggests the
idea of a spirit actually taking control of a house and transforming it
into an almost human body.[40] By 2005, an estimated 3,500 to 5,000
professional haunted attractions operated in the United States.[45]
Japanese
commercial haunted houses, or obakeyashiki, are considered to be some
of the best in the world. Experiences include being chased by
gore-covered zombies, specially themed attractions, such as schools or
hospital wards, and houses from which one must escape within 60 minutes
or be found by "slaughtering criminals". Claiming to be the world's
largest and most frightening haunted house, the Super Scary Labyrinth of
Fear at Fuji-Q Highland Amusement Park, in Yamanashi Fujiyoshida-shi
Shinnishihara, depicts horrific visual scenes, shrill cries, moans, and
smells. It has been visited by over four million people.[46]
Haunted
Attractions come in several different types from hayrides, indoor
haunted houses to outdoor screamparks. Many amusement parks now host
large Halloween events featuring haunted houses." (wikipedia.org)
"The
human skeleton is the internal framework of the human body. It is
composed of around 270 bones at birth – this total decreases to around
206 bones by adulthood after some bones get fused together.[1] The bone
mass in the skeleton reaches maximum density around age 21.[citation
needed] The human skeleton can be divided into the axial skeleton and
the appendicular skeleton. The axial skeleton is formed by the vertebral
column, the rib cage, the skull and other associated bones. The
appendicular skeleton, which is attached to the axial skeleton, is
formed by the shoulder girdle, the pelvic girdle and the bones of the
upper and lower limbs.
The human skeleton performs six major
functions: support, movement, protection, production of blood cells,
storage of minerals, and endocrine regulation.
The human skeleton
is not as sexually dimorphic as that of many other primate species, but
subtle differences between sexes in the morphology of the skull,
dentition, long bones, and pelvis exist. In general, female skeletal
elements tend to be smaller and less robust than corresponding male
elements within a given population.[citation needed] The human female
pelvis is also different from that of males in order to facilitate
childbirth.[2] Unlike most primates, human males do not have penile
bones....
Divisions
Axial
Main article: Axial skeleton
The
axial skeleton (80 bones) is formed by the vertebral column (32–34
bones; the number of the vertebrae differs from human to human as the
lower 2 parts, sacral and coccygeal bone may vary in length), a part of
the rib cage (12 pairs of ribs and the sternum), and the skull (22 bones
and 7 associated bones).
The upright posture of humans is
maintained by the axial skeleton, which transmits the weight from the
head, the trunk, and the upper extremities down to the lower extremities
at the hip joints. The bones of the spine are supported by many
ligaments. The erector spinae muscles are also supporting and are useful
for balance.
Appendicular
Main article: Appendicular skeleton
The
appendicular skeleton (126 bones) is formed by the pectoral girdles,
the upper limbs, the pelvic girdle or pelvis, and the lower limbs. Their
functions are to make locomotion possible and to protect the major
organs of digestion, excretion and reproduction.
Functions
The
skeleton serves six major functions: support, movement, protection,
production of blood cells, storage of minerals and endocrine regulation.
Support
The
skeleton provides the framework which supports the body and maintains
its shape. The pelvis, associated ligaments and muscles provide a floor
for the pelvic structures. Without the rib cages, costal cartilages, and
intercostal muscles, the lungs would collapse.
Movement
The
joints between bones allow movement, some allowing a wider range of
movement than others, e.g. the ball and socket joint allows a greater
range of movement than the pivot joint at the neck. Movement is powered
by skeletal muscles, which are attached to the skeleton at various sites
on bones. Muscles, bones, and joints provide the principal mechanics
for movement, all coordinated by the nervous system.
It is
believed that the reduction of human bone density in prehistoric times
reduced the agility and dexterity of human movement. Shifting from
hunting to agriculture has caused human bone density to reduce
significantly.[4][5][6]
Protection
The skeleton helps to protect our many vital internal organs from being damaged.
The skull protects the brain
The vertebrae protect the spinal cord.
The rib cage, spine, and sternum protect the lungs, heart and major blood vessels.
Blood cell production
The
skeleton is the site of haematopoiesis, the development of blood cells
that takes place in the bone marrow. In children, haematopoiesis occurs
primarily in the marrow of the long bones such as the femur and tibia.
In adults, it occurs mainly in the pelvis, cranium, vertebrae, and
sternum.[7]
Storage
The bone matrix can store calcium and is
involved in calcium metabolism, and bone marrow can store iron in
ferritin and is involved in iron metabolism. However, bones are not
entirely made of calcium, but a mixture of chondroitin sulfate and
hydroxyapatite, the latter making up 70% of a bone. Hydroxyapatite is in
turn composed of 39.8% of calcium, 41.4% of oxygen, 18.5% of
phosphorus, and 0.2% of hydrogen by mass. Chondroitin sulfate is a sugar
made up primarily of oxygen and carbon.
Endocrine regulation
Bone
cells release a hormone called osteocalcin, which contributes to the
regulation of blood sugar (glucose) and fat deposition. Osteocalcin
increases both the insulin secretion and sensitivity, in addition to
boosting the number of insulin-producing cells and reducing stores of
fat.[8]
Sex differences
During construction of the York to
Scarborough Railway Bridge in 1901, workmen discovered a large stone
coffin, close to the River Ouse. Inside was a skeleton, accompanied by
an array of unusual and expensive objects. This chance find represents
one of the most significant discoveries ever made from Roman York. Study
of the skeleton has revealed that it belonged to a woman.
Anatomical
differences between human males and females are highly pronounced in
some soft tissue areas, but tend to be limited in the skeleton. The
human skeleton is not as sexually dimorphic as that of many other
primate species, but subtle differences between sexes in the morphology
of the skull, dentition, long bones, and pelvis are exhibited across
human populations. In general, female skeletal elements tend to be
smaller and less robust than corresponding male elements within a given
population.[citation needed] It is not known whether or to what extent
those differences are genetic or environmental.
Skull
A
variety of gross morphological traits of the human skull demonstrate
sexual dimorphism, such as the median nuchal line, mastoid processes,
supraorbital margin, supraorbital ridge, and the chin.[9]
Dentition
Human inter-sex dental dimorphism centers on the canine teeth, but it is not nearly as pronounced as in the other great apes.
Long bones
Long
bones are generally larger in males than in females within a given
population. Muscle attachment sites on long bones are often more robust
in males than in females, reflecting a difference in overall muscle mass
and development between sexes. Sexual dimorphism in the long bones is
commonly characterized by morphometric or gross morphological analyses.
Pelvis
The
human pelvis exhibits greater sexual dimorphism than other bones,
specifically in the size and shape of the pelvic cavity, ilia, greater
sciatic notches, and the sub-pubic angle. The Phenice method is commonly
used to determine the sex of an unidentified human skeleton by
anthropologists with 96% to 100% accuracy in some populations.[10]
Women's
pelvises are wider in the pelvic inlet and are wider throughout the
pelvis to allow for child birth. The sacrum in the women's pelvis is
curved inwards to allow the child to have a "funnel" to assist in the
child's pathway from the uterus to the birth canal.
Clinical significance
See also: Bone disease
There
are many classified skeletal disorders. One of the most common is
osteoporosis. Also common is scoliosis, a side-to-side curve in the back
or spine, often creating a pronounced "C" or "S" shape when viewed on
an x-ray of the spine. This condition is most apparent during
adolescence, and is most common with females.
Arthritis
Main article: Arthritis
The study of bones in
ancient Greece started under Ptolemaic kings due to their link to
Egypt. Herophilos, through his work by studying dissected human corpses
in Alexandria, is credited to be the pioneer of the field. His works are
lost but are often cited by notable persons in the field such as Galen
and Rufus of Ephesus. Galen himself did little dissection though and
relied on the work of others like Marinus of Alexandria,[16] as well as
his own observations of gladiator cadavers and animals.[17] According to
Katherine Park, in medieval Europe dissection continued to be
practiced, contrary to the popular understanding that such practices
were taboo and thus completely banned.[18] The practice of holy autopsy,
such as in the case of Clare of Montefalco further supports the
claim.[19] Alexandria continued as a center of anatomy under Islamic
rule, with Ibn Zuhr a notable figure. Chinese understandings are
divergent, as the closest corresponding concept in the medicinal system
seems to be the meridians, although given that Hua Tuo regularly
performed surgery, there may be some distance between medical theory and
actual understanding.
Renaissance
Leonardo Da Vinci made
studies of the skeleton, albeit unpublished in his time.[20] Many
artists, Antonio Pollaiuolo being the first, performed dissections for
better understanding of the body, although they concentrated mostly on
the muscles.[21] Vesalius, regarded as the founder of modern anatomy,
authored the book De humani corporis fabrica, which contained many
illustrations of the skeleton and other body parts, correcting some
theories dating from Galen, such as the lower jaw being a single bone
instead of two.[22] Various other figures like Alessandro Achillini also
contributed to the further understanding of the skeleton."
(wikipedia.org)
"Witchcraft
traditionally means the use of magic or supernatural powers to harm
others.[1][2] A practitioner is a witch. In medieval and early modern
Europe, where the term originated, accused witches were usually women
who were believed to have attacked their own community, and often to
have communed with evil beings. It was thought witchcraft could be
thwarted by protective magic or counter-magic, which could be provided
by cunning folk or folk healers. Suspected witches were also
intimidated, banished, attacked or killed. Often they would be formally
prosecuted and punished, if found guilty or simply believed to be
guilty. European witch-hunts and witch trials in the early modern period
led to tens of thousands of executions. In some regions, many of those
accused of witchcraft were folk healers or midwives.[3][4] European
belief in witchcraft gradually dwindled during and after the Age of
Enlightenment.
Contemporary cultures that believe in magic and
the supernatural often believe in witchcraft.[5][6] Anthropologists have
applied the term witchcraft to similar beliefs and occult practices
described by many non-European cultures, and cultures that have adopted
the English language will often call these practices "witchcraft", as
well.[6][7][8][9] As with the cunning-folk in Europe, Indigenous
communities that believe in the existence of witchcraft define witches
as the opposite of their healers and medicine people, who are sought out
for protection against witches and witchcraft.[10][11][12] Modern
witch-hunting is found in parts of Africa and Asia.
A theory that
witchcraft was a survival of a European pagan religion (the witch-cult
hypothesis) gained popularity in the early 20th century, but has since
been discredited.
In contemporary Western culture, most notably
since the growth of Wicca from the 1950s, some Modern Pagans and new
agers self-identify as witches, and use the term witchcraft for their
self-help, healing and divination rituals....
Concept
The Magic Circle by John William Waterhouse, 1886
The
concept of witchcraft and the belief in its existence have persisted
throughout recorded history. It has been found at various times and in
many forms among cultures worldwide,[6][16] and continues to have an
important role in some cultures today.[17] Most societies have believed
in, and feared, an ability by some individuals to cause supernatural
harm and misfortune to others. This may come from mankind's tendency "to
want to assign occurrences of remarkable good or bad luck to agency,
either human or superhuman".[18] Witchcraft is seen by historians and
anthropologists as one ideology for explaining misfortune, which has
manifested in diverse ways.[19] Some cultures have feared witchcraft
much less than others, because they instead believed that strange
misfortune was usually caused by gods, spirits, demons or fairies, or by
other humans who have unwittingly cast the 'evil eye'.[18]
Ronald
Hutton outlined five key characteristics ascribed to witches and
witchcraft by most cultures that believe in the concept. Traditionally,
witchcraft was believed to be the use of magic to cause harm or
misfortune to others; it was used by the witch against their own
community; it was seen as immoral and often thought to involve communion
with evil beings; powers of witchcraft were believed to have been
acquired through inheritance or initiation; and witchcraft could be
thwarted by defensive magic, persuasion, intimidation or physical
punishment of the alleged witch.[20]
Historically, the
predominant concept of witchcraft in the Western world derives from Old
Testament laws against witchcraft, and entered the mainstream when
belief in witchcraft gained Church approval in the Early Modern Period.
It is a theosophical conflict between good and evil, where witchcraft
was generally evil and often associated with the Devil and Devil
worship. This culminated in deaths, torture and scapegoating (casting
blame for misfortune),[21][22] and many years of large scale
witch-trials and witch hunts, especially in Protestant Europe, before
largely ceasing during the European Age of Enlightenment. Christian
views in the modern day are diverse and cover the gamut of views from
intense belief and opposition (especially by Christian fundamentalists)
to non-belief, and even approval in some churches. From the mid-20th
century, witchcraft – sometimes called contemporary witchcraft to
clearly distinguish it from older beliefs – became the name of a branch
of modern Paganism. It is most notably practiced in the Wiccan and
modern witchcraft traditions, and it is no longer practiced in
secrecy.[23]
The Western mainstream Christian view is far from
the only societal perspective about witchcraft. Many cultures worldwide
continue to have widespread practices and cultural beliefs that are
loosely translated into English as "witchcraft", although the English
translation masks a very great diversity in their forms, magical
beliefs, practices, and place in their societies. During the Age of
Colonialism, many cultures across the globe were exposed to the modern
Western world via colonialism, usually accompanied and often preceded by
intensive Christian missionary activity (see "Christianization"). In
these cultures beliefs that were related to witchcraft and magic were
influenced by the prevailing Western concepts of the time. Witch-hunts,
scapegoating, and the killing or shunning of suspected witches still
occur in the modern era.[24]
Suspicion of modern medicine due to
beliefs about illness being due to witchcraft also continues in many
countries to this day, with serious healthcare consequences.
The
word is over a thousand years old: Old English formed the compound
wiccecræft from wicce ('witch') and cræft ('craft').[29] Witch was also
spelled wicca or wycca in Old English, and was originally masculine.[30]
Folk etymologies link witchcraft "to the English words wit, wise,
wisdom [Germanic root *weit-, *wait-, *wit-; Indo-European root *weid-,
*woid-, *wid-]", so 'craft of the wise.'[31][self-published source?]
The
word witch in the English language (a Germanic language) is used
generally for women. In other languages such as Neo-Latin languages
(languages that evolved from Latin) the word can be translated as
bruxa in Portuguese, bruja in Spanish, sorcière in French and strega in
Italian. In these languages these words have masculine inflected
counterparts with the same etymological origin, being respectively,
bruxo (Portuguese), brujo (Spanish), sorcier (French) and stregone
(Italian). When translated to English the preferred translation by
Anglophones is "wizard", or less commonly, "warlock".
In
anthropological terminology, witches differ from sorceresses in that
they don't use physical tools or actions to curse; their maleficium is
perceived as extending from some intangible inner quality, and one may
be unaware of being a witch, or may have been convinced of their nature
by the suggestion of others.[32] This definition was pioneered in a
study of central African magical beliefs by E. E. Evans-Pritchard, who
cautioned that it might not correspond with normal English usage.[33]
Historians
of European witchcraft have found the anthropological definition
difficult to apply to European witchcraft, where witches could equally
use (or be accused of using) physical techniques, as well as some who
really had attempted to cause harm by thought alone.[7]
Practices
Preparation
for the Witches' Sabbath by David Teniers the Younger. It shows a witch
brewing a potion overlooked by her familiar spirit or a demon; items on
the floor for casting a spell; and another witch reading from a
grimoire while anointing the buttocks of a young witch about to fly upon
an inverted besom
Where belief in malicious magic practices
exists, practitioners are typically forbidden by law as well as hated
and feared by the general populace, while beneficial magic is tolerated
or even accepted wholesale by the people — even if the orthodox
establishment opposes it.[34]
Spell casting
See also: Magic (supernatural)
Probably
the best-known characteristic of a witch is her ability to cast a spell
– a set of words, a formula or verse, a ritual, or a combination of
these, employed to do magic.[35] Spells traditionally were cast by many
methods, such as by the inscription of runes or sigils on an object to
give that object magical powers; by the immolation or binding of a wax
or clay image (poppet) of a person to affect them magically; by the
recitation of incantations; by the performance of physical rituals; by
the employment of magical herbs as amulets or potions; by gazing at
mirrors, swords or other specula (scrying) for purposes of divination;
and by many other means.[36][37][38]
Necromancy (conjuring the dead)
Strictly
speaking, necromancy is the practice of conjuring the spirits of the
dead for divination or prophecy, although the term has also been applied
to raising the dead for other purposes. The biblical Witch of Endor
performed it (1 Samuel 28th chapter), and it is among the witchcraft
practices condemned by Ælfric of Eynsham:[39][40][41] "Witches still go
to cross-roads and to heathen burials with their delusive magic and call
to the devil; and he comes to them in the likeness of the man that is
buried there, as if he arises from death."[42]
White witches in Britain and Europe
Main article: Cunning folk
Further information: Folk religion, Magical thinking, and Shamanism
A painting in the Rila Monastery in Bulgaria, condemning witchcraft and traditional folk magic
Traditionally,
the terms "witch" and "witchcraft" had negative connotations. Most
societies that have believed in harmful witchcraft or 'black' magic have
also believed in helpful or 'white' magic.[43] In these societies,
practitioners of helpful magic provided services such as breaking the
effects of witchcraft, healing, divination, finding lost or stolen
goods, and love magic.[44] In Britain they were commonly known as
cunning folk or wise people.[44] Alan McFarlane writes, "There were a
number of interchangeable terms for these practitioners, 'white',
'good', or 'unbinding' witches, blessers, wizards, sorcerers, however
'cunning-man' and 'wise-man' were the most frequent".[45] Ronald Hutton
prefers the term "service magicians".[44] Often these people were
involved in identifying alleged witches.[43]
Hostile churchmen
sometimes branded any magic-workers "witches" as a way of smearing
them.[44] Englishman Reginald Scot, who sought to disprove witchcraft
and magic, wrote in The Discoverie of Witchcraft (1584), "At this day it
is indifferent to say in the English tongue, 'she is a witch' or 'she
is a wise woman'".[46] Folk magicians throughout Europe were often
viewed ambivalently by communities, and were considered as capable of
harming as of healing,[8] which could lead to their being accused as
"witches" in the negative sense. Many English "witches" convicted of
consorting with demons may have been cunning folk whose supposed fairy
familiars had been demonised;[47] many French devins-guerisseurs
("diviner-healers") were accused of witchcraft,[48] over half the
accused witches in Hungary seem to have been healers,[49] and the "vast
majority" of Finland's accused witches were folk healers.[50] Hutton,
however, says that "Service magicians were sometimes denounced as
witches, but seem to have made up a minority of the accused in any area
studied".[43]
Thwarting witchcraft
A witch bottle, used as counter-magic against witchcraft
Societies
that believed in witchcraft also believed that it could be thwarted in
various ways. One common way was to use protective magic or
counter-magic, of which the cunning folk were experts.[43] This included
charms, talismans and amulets, anti-witch marks, witch bottles, witch
balls, and burying objects such as horse skulls inside the walls of
buildings.[51] Another believed cure for bewitchment was to persuade or
force the alleged witch to lift their spell.[43] Often, people would
attempt to thwart the witchcraft by physically punishing the alleged
witch, such as by banishing, wounding, torturing or killing them. "In
most societies, however, a formal and legal remedy was preferred to this
sort of private action", whereby the alleged witch would be prosecuted
and then formally punished if found guilty.[43] This often resulted in
execution.
Accusations of witchcraft
Alleged witches being accused in the Salem witch trials
"Neighborhood
witches" are the product of neighborhood tensions, and are found only
in village communities where the inhabitants largely rely on each other.
Such accusations follow the breaking of some social norm, such as the
failure to return a borrowed item, and any person part of the normal
social exchange could potentially fall under suspicion. Claims of
"sorcerer" witches and "supernatural" witches could arise out of social
tensions, but not exclusively; the supernatural witch often had nothing
to do with communal conflict, but expressed tensions between the human
and supernatural worlds; and in Eastern and Southeastern Europe such
supernatural witches became an ideology explaining calamities that
befell whole communities.[53]
The historian Norman Gevitz has written:
[T]he medical arts played a significant and sometimes pivotal role in
the witchcraft controversies of seventeenth-century New England. Not
only were physicians and surgeons the principal professional arbiters
for determining natural versus preternatural signs and symptoms of
disease, they occupied key legislative, judicial, and ministerial roles
relating to witchcraft proceedings. Forty six male physicians, surgeons,
and apothecaries are named in court transcripts or other contemporary
source materials relating to New England witchcraft. These practitioners
served on coroners' inquests, performed autopsies, took testimony,
issued writs, wrote letters, or committed people to prison, in addition
to diagnosing and treating patients.[54]
European witch-hunts and witch-trials
Main articles: Witch-hunt and Witch trials in the early modern period
A 1613 English pamphlet showing "Witches apprehended, examined and executed"
In
Christianity, sorcery came to be associated with heresy and apostasy
and to be viewed as evil. Among the Catholics, Protestants, and secular
leadership of the European Late Medieval/Early Modern period, fears
about witchcraft rose to fever pitch and sometimes led to large-scale
witch-hunts. The key century was the fifteenth, which saw a dramatic
rise in awareness and terror of witchcraft, culminating in the
publication of the Malleus Maleficarum but prepared by such fanatical
popular preachers as Bernardino of Siena.[55] In total, tens or hundreds
of thousands of people were executed, and others were imprisoned,
tortured, banished, and had lands and possessions confiscated. The
majority of those accused were women, though in some regions the
majority were men.[56][57] In early modern Scots, the word warlock came
to be used as the male equivalent of witch (which can be male or female,
but is used predominantly for females).[58][59][60]
The Malleus
Maleficarum, (Latin for 'Hammer of The Witches') was a witch-hunting
manual written in 1486 by two German monks, Heinrich Kramer and Jacob
Sprenger. It was used by both Catholics and Protestants[61] for several
hundred years, outlining how to identify a witch, what makes a woman
more likely than a man to be a witch, how to put a witch on trial, and
how to punish a witch. The book defines a witch as evil and typically
female. The book became the handbook for secular courts throughout
Renaissance Europe, but was not used by the Inquisition, which even
cautioned against relying on The Work.[62] It is likely that this caused
witch mania to become so widespread. It was the most sold book in
Europe for over 100 years, after the Bible.[63]
European
witch-trials reached their peak in the early 17th century, after which
popular sentiment began to turn against the practice. Friedrich Spee's
book Cautio Criminalis, published in 1631, argued that witch-trials were
largely unreliable and immoral.[64] In 1682, King Louis XIV prohibited
further witch-trials in France. In 1736, Great Britain formally ended
witch-trials with passage of the Witchcraft Act.[65]
Modern witch-hunts
Main article: Modern witch-hunts
Belief
in witchcraft continues to be present today in some societies and
accusations of witchcraft are the trigger for serious forms of violence,
including murder. Such incidents are common in countries such as
Burkina Faso, Ghana, India, Kenya, Malawi, Nepal and Tanzania.
Accusations of witchcraft are sometimes linked to personal disputes,
jealousy, and conflicts between neighbors or family members over land or
inheritance. Witchcraft-related violence is often discussed as a
serious issue in the broader context of violence against
women.[66][67][68][69][70] In Tanzania, about 500 old women are murdered
each year following accusations of witchcraft or accusations of being a
witch.[71] Apart from extrajudicial violence, state-sanctioned violence
also occurs in some jurisdictions. For instance, in Saudi Arabia
practicing witchcraft and sorcery is a crime punishable by death and the
country has executed people for this crime in 2011, 2012 and
2014.[72][73][74]
Children who live in some regions of the world,
such as parts of Africa, are also vulnerable to violence that is
related to witchcraft accusations.[75][76][77][78] Such incidents have
also occurred in immigrant communities in the UK, including the much
publicized case of the murder of Victoria Climbié.[79][80]
Wicca
Main article: Wicca
During
the 20th century, interest in witchcraft in English-speaking and
European countries began to increase, inspired particularly by Margaret
Murray's theory of a pan-European witch-cult originally published in
1921, since discredited by further careful historical research.[81]
Interest was intensified, however, by Gerald Gardner's claim in 1954 in
Witchcraft Today that a form of witchcraft still existed in England. The
truth of Gardner's claim is now disputed too.[82][83][84][85][86]
The
first Neopagan groups to publicly appear, during the 1950s and 60s,
were Gerald Gardner's Bricket Wood coven and Roy Bowers' Clan of Tubal
Cain. They operated as initiatory secret societies. Other individual
practitioners and writers such as Paul Huson[13] also claimed
inheritance to surviving traditions of witchcraft.[14]
The Wicca
that Gardner initially taught was a witchcraft religion having a lot in
common with Margaret Murray's hypothetically posited cult of the
1920s.[87] Indeed, Murray wrote an introduction to Gardner's Witchcraft
Today, in effect putting her stamp of approval on it. These Wiccan
witches do not adhere to the more common definition of Witchcraft, and
generally define their practices as a type of "positive magic." Various
forms of Wicca are now practised as a religion of an initiatory secret
society nature with positive ethical principles, organised into
autonomous covens and led by a High Priesthood. There is also a large
"Eclectic Wiccan" movement of individuals and groups who share key
Wiccan beliefs but have no initiatory connection or affiliation with
traditional Wicca. Wiccan writings and ritual show borrowings from a
number of sources including 19th and 20th-century ceremonial magic, the
medieval grimoire known as the Key of Solomon, Aleister Crowley's Ordo
Templi Orientis and pre-Christian religions.[88][89][90] A survey
published in November 2000 cited just over 200,000 people who reported
practicing Wicca in the United States.[91]
Witchcraft, feminism, and media
Wiccan
and Neo-Wiccan literature has been described as aiding the empowerment
of young women through its lively portrayal of female protagonists. Part
of the recent growth in Neo-Pagan religions has been attributed to the
strong media presence of fictional pop culture works such as Charmed,
Buffy the Vampire Slayer, and the Harry Potter series with their
depictions of "positive witchcraft", which differs from the historical,
traditional, and Indigenous definitions.[10] Based on a mass media case
study done, "Mass Media and Religious Identity: A Case Study of Young
Witches", in the result of the case study it was stated the reasons many
young people are choosing to self-identify as witches and belong to
groups they define as practicing witchcraft is diverse; however, the use
of pop culture witchcraft in various media platforms can be the spark
of interest for young people to see themselves as "witches".[15]
Widespread accessibility to related material through internet media such
as chat rooms and forums is also thought to be driving this
development. Which is dependent on one's accessibility to those media
resources and material to influence their thoughts and views on
religion.[15]
Wiccan beliefs, or pop culture variations thereof,
are often considered by adherents to be compatible with liberal ideals
such as the Green movement, and particularly with some varieties of
feminism, by providing young women with what they see as a means for
self-empowerment, control of their own lives, and potentially a way of
influencing the world around them.[92][93] This is the case particularly
in North America due to the strong presence of feminist ideals in some
branches of the Neopagan communities and the long tradition of women-led
and women-only groups such as in Dianic Wicca.[10] The 2002 study
Enchanted Feminism: The Reclaiming Witches of San Francisco suggests
that some branches of Wicca include influential members of the second
wave of feminism, which has also been redefined as a religious
movement.[92]
Traditional witchcraft
Main article: Traditional witchcraft
Traditional
witchcraft is a term used to refer to a variety of contemporary forms
of witchcraft. Pagan studies scholar Ethan Doyle White described it as
"a broad movement of aligned magico-religious groups who reject any
relation to Gardnerianism and the wider Wiccan movement, claiming older,
more "traditional" roots. Although typically united by a shared
aesthetic rooted in European folklore, the Traditional Craft contains
within its ranks a rich and varied array of occult groups, from those
who follow a contemporary Pagan path that is suspiciously similar to
Wicca to those who adhere to Luciferianism".[94] According to British
Traditional Witch Michael Howard, the term refers to "any
non-Gardnerian, non-Alexandrian, non-Wiccan or pre-modern form of the
Craft, especially if it has been inspired by historical forms of
witchcraft and folk magic".[95] Another definition was offered by Daniel
A. Schulke, the current Magister of the Cultus Sabbati, when he
proclaimed that traditional witchcraft "refers to a coterie of
initiatory lineages of ritual magic, spellcraft and devotional
mysticism".[96] Some forms of traditional witchcraft are the Feri
Tradition, Cochrane's Craft and the Sabbatic craft.[97]
Stregheria
Main article: Stregheria
Modern
Stregheria closely resembles Charles Leland's controversial
late-19th-century account of a surviving Italian religion of witchcraft,
worshipping the Goddess Diana, her brother Dianus/Lucifer, and their
daughter Aradia. Leland's witches do not see Lucifer as the evil Satan
that Christians see, but a benevolent god of the Sun.[98]
The
ritual format of contemporary Stregheria is roughly similar to that of
other Neopagan witchcraft religions such as Wicca. The pentagram is the
most common symbol of religious identity. Most followers celebrate a
series of eight festivals equivalent to the Wiccan Wheel of the Year,
though others follow the ancient Roman festivals. An emphasis is placed
on ancestor worship and balance.[99]
Witchcraft and Satanism
See also: Deal with the devil and Devil in Christianity
Demonic
associations in general may sometimes implicate witchcraft with the
Devil, as conceived variously across different cultures and religious
traditions. The character of Satan influenced all Abrahamic religions,
and accusations of witchcraft were routinely associated with Satanism.
Sometimes under the guise of Lucifer, a more noble characterization
developed as a rebellious counterpart to Christianity.[100] In Europe
after the Enlightenment, influential works such as Milton's Paradise
Lost were described anew by Romantics suggesting the biblical Satan as
an allegory representing crisis of faith, individualism, free will,
wisdom, and spiritual enlightenment.
In the 20th century, other
works presented Satan in a less negative light, such as Letters from the
Earth. The 1933 book The God of the Witches by Margaret Murray
influenced Herbert Arthur Sloane, who connected the horned god with
Satan (Sathanas), and founded the Ophite Cultus Satanas in 1948.[101]
Sloane also corresponded with his contemporary Gerald Gardner, founder
of modern Wicca, and implied that his views of Satan and the horned god
were not necessarily in conflict with Gardner's approach. However, he
did believe that, while gnosis referred to knowledge, and Wicca referred
to wisdom, modern witches had fallen away from the true knowledge, and
instead had begun worshipping a fertility god, a reflection of the
creator god. He wrote that "the largest existing body of witches who are
true Satanists would be the Yezedees". Sloane highly recommended the
book The Gnostic Religion, and sections of it were sometimes read at
ceremonies.[102]
Anton LaVey treated Satan not as a literal god,
but rather an evocative namesake for The Church of Satan, which he
founded in 1966.[103][104] The Church incorporates magic in their
practice, distinguishing between Lesser and Greater forms.[105] LaVey
published The Compleat Witch in 1971, subsequently republished as The
Satanic Witch. While the Church and other atheistic Satanists use Satan
as a symbolic embodiment of certain human traits, there are also
theistic Satanists who venerate Satan as a supernatural deity.[106]
Contemporary Satanism is mainly an American phenomenon,[107] although it
began to reach Eastern Europe in the 1990s around the time of the fall
of the Soviet Union.[108][109]
In the 21st century, witchcraft
may still be erroneously associated with ideas of "devil worship" and
potentially conflated with contemporary Satanism. Estimates suggest up
to 100,000 Satanists worldwide in 2006 (twice the number estimated in
1990).[110] Satanic beliefs have been largely permitted as a valid
expression of religious belief in the West. Satanists were allowed in
the British Royal Navy in 2004,[111][112][113] and an appeal was
considered in 2005 for religious status as a right of prisoners by the
Supreme Court of the United States.[114][115] Founded in 2013, the
Satanic Temple avoids the practice of magic, claiming "beliefs should
conform to one's best scientific understanding of the world."[116][117]
Luciferianism
developed on principles of independence and human progression, a symbol
of enlightenment.[118][119] Madeline Montalban was an English witch who
adhered to the veneration of Lucifer, or Lumiel, whom she considered a
benevolent angelic being who had aided humanity's development. Within
her Order, she emphasised that her followers discover their own personal
relationship with the angelic beings, including Lumiel.[120] Although
initially seeming favourable to Gerald Gardner, by the mid-1960s she had
become hostile towards him and his Gardnerian tradition, considering
him to be "a 'dirty old man' and sexual pervert."[121] She also
expressed hostility to another prominent Pagan Witch of the period,
Charles Cardell, although in the 1960s became friends with the two
Witches at the forefront of the Alexandrian Wiccan tradition, Alex
Sanders and his wife, Maxine Sanders, who adopted some of her Luciferian
angelic practices.[122] In contemporary times Luciferian witches exist
within traditional witchcraft.[94]
Historical and religious perspectives
Near East beliefs
The
belief in sorcery and its practice seem to have been widespread in the
ancient Near East and Nile Valley. It played a conspicuous role in the
cultures of ancient Egypt and in Babylonia. The latter tradition
included an Akkadian anti-witchcraft ritual, the Maqlû. A section from
the Code of Hammurabi (about 2000 B.C.) prescribes:
If a man
has put a spell upon another man and it is not justified, he upon whom
the spell is laid shall go to the holy river; into the holy river shall
he plunge. If the holy river overcome him and he is drowned, the man who
put the spell upon him shall take possession of his house. If the holy
river declares him innocent and he remains unharmed the man who laid the
spell shall be put to death. He that plunged into the river shall take
possession of the house of him who laid the spell upon him.[123]
According to the New Advent Catholic Encyclopedia:
In the Holy Scripture references to sorcery are frequent, and the
strong condemnations of such practices found there do not seem to be
based so much upon the supposition of fraud as upon the abomination of
the magic in itself.[124]
Saul and the Witch of Endor (1828) by William Sidney Mount.
The
King James Version uses the words witch, witchcraft, and witchcrafts to
translate the Masoretic כָּשַׁף kāsháf (Hebrew pronunciation:
[kɔˈʃaf]) and קֶסֶם (qésem);[125] these same English terms are used to
translate φαρμακεία pharmakeia in the Greek New Testament. Verses such
as Deuteronomy 18:11–12[126] and Exodus 22:18 ("Thou shalt not suffer a
witch to live"[127]) thus provided scriptural justification for
Christian witch hunters in the early modern period (see Christian views
on magic).
The precise meaning of the Hebrew כָּשַׁף, usually
translated as witch or sorceress, is uncertain. In the Septuagint, it
was translated as pharmakeía or pharmakous. In the 16th century,
Reginald Scot, a prominent critic of the witch trials, translated
כָּשַׁף, φαρμακεία, and the Vulgate's Latin equivalent veneficos as all
meaning 'poisoner', and on this basis, claimed that witch was an
incorrect translation and poisoners were intended.[128] His theory still
holds some currency, but is not widely accepted, and in Daniel 2:2[129]
כָּשַׁף is listed alongside other magic practitioners who could
interpret dreams: magicians, astrologers, and Chaldeans. Suggested
derivations of כָּשַׁף include 'mutterer' (from a single root) or herb
user (as a compound word formed from the roots kash, meaning 'herb', and
hapaleh, meaning 'using'). The Greek φαρμακεία literally means
'herbalist' or one who uses or, but it was used
virtually synonymously with mageia and goeteia as a term for a
sorcerer.[130]
The Bible provides some evidence that these commandments against sorcery were enforced under the Hebrew kings:
And Saul disguised himself, and put on other raiment, and he went, and
two men with him, and they came to the woman by night: and he said, I
pray thee, divine unto me by the familiar spirit,[a] and bring me him
up, whom I shall name unto thee. And the woman said unto him, Behold,
thou knowest what Saul hath done, how he hath cut off those that have
familiar spirits, and the wizards, out of the land: wherefore then
layest thou a snare for my life, to cause me to die?[131]
New Testament
The
New Testament condemns the practice as an abomination, just as the Old
Testament had.[132] The word in most New Testament translations is
sorcerer/sorcery rather than witch/witchcraft.
Judaism
See also: Witchcraft and divination in the Hebrew Bible
Jewish
law views the practice of witchcraft as being laden with idolatry
and/or necromancy; both being serious theological and practical offenses
in Judaism. Although Maimonides vigorously denied the efficacy of all
methods of witchcraft, and claimed that the Biblical prohibitions
regarding it were precisely to wean the Israelites from practices
related to idolatry. It is acknowledged that while magic exists, it is
forbidden to practice it on the basis that it usually involves the
worship of other gods. Rabbis of the Talmud also condemned magic when it
produced something other than illusion, giving the example of two men
who use magic to pick cucumbers.[133] The one who creates the illusion
of picking cucumbers should not be condemned, only the one who actually
picks the cucumbers through magic.
However, some of the rabbis
practiced "magic" themselves or taught the subject. For instance, Rava
(amora) created a golem and sent it to Rav Zeira, and Hanina and
Hoshaiah studied every Friday together and created a small calf to eat
on Shabbat.[134] In these cases, the "magic" was seen more as divine
miracles (i.e., coming from God rather than "unclean" forces) than as
witchcraft.
Judaism does make it clear that Jews shall not try to
learn about the ways of witches[135] and that witches are to be put to
death.[136]
Judaism's most famous reference to a medium is undoubtedly the Witch of Endor whom Saul consults, as recounted in 1 Samuel 28.
Islam
Main article: Islam and magic
See also: Islam and astrology and Superstitions in Muslim societies
Divination
and magic in Islam encompass a wide range of practices, including black
magic, warding off the evil eye, the production of amulets and other
magical equipment, evocation, casting lots, and astrology.[137]
Legitimacy
of practising witchcraft is disputed. Most of Islamic traditions
distinguishes magic between good magic and black magic. al-Razi and Ibn
Sina, describe that magic is merely a tool and only the outcome
determines whether or not the act of magic was legitimate or not.[138]
Al-Ghazali, although admitting the reality of magic, regards learning
all sorts of magic as forbidden.[138] Ibn al-Nadim argues that good
supernatural powers are received from God after purifying the soul,
while sorcerers please devils and commit acts of disobedience and
sacrifes to demons.[139] Whether or not sorcery is accessed by acts of
piety or disobedience is often seen as an indicator whether magic is
licit or illicit.[140] Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya, a disciple of Ibn
Taimiyya, who became the major source for Wahhabism, disregards magic,
including exorcisms, entirely as superstition.[141] Ibn Khaldun brands
sorcery, talismans, and prestidigitation as forbidden and illegal.[142]
Tabasi did not subscribe to the rationalized framework of magic of most
Ash'arite theologians, but only offered a wide range of rituals to
perform sorcery. Yet he agrees that only magic in accordance with sharia
is permissible.[138] Most of Islamic traditions distinguishes magic
between good magic and black magic. Miracles belong to licit magic and
are considered gifts of God.
The reality of magic is confirmed by
the Quran. The Quran itself is said to bestow magical blessings upon
hearers and heal them, based on al-Isra.[143] Solomon had the power to
speak with animals and jinn, and command devils, which is only given to
him with God's permission.[Quran 27:19][144] Surah Al-Falaq is used as a
prayer to God to ward off black magic and is, according to
hadith-literature, revealed to Muhammad to protect him against Jann the
ancestor of the jinn[145] Muhammad was falsely accused of being a
magician by his opponents.[Quran 10:2][146] The idea that devils teach
magic is confirmed in Al-Baqara. A pair of fallen angels named Harut and
Marut is also mentioned to tempt people into learning sorcery.
Scholars
of the history of religion have linked several magical practises in
Islam with pre-Islamic Turkish and East African customs. Most notable of
these customs is the Zār.[147][148]
By region
This
section should specify the language of its non-English content, using
{{lang}}, {{transliteration}} for transliterated languages, and {{IPA}}
for phonetic transcriptions, with an appropriate ISO 639 code.
Wikipedia's multilingual support templates may also be used. See why.
(August 2021)
Africa
Further information: Witchcraft accusations against children in Africa
See also: Azande witchcraft
The Kolloh-Man[149]
Much
of what witchcraft represents in Africa has been susceptible to
misunderstandings and confusion, thanks in no small part to a tendency
among western scholars since the time of the now largely discredited
Margaret Murray to approach the subject through a comparative lens
vis-a-vis European witchcraft.[150]
While some colonialists tried
to eradicate witch hunting by introducing legislation to prohibit
accusations of witchcraft, some of the countries where this was the case
have formally recognized the reality of witchcraft via the law. This
has produced an environment that encourages persecution of suspected
witches.[151]
Cameroon
In eastern Cameroon, the term used for
witchcraft among the Maka is djambe[152] and refers to a force inside a
person; its powers may make the proprietor more vulnerable. It
encompasses the occult, the transformative, killing and healing.[153]
Central African Republic
Every
year, hundreds of people in the Central African Republic are convicted
of witchcraft.[154] Christian militias in the Central African Republic
have also kidnapped, burnt and buried alive women accused of being
'witches' in public ceremonies.[155]
Democratic Republic of the Congo
As
of 2006, between 25,000 and 50,000 children in Kinshasa, Democratic
Republic of the Congo, had been accused of witchcraft and thrown out of
their homes.[156] These children have been subjected to often-violent
abuse during exorcisms, sometimes supervised by self-styled religious
pastors. Other pastors and Christian activists strongly oppose such
accusations and try to rescue children from their unscrupulous
colleagues.[157] The usual term for these children is enfants sorciers
('child witches') or enfants dits sorciers ('children accused of
witchcraft'). In 2002, USAID funded the production of two short films on
the subject, made in Kinshasa by journalists Angela Nicoara and Mike
Ormsby.
In April 2008, in Kinshasa, the police arrested 14
suspected victims (of penis snatching) and sorcerers accused of using
black magic or witchcraft to steal (make disappear) or shrink men's
penises to extort cash for cure, amid a wave of panic.[158]
According
to one study, the belief in magical warfare technologies (such as
"bulletproofing") in the Eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo serves
a group-level function, as it increases group efficiency in warfare,
even if it is suboptimal at the individual level.[159] The authors of
the study argue that this is one reason why the belief in witchcraft
persists.[159]
Complimentary remarks about witchcraft by a native Congolese initiate:
From witchcraft [...] may be developed the remedy (kimbuki) that will
do most to raise up our country.[160] Witchcraft [...] deserves respect
[...] it can embellish or redeem (ketula evo vuukisa)."[161] The
ancestors were equipped with the protective witchcraft of the clan
(kindoki kiandundila kanda). [...] They could also gather the power of
animals into their hands [...] whenever they needed. [...] If we could
make use of these kinds of witchcraft, our country would rapidly
progress in knowledge of every kind.[162] You witches (zindoki) too,
bring your science into the light to be written down so that [...] the
benefits in it [...] endow our race.[163]
Ghana
Main article: Witchcraft in Ghana
In
Ghana, women are often accused of witchcraft and attacked by
neighbours.[164] Because of this, there exist six witch camps in the
country where women suspected of being witches can flee for safety.[165]
The witch camps, which exist solely in Ghana, are thought to house a
total of around 1000 women.[165] Some of the camps are thought to have
been set up over 100 years ago.[165] The Ghanaian government has
announced that it intends to close the camps.[165]
Arrests were
made in an effort to avoid bloodshed seen in Ghana a decade ago, when 12
alleged penis snatchers were beaten to death by mobs.[166] While it is
easy for modern people to dismiss such reports, Uchenna Okeja argues
that a belief system in which such magical practices are deemed possible
offer many benefits to Africans who hold them. For example, the belief
that a sorcerer has "stolen" a man's penis functions as an
anxiety-reduction mechanism for men suffering from impotence, while
simultaneously providing an explanation that is consistent with African
cultural beliefs rather than appealing to Western scientific notions
that are tainted by the history of colonialism (at least for many
Africans).[167]
Kenya
It was reported that a mob in Kenya had burnt to death at least 11 people accused of witchcraft in 2008.[168]
Malawi
In
Malawi it is also common practice to accuse children of witchcraft and
many children have been abandoned, abused and even killed as a result.
As in other African countries both African traditional healers and their
Christian counterparts are trying to make a living out of exorcising
children and are actively involved in pointing out children as
witches.[169] Various secular and Christian organizations are combining
their efforts to address this problem.[170]
According to William
Kamkwamba, witches and wizards are afraid of money, which they consider a
rival evil. Any contact with cash will snap their spell and leave the
wizard naked and confused, so placing cash, such as kwacha around a room
or bed mat will protect the resident from their malevolent spells.[171]
Nigeria
In
Nigeria, several Pentecostal pastors have mixed their evangelical brand
of Christianity with African beliefs in witchcraft to benefit from the
lucrative witch finding and exorcism business—which in the past was the
exclusive domain of the so-called witch doctor or traditional healers.
These pastors have been involved in the torturing and even killing of
children accused of witchcraft.[172] Over the past decade,[when?] around
15,000 children have been accused, and around 1,000 murdered. Churches
are very numerous in Nigeria, and competition for congregations is hard.
Some pastors attempt to establish a reputation for spiritual power by
"detecting" child witches, usually following a death or loss of a job
within a family, or an accusation of financial fraud against the pastor.
In the course of "exorcisms", accused children may be starved, beaten,
mutilated, set on fire, forced to consume acid or cement, or buried
alive. While some church leaders and Christian activists have spoken out
strongly against these abuses, many Nigerian churches are involved in
the abuse, although church administrations deny knowledge of it.[173]
In
May 2020, fifteen adults, mostly women, were set ablaze after being
accused of witchcraft, including the mother of the instigator of the
attack, Thomas Obi Tawo, a local politician.[151]
Sierra Leone
Among
the Mende (of Sierra Leone), trial and conviction for witchcraft has a
beneficial effect for those convicted. "The witchfinder had warned the
whole village to ensure the relative prosperity of the accused and
sentenced ... old people. ... Six months later all of the people ...
accused, were secure, well-fed and arguably happier than at any
[previous] time; they had hardly to beckon and people would come with
food or whatever was needful. ... Instead of such old and widowed people
being left helpless or (as in Western society) institutionalized in old
people's homes, these were reintegrated into society and left secure in
their old age ... Old people are 'suitable' candidates for this kind of
accusation in the sense that they are isolated and vulnerable, and they
are 'suitable' candidates for 'social security' for precisely the same
reasons."[174] In Kuranko language, the term for witchcraft is
suwa'ye[175] referring to 'extraordinary powers'.
Tanzania
In
Tanzania in 2008, President Kikwete publicly condemned witchdoctors for
killing albinos for their body parts, which are thought to bring good
luck. 25 albinos have been murdered since March 2007.[176] In Tanzania,
albinos are often murdered for their body parts on the advice of witch
doctors in order to produce powerful amulets that are believed to
protect against witchcraft and make the owner prosper in life.[177]
Zulu
Native
to the Zulu people, witches called sangoma protect people against evil
spirits. They usually train for about five to seven years. In the
cities, this training could take only several months.
Another
type of witch are the inyanga, who are actual witch doctors that heal
people with plant and animal parts. This is a job that is passed on to
future generations. In the Zulu population, 80% of people contact
inyangas.[178]
Americas
British America
Examination of a Witch by T. H. Matteson, inspired by the Salem witch trials
In
1645, Springfield, Massachusetts, experienced America's first
accusations of witchcraft when husband and wife Hugh and Mary Parsons
accused each other of witchcraft. At America's first witch trial, Hugh
was found innocent, while Mary was acquitted of witchcraft but sentenced
to be hanged for the death of her child. She died in prison.[179] From
1645 to 1663, about eighty people throughout England's Massachusetts Bay
Colony were accused of practicing witchcraft. Thirteen women and two
men were executed in a witch-hunt that lasted throughout New England
from 1645 to 1663.[180] The Salem witch trials followed in 1692–93.
These witch trials were the most famous in British North America and
took place in the coastal settlements near Salem, Massachusetts. Prior
to the witch trials, nearly 300 men and women had been suspected of
partaking in witchcraft, and 19 of these people were hanged, and one was
"pressed to death".[181]
Despite being generally known as the
Salem witch trials, the preliminary hearings in 1692 were conducted in a
variety of towns across the province: Salem Village (now Danvers),
Salem Town, Ipswich, and Andover. The best known trials were conducted
by the Court of Oyer and Terminer in 1692 in Salem Town.[182][citation
needed][183] In Maryland, there is a legend of Moll Dyer, who escaped a
fire set by fellow colonists only to die of exposure in December 1697.
The historical record of Dyer is scant as all official records were
burned in a courthouse fire, though the county courthouse has on display
the rock where her frozen body was found. A letter from a colonist of
the period describes her in most unfavourable terms. A local road is
named after Dyer, where her homestead was said to have been. Many local
families have their own version of the Moll Dyer affair, and her name is
spoken with care in the rural southern counties.[184] Accusations of
witchcraft and wizardry led to the prosecution of a man in Tennessee as
recently as 1833.[185][186][187] The Crucible by Arthur Miller is a
dramatized and partially fictionalized story of the Salem witch trials
that took place in the Massachusetts Bay Colony during 1692–93.
Latin America
Main article: Witchcraft in Latin America
When
Franciscan friars from New Spain arrived in the Americas in 1524, they
introduced Diabolism - belief in the Christian concept of The Devil - to
the Indigenous peoples of the Americas.[188] Bartolomé de las Casas
believed that human sacrifice was not diabolic, in fact far off from it,
and was a natural result of religious expression.[188] Mexican Indians
gladly took in the belief of Diabolism and still managed to keep their
belief in creator-destroyer deities.[189]
Witchcraft was an
important part of the social and cultural history of late-Colonial
Mexico, during the Mexican Inquisition. Spanish Inquisitors viewed
witchcraft as a problem that could be cured simply through confession.
Yet, as anthropologist Ruth Behar writes, witchcraft, not only in Mexico
but in Latin America in general, was a "conjecture of sexuality,
witchcraft, and religion, in which Spanish, indigenous, and African
cultures converged."[190] Furthermore, witchcraft in Mexico generally
required an interethnic and interclass network of witches.[191] Yet,
according to anthropology professor Laura Lewis, witchcraft in colonial
Mexico ultimately represented an "affirmation of hegemony" for women,
Indians, and especially Indian women over their white male counterparts
as a result of the casta system.[192]
The presence of the witch
is a constant in the ethnographic history of colonial Brazil, especially
during the several denunciations and confessions given to the
Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith of Bahia (1591–1593),
Pernambuco and Paraíba (1593–1595).[193]
Brujería, often called a
Latin American form of witchcraft, is a syncretic Afro-Caribbean
tradition that combines Indigenous religious and magical practices from
Aruba, Bonaire, and Curaçao in the Dutch Caribbean, Catholicism, and
European witchcraft.[194] The tradition and terminology is considered to
encompass both helpful and harmful practices.[195] A male practitioner
is called a brujo, a female practitioner, a bruja.[195] Healers may be
further distinguished by the terms kurioso or kuradó, a man or woman who
performs trabou chikí ("little works") and trabou grandi ("large
treatments") to promote or restore health, bring fortune or misfortune,
deal with unrequited love, and more serious concerns. Sorcery usually
involves reference to an entitiy referred to as the almasola or homber
chiki.[196]
Navajo
The yee naaldlooshii is the type of witch
known in English as a skin-walker. They are believed to take the forms
of animals in order to travel in secret and do harm to the
innocent.[197] In the Navajo language, yee naaldlooshii translates to
'with it, he goes on all fours'.[197] While perhaps the most common
variety seen in horror fiction by non-Navajo people, the yee
naaldlooshii is one of several varieties of Navajo witch, specifically a
type of 'ánti'įhnii.[197]
Traditional Navajos usually hesitate to discuss things like witches and witchcraft with non-Navajos.[198]
Asia
Main article: Asian witchcraft
India
Belief
in the supernatural is strong in all parts of India, and lynchings for
witchcraft are reported in the press from time to time.[199] Around 750
people were killed as witches in Assam and West Bengal between 2003 and
2008.[200] Officials in the state of Chhattisgarh reported in 2008 that
at least 100 women are maltreated annually as suspected witches.[201] A
local activist stated that only a fraction of cases of abuse are
reported.[202] In Indian mythology, a common perception of a witch is a
being with her feet pointed backwards.
Nepal
Main article: Witch-hunts in Nepal
In
Nepali language, witches are known as Boksi (Nepali: बोक्सी). Apart
from other types of Violence against women in Nepal, the malpractice of
abusing women in the name of witchcraft is also prominent. According to
the statistics in 2013, there was a total of 69 reported cases of abuse
to women due to accusation of performing witchcraft. The perpetrators of
this malpractice are usually neighbors, so-called witch doctors and
family members.[203] The main causes of these malpractices are lack of
education, lack of awareness and superstition. According to the
statistics by INSEC,[204] the age group of women who fall victims to the
witchcraft violence in Nepal is 20–40.[205]
Japan
Okabe – The cat witch, by Utagawa Kuniyoshi
In
Japanese folklore, the most common types of witch can be separated into
two categories: those who employ snakes as familiars, and those who
employ foxes.[206] The fox witch is, by far, the most commonly seen
witch figure in Japan. Differing regional beliefs set those who use
foxes into two separate types: the kitsune-mochi, and the
tsukimono-suji. The first of these, the kitsune-mochi, is a solitary
figure who gains his fox familiar by bribing it with its favourite
foods. The kitsune-mochi then strikes up a deal with the fox, typically
promising food and daily care in return for the fox's magical services.
The fox of Japanese folklore is a powerful trickster in and of itself,
imbued with powers of shape changing, possession, and illusion. These
creatures can be either nefarious; disguising themselves as women in
order to trap men, or they can be benign forces as in the story of "The
Grateful foxes".[207] By far, the most commonly reported cases of fox
witchcraft in modern Japan are enacted by tsukimono-suji families, or
'hereditary witches'.[208]
Philippines
Main article: Philippine witches
In
the Philippines, as in many of these cultures, witches are viewed as
those opposed to the sacred. In contrast, anthropologists writing about
the healers in Indigenous Philippine folk religions either use the
traditional terminology of these cultures, or broad anthropological
terms like shaman.[11]
Philippine witches are the users of black
magic and related practices from the Philippines. They include a variety
of different kinds of people with differing occupations and cultural
connotations which depend on the ethnic group they are associated with.
They are completely different from the Western notion of what a witch
is, as each ethnic group has their own definition and practices
attributed to witches. The curses and other magics of witches are often
blocked, countered, cured, or lifted by Philippine shamans associated
with the Indigenous Philippine folk religions.[12][209]
Saudi Arabia
Main articles: Capital punishment in Saudi Arabia, Freedom of religion in Saudi Arabia, and Human rights in Saudi Arabia
Saudi
Arabia continues to use the death penalty for sorcery and
witchcraft.[210] In 2006 Fawza Falih Muhammad Ali was condemned to death
for practicing witchcraft.[211] There is no legal definition of sorcery
in Saudi, but in 2007 an Egyptian pharmacist working there was accused,
convicted, and executed. Saudi authorities also pronounced the death
penalty on a Lebanese television presenter, Ali Hussain Sibat, while he
was performing the hajj (Islamic pilgrimage) in the country.[212]
In
2009, the Saudi authorities set up the Anti-Witchcraft Unit of their
Committee for the Promotion of Virtue and the Prevention of Vice
police.[213] In April 2009, a Saudi woman Amina Bint Abdulhalim Nassar
was arrested and later sentenced to death for practicing witchcraft and
sorcery. In December 2011, she was beheaded.[214] A Saudi man has been
beheaded on charges of sorcery and witchcraft in June 2012.[215] A
beheading for sorcery occurred in 2014.[74]
Islamic State
See also: Human rights in ISIL-controlled territory
In
June 2015, Yahoo reported: "The Islamic State group has beheaded two
women in Syria on accusations of 'sorcery', the first such executions of
female civilians in Syria, the Syrian Observatory for Human Rights said
Tuesday."[216]
Europe
Main articles: European witchcraft and Witch trials in Early Modern Europe
Witchcraft
in Europe between 500 and 1750 was believed to be a combination of
sorcery and heresy. While sorcery attempts to produce negative
supernatural effects through formulas and rituals, heresy is the
Christian contribution to witchcraft in which an individual makes a pact
with the Devil. In addition, heresy denies witches the recognition of
important Christian values such as baptism, salvation, Christ and
sacraments.[217] The beginning of the witch accusations in Europe took
place in the 14th and 15th centuries; however as the social disruptions
of the 16th century took place, witchcraft trials intensified.[218]
A
1555 German print showing the burning of witches. Current scholarly
estimates of the number of people executed for witchcraft in Europe vary
between 40,000 and 100,000.[219] The number of witch trials in Europe
known to have ended in executions is around 12,000.[220]
In Early
Modern European tradition, witches were stereotypically, though not
exclusively, women.[56][221] European pagan belief in witchcraft was
associated with the goddess Diana and dismissed as "diabolical
fantasies" by medieval Christian authors.[222] Witch-hunts first
appeared in large numbers in southern France and Switzerland during the
14th and 15th centuries. The peak years of witch-hunts in southwest
Germany were from 1561 to 1670.[223]
It was commonly believed
that individuals with power and prestige were involved in acts of
witchcraft and even cannibalism.[224] Because Europe had a lot of power
over individuals living in West Africa, Europeans in positions of power
were often accused of taking part in these practices. Though it is not
likely that these individuals were actually involved in these practices,
they were most likely associated due to Europe's involvement in things
like the slave trade, which negatively affected the lives of many
individuals in the Atlantic World throughout the fifteenth through
seventeenth centuries.[224]
Early converts to Christianity looked
to Christian clergy to work magic more effectively than the old methods
under Roman paganism, and Christianity provided a methodology involving
saints and relics, similar to the gods and amulets of the Pagan world.
As Christianity became the dominant religion in Europe, its concern with
magic lessened.[225]
The Protestant Christian explanation for
witchcraft, such as those typified in the confessions of the Pendle
witches, commonly involves a diabolical pact or at least an appeal to
the intervention of the spirits of evil. The witches or wizards engaged
in such practices were alleged to reject Jesus and the sacraments;
observe "the witches' sabbath" (performing infernal rites that often
parodied the Mass or other sacraments of the Church); pay Divine honour
to the Prince of Darkness; and, in return, receive from him
preternatural powers. It was a folkloric belief that a Devil's Mark,
like the brand on cattle, was placed upon a witch's skin by the devil to
signify that this pact had been made.[226]
Britain
Further information: Witch trials in early modern Scotland
In the north of England, the superstition lingers to an almost
inconceivable extent. Lancashire abounds with witch-doctors, a set of
quacks, who pretend to cure diseases inflicted by the devil ... The
witch-doctor alluded to is better known by the name of the cunning man,
and has a large practice in the counties of Lincoln and Nottingham.[227]
Historians
Keith Thomas and his student Alan Macfarlane study witchcraft by
combining historical research with concepts drawn from
anthropology.[228][229][230] They argued that English witchcraft, like
African witchcraft, was endemic rather than epidemic. Old women were the
favorite targets because they were marginal, dependent members of the
community and therefore more likely to arouse feelings of both hostility
and guilt, and less likely to have defenders of importance inside the
community. Witchcraft accusations were the village's reaction to the
breakdown of its internal community, coupled with the emergence of a
newer set of values that was generating psychic stress.[231]
Illustration of witches, perhaps being tortured before James VI, from his Daemonologie (1597)
In
Wales, fear of witchcraft mounted around the year 1500. There was a
growing alarm of women's magic as a weapon aimed against the state and
church. The Church made greater efforts to enforce the canon law of
marriage, especially in Wales where tradition allowed a wider range of
sexual partnerships. There was a political dimension as well, as
accusations of witchcraft were levied against the enemies of Henry VII,
who was exerting more and more control over Wales.[232] In 1542, the
first of many Witchcraft Acts was passed defining witchcraft as a crime
punishable by death and the forfeiture of property.[233]
The
records of the Courts of Great Sessions for Wales, 1536–1736 show that
Welsh custom was more important than English law. Custom provided a
framework of responding to witches and witchcraft in such a way that
interpersonal and communal harmony was maintained. Even when found
guilty, execution did not occur.[234]
Becoming king in 1567,
James VI and I brought to England and Scotland continental explanations
of witchcraft. His goal was to divert suspicion away from male
homosociality among the elite, and focus fear on female communities and
large gatherings of women. He thought they threatened his political
power so he laid the foundation for witchcraft and occultism policies,
especially in Scotland. The point was that a widespread belief in the
conspiracy of witches and a witches' Sabbath with the devil deprived
women of political influence. Occult power was supposedly a womanly
trait because women were weaker and more susceptible to the devil.[235]
The
last person executed for witchcraft in Great Britain was Janet Horne in
1727.[236] The Witchcraft Act 1735 abolished the penalty of execution
for witchcraft, replacing it with imprisonment. This act was repealed in
1951.
In the United Kingdom children believed to be witches or
seen as possessed by evil spirits can be subject to severe beatings,
traumatic exorcism, and/or other abuse. There have even been child
murders associated with witchcraft beliefs. The problem is particularly
serious among immigrant or former immigrant communities of African
origin but other communities, such as those of Asian origin are also
involved. Step children and children seen as different for a wide range
of reasons are particularly at risk of witchcraft accusations.[237]
Children may be beaten or have chilli rubbed into their eyes during
exorcisms.[238] This type of abuse is frequently hidden and can include
torture.[239] A 2006 recommendation to record abuse cases linked to
witchcraft accusations centrally has not yet been implemented. Lack of
awareness among social workers, teachers and other professionals dealing
with at risk children hinders efforts to combat the problem.[240]
The Metropolitan Police said there had been 60 crimes linked to faith
in London so far [in 2015]. It saw reports double from 23 in 2013 to 46
in 2014. Half of UK police forces do not record such cases and many
local authorities are also unable to provide figures. The NSPCC said
authorities "need to ensure they are able to spot the signs of this
particular brand of abuse". London is unique in having a police team,
Project Violet, dedicated to this type of abuse. Its figures relate to
crime reports where officers have flagged a case as involving abuse
linked to faith or belief. Many of the cases involve children. (...) An
NSPCC spokesman said: "While the number of child abuse cases involving
witchcraft is relatively small, they often include horrifying levels of
cruelty. "The authorities which deal with these dreadful crimes need to
ensure they are able to spot the signs of this particular brand of abuse
and take action to protect children before a tragedy occurs."[240]
There
is a 'money making scam' involved. Pastors accuse a child of being a
witch and later the family pays for exorcism. If a child at school says
that his/her pastor called the child a witch that should become a child
safeguarding issue.[240]
Italy
Main articles: Witchcraft in Italy and Witch trials in Italy
A
particularly rich source of information about witchcraft in Italy
before the outbreak of the Great Witch Hunts of the Renaissance are the
sermons of Franciscan popular preacher, Bernardino of Siena (1380–1444),
who saw the issue as one of the most pressing moral and social
challenges of his day and thus preached many a sermon on the subject,
inspiring many local governments to take actions against what he called
"servants of the Devil."[241] As in most European countries, women in
Italy were more likely suspected of witchcraft than men.[242] Women were
considered dangerous due to their supposed sexual instability, such as
when being aroused, and also due to the powers of their menstrual
blood.[243]
In the 16th century, Italy had a high portion of
witchcraft trials involving love magic.[244] The country had a large
number of unmarried people due to men marrying later in their lives
during this time.[244] This left many women on a desperate quest for
marriage leaving them vulnerable to the accusation of witchcraft whether
they took part in it or not.[244] Trial records from the Inquisition
and secular courts discovered a link between prostitutes and
supernatural practices. Professional prostitutes were considered experts
in love and therefore knew how to make love potions and cast love
related spells.[243] Up until 1630, the majority of women accused of
witchcraft were prostitutes.[242] A courtesan was questioned about her
use of magic due to her relationship with men of power in Italy and her
wealth.[245] The majority of women accused were also considered
"outsiders" because they were poor, had different religious practices,
spoke a different language, or simply from a different
city/town/region.[246] Cassandra from Ferrara, Italy, was still
considered a foreigner because not native to Rome where she was
residing. She was also not seen as a model citizen because her husband
was in Venice.[247]
From the 16th-18th centuries, the Catholic
Church enforced moral discipline throughout Italy.[248] With the help of
local tribunals, such as in Venice, the two institutions investigated a
woman's religious behaviors when she was accused of witchcraft.[242]
Spain
Main articles: Witch trials in Spain and Akelarre
Galicia
in Spain is nicknamed the "Land of the Witches" due to its mythological
origins surrounding its people, culture and its land.[249] The Basque
Country also suffered persecutions against witches, such as the case of
the Witches of Zugarramurdi, six of which were burned in Logroño in 1610
or the witch hunt in the French Basque country in the previous year
with the burning of eighty supposed witches at the stake. This is
reflected in the studies of José Miguel de Barandiarán and Julio Caro
Baroja. Euskal Herria retains numerous legends that account for an
ancient mythology of witchcraft. The town of Zalla is nicknamed "Town of
the Witches".[250]
Oceania
Cook Islands
In pre-Christian
times, witchcraft was a common practice in the Cook Islands. The native
name for a sorcerer was tangata purepure (a man who prays).[251] The
prayers offered by the ta'unga (priests)[252] to the gods worshiped on
national or tribal marae (temples) were termed karakia;[253] those on
minor occasions to the lesser gods were named pure. All these prayers
were metrical, and were handed down from generation to generation with
the utmost care. There were prayers for every such phase in life; for
success in battle; for a change in wind (to overwhelm an adversary at
sea, or that an intended voyage be propitious); that his crops may grow;
to curse a thief; or wish ill-luck and death to his foes. Few men of
middle age were without a number of these prayers or charms. The
succession of a sorcerer was from father to son, or from uncle to
nephew. So too of sorceresses: it would be from mother to daughter, or
from aunt to niece. Sorcerers and sorceresses were often slain by
relatives of their supposed victims.[254]
A singular enchantment
was employed to kill off a husband of a pretty woman desired by someone
else. The expanded flower of a Gardenia was stuck upright—a very
difficult performance—in a cup (i.e., half a large coconut shell) of
water. A prayer was then offered for the husband's speedy death, the
sorcerer earnestly watching the flower. Should it fall the incantation
was successful. But if the flower still remained upright, he will live.
The sorcerer would in that case try his skill another day, with perhaps
better success.[255]
According to Beatrice Grimshaw, a journalist
who visited the Cook Islands in 1907, the uncrowned Queen Makea was
believed to have possessed the mystic power called mana, giving the
possessor the power to slay at will. It also included other gifts, such
as second sight to a certain extent, the power to bring good or evil
luck, and the ability already mentioned to deal death at will.[256]
Papua New Guinea
A
local newspaper informed that more than 50 people were killed in two
Highlands provinces of Papua New Guinea in 2008 for allegedly practicing
witchcraft.[257] An estimated 50–150 alleged witches are killed each
year in Papua New Guinea.[258]
Slavic Russia
Among the Russian words for witch, ведьма (ved'ma) literally means 'one who knows', from Old Slavic вѣдъ 'to know'.[259]
Spells
Pagan
practices formed a part of Russian and Eastern Slavic culture; the
Russian people were deeply superstitious. The witchcraft practiced
consisted mostly of earth magic and herbology; it was not so significant
which herbs were used in practices, but how these herbs were gathered.
Ritual centered on harvest of the crops and the location of the sun was
very important.[260] One source, pagan author Judika Illes, tells that
herbs picked on Midsummer's Eve were believed to be most powerful,
especially if gathered on Bald Mountain near Kiev during the witches'
annual revels celebration.[261] Botanicals should be gathered, "During
the seventeenth minute of the fourteenth hour, under a dark moon, in the
thirteenth field, wearing a red dress, pick the twelfth flower on the
right."[262]
Spells also served for midwifery, shape-shifting,
keeping lovers faithful, and bridal customs. Spells dealing with
midwifery and childbirth focused on the spiritual wellbeing of the
baby.[262] Shape-shifting spells involved invocation of the wolf as a
spirit animal.[263] To keep men faithful, lovers would cut a ribbon the
length of his erect penis and soak it in his seminal emissions after sex
while he was sleeping, then tie seven knots in it; keeping this
talisman of knot magic ensured loyalty.[264] Part of an ancient pagan
marriage tradition involved the bride taking a ritual bath at a
bathhouse before the ceremony. Her sweat would be wiped from her body
using raw fish, and the fish would be cooked and fed to the groom.[265]
Demonism,
or black magic, was not prevalent. Persecution for witchcraft, mostly
involved the practice of simple earth magic, founded on herbology, by
solitary practitioners with a Christian influence. In one case
investigators found a locked box containing something bundled in a
kerchief and three paper packets, wrapped and tied, containing crushed
grasses.[266] Most rituals of witchcraft were very simple—one spell of
divination consists of sitting alone outside meditating, asking the
earth to show one's fate.[267]
While these customs were unique to
Russian culture, they were not exclusive to this region. Russian pagan
practices were often akin to paganism in other parts of the world. The
Chinese concept of chi, a form of energy that often manipulated in
witchcraft, is known as bioplasma in Russian practices.[268] The western
concept of an "evil eye" or a "hex" was translated to Russia as a
"spoiler".[269] A spoiler was rooted in envy, jealousy and malice.
Spoilers could be made by gathering bone from a cemetery, a knot of the
target's hair, burned wooden splinters and several herb Paris berries
(which are very poisonous). Placing these items in sachet in the
victim's pillow completes a spoiler. The Sumerians, Babylonians,
Assyrians, and the ancient Egyptians recognized the evil eye from as
early as 3,000 BCE; in Russian practices it is seen as a
sixteenth-century concept.[270]
Societal view of witchcraft
The
dominant societal concern about those practicing witchcraft was not
whether it was effective, but whether it could cause harm.[266] Peasants
in Russian and Ukrainian societies often shunned witchcraft, unless
they needed help against supernatural forces. Impotence, stomach pains,
barrenness, hernias, abscesses, epileptic seizures, and convulsions were
all attributed to evil (or witchcraft). This is reflected in
linguistics; there are numerous words for a variety of practitioners of
paganism-based healers. Russian peasants referred to a witch as a
chernoknizhnik (a person who plied his trade with the aid of a black
book), sheptun/sheptun'ia (a 'whisperer' male or female), lekar/lekarka
or znakhar/znakharka (a male or female healer), or zagovornik (an
incanter).[271]
Ironically enough, there was universal reliance
on folk healers – but clients often turned them in if something went
wrong. According to Russian historian Valerie A. Kivelson, witchcraft
accusations were normally thrown at lower-class peasants, townspeople
and Cossacks. People turned to witchcraft as a means to support
themselves. The ratio of male to female accusations was 75% to 25%.
Males were targeted more, because witchcraft was associated with
societal deviation. Because single people with no settled home could not
be taxed, males typically had more power than women in their
dissent.[266]
The history of Witchcraft had evolved around
society. More of a psychological concept to the creation and usage of
Witchcraft can create the assumption as to why women are more likely to
follow the practices behind Witchcraft. Identifying with the soul of an
individual's self is often deemed as "feminine" in society. There is
analyzed social and economic evidence to associate between witchcraft
and women.[272]
Russian witch trials
Main article: Witch trials in Russia
Witchcraft
trials frequently occurred in seventeenth-century Russia, although the
"great witch-hunt" is believed[by whom?] to be a predominantly Western
European phenomenon. However, as the witchcraft-trial craze swept across
Catholic and Protestant countries during this time, Orthodox Christian
Europe indeed partook in this so-called "witch hysteria." This involved
the persecution of both males and females who were believed to be
practicing paganism, herbology, the black art, or a form of sorcery
within and/or outside their community. Very early on witchcraft legally
fell under the jurisdiction of the ecclesiastical body, the church, in
Kievan Rus' and Muscovite Russia.[273] Sources of ecclesiastical
witchcraft jurisdiction date back as early as the second half of the
eleventh century, one being Vladimir the Great's first edition of his
State Statute or Ustav, another being multiple references in the Primary
Chronicle beginning in 1024.[273]
Goya's drawing of result of a presumed witch's trial: " [so she must be a witch]"[274]
The
sentence for an individual who was found guilty of witchcraft or
sorcery during this time, as well as in previous centuries, typically
included either burning at the stake or being tested with the "ordeal of
cold water" or judicium aquae frigidae.[273] The cold-water test was
primarily a Western European phenomenon, but it was also used as a
method of truth in Russia both prior to, and post, seventeenth-century
witchcraft trials in Muscovy. Accused persons who submerged were
considered innocent, and ecclesiastical authorities would proclaim them
"brought back", but those who floated were considered guilty of
practicing witchcraft, and they were either burned at the stake or
executed in an unholy fashion. The thirteenth-century bishop of
Vladimir, Serapion Vladimirskii, preached sermons throughout the
Muscovite countryside, and in one particular sermon revealed that
burning was the usual punishment for witchcraft, but more often the cold
water test was used as a precursor to execution.[273][275]
Although
these two methods of torture were used in the west and the east, Russia
implemented a system of fines payable for the crime of witchcraft
during the seventeenth century. Thus, even though torture methods in
Muscovy were on a similar level of harshness as Western European methods
used, a more civil method was present. In the introduction of a
collection of trial records pieced together by Russian scholar Nikolai
Novombergsk, he argues that Muscovite authorities used the same degree
of cruelty and harshness as Western European Catholic and Protestant
countries in persecuting witches.[273] By the mid-sixteenth century the
manifestations of paganism, including witchcraft, and the black
arts—astrology, fortune telling, and divination—became a serious concern
to the Muscovite church and state.[273]
Tsar Ivan IV (reigned
1547–1584) took this matter to the ecclesiastical court and was
immediately advised that individuals practicing these forms of
witchcraft should be excommunicated and given the death penalty.[273]
Ivan IV, as a true believer in witchcraft, was deeply convinced[citation
needed] that sorcery accounted for the death of his wife, Anastasiia in
1560, which completely devastated and depressed him, leaving him
heartbroken.[273] Stemming from this belief, Ivan IV became majorly
concerned with the threat of witchcraft harming his family, and feared
he was in danger. So, during the Oprichnina (1565–1572), Ivan IV
succeeded in accusing and charging a good number of boyars with
witchcraft whom he did not wish to remain as nobles. Rulers after Ivan
IV, specifically during the Time of Troubles (1598–1613), increased the
fear of witchcraft among themselves and entire royal families, which
then led to further preoccupation with the fear of prominent Muscovite
witchcraft circles.[273]
After the Time of Troubles,
seventeenth-century Muscovite rulers held frequent investigations of
witchcraft within their households, laying the groundwork, along with
previous tsarist reforms, for widespread witchcraft trials throughout
the Muscovite state.[273] Between 1622 and 1700 ninety-one people were
brought to trial in Muscovite courts for witchcraft.[273] Although
Russia did partake in the witch craze that swept across Western Europe,
the Muscovite state did not persecute nearly as many people for
witchcraft, let alone execute a number of individuals anywhere close to
the number executed in the west during the witch hysteria.
Witches in art
Albrecht Dürer circa 1500: Witch riding backwards on a goat
Louhi,
a powerful and wicked witch queen of the land known as Pohjola in the
Finnish epic poetry Kalevala, attacking Väinämöinen in the form of a
giant eagle with her troops on her back. (The Defense of the Sampo,
Akseli Gallen-Kallela, 1896)
Witches have a long history of being
depicted in art, although most of their earliest artistic depictions
seem to originate in Early Modern Europe, particularly the Medieval and
Renaissance periods. Many scholars attribute their manifestation in art
as inspired by texts such as Canon Episcopi, a demonology-centered work
of literature, and Malleus Maleficarum, a "witch-craze" manual published
in 1487, by Heinrich Kramer and Jacob Sprenger.[276]
Canon
Episcopi, a ninth-century text that explored the subject of demonology,
initially introduced concepts that would continuously be associated with
witches, such as their ability to fly or their believed fornication and
sexual relations with the devil. The text refers to two women, Diana
the Huntress and Herodias, who both express the duality of female
sorcerers. Diana was described as having a heavenly body and as the
"protectress of childbirth and fertility" while Herodias symbolized
"unbridled sensuality". They thus represent the mental powers and
cunning sexuality that witches used as weapons to trick men into
performing sinful acts which would result in their eternal punishment.
These characteristics were distinguished as Medusa-like or Lamia-like
traits when seen in any artwork (Medusa's mental trickery was associated
with Diana the Huntress's psychic powers and Lamia was a rumored female
figure in the Medieval ages sometimes used in place of Herodias).[277]
One
of the first individuals to regularly depict witches after the
witch-craze of the medieval period was Albrecht Dürer, a German
Renaissance artist. His famous 1497 engraving The Four Witches, portrays
four physically attractive and seductive nude witches. Their
supernatural identities are emphasized by the skulls and bones lying at
their feet as well as the devil discreetly peering at them from their
left. The women's sensuous presentation speaks to the overtly sexual
nature they were attached to in early modern Europe. Moreover, this
attractiveness was perceived as a danger to ordinary men who they could
seduce and tempt into their sinful world.[243] Some scholars interpret
this piece as utilizing the logic of the Canon Episcopi, in which women
used their mental powers and bodily seduction to enslave and lead men
onto a path of eternal damnation, differing from the unattractive
depiction of witches that would follow in later Renaissance years.[278]
Subsequent artwork exhibiting witches tended to
consistently rely on cultural stereotypes about these women. These
stereotypes were usually rooted in early Renaissance religious
discourse, specifically the Christian belief that an "earthly alliance"
had taken place between Satan's female minions who "conspired to destroy
Christendom".[279]
Another significant artist whose art
consistently depicted witches was Dürer's apprentice, Hans Baldung
Grien, a 15th-century German artist. His chiaroscuro woodcut, Witches,
created in 1510, visually encompassed all the characteristics that were
regularly assigned to witches during the Renaissance. Social beliefs
labeled witches as supernatural beings capable of doing great harm,
possessing the ability to fly, and as cannibalistic.[279] The urn in
Witches seems to contain pieces of the human body, which the witches are
seen consuming as a source of energy. Meanwhile, their nudity while
feasting is recognized as an allusion to their sexual appetite, and some
scholars read the witch riding on the back of a goat-demon as
representative of their "flight-inducing [powers]". This connection
between women's sexual nature and sins was thematic in the pieces of
many Renaissance artists, especially Christian artists, due to cultural
beliefs which characterized women as overtly sexual beings who were less
capable (in comparison to men) of resisting sinful temptation.[243]
Witches in fiction
Witches
in fiction span a wide array of characterizations. They are typically,
but not always, female, and generally depicted as either villains or
heroines.[280]
The classic fairy tale "Hansel and Gretel"
presents an example of the "witch villain" figure. The story involves a
cannibalistic witch that eventually becomes outwitted by the children
she tries to eat and is burned to death in her own oven. "Snow White"
depicts a murderous, tempting magician for its main antagonist. The
witch is labeled an evil queen and meets her demise after being forced
to dance in red-hot iron shoes. "The Six Swans" includes a step-mother
who magically turns her step-children into swans out of spite and
jealousy. In retaliation, the figure labeled as witch is eventually
burned at the stake. Such examples within the Brothers Grimm's works
demonstrate not only evidence of the figure of "witch villain" but also
exhibits their punishment by injury or violent death.[280]
Living
Alone, published in 1919, uses the "witch heroine" as an agent in
support of female liberation. Stella Benson's novel surrounds the
musings of a female witch who functions as an anarchic force in the
lives of middle-class Londoners. Her non-harmful magic aims to "shake
the most downtrodden women out of complacency and normality" to meet a
state of liberation.[280] The importance of such a heroine sheds light
on the positive effects associated with magic and witchcraft, a change
from the often brutalized and tortured illustrations found in early
nineteenth century literature. Other examples of heroic witches in
fictional literature include Glinda from The Wonderful Wizard of Oz
(1900), Serafina Pekkala from His Dark Materials (1995–2000), and
Hermione Granger from the Harry Potter series." (wikipedia.org)
"A
witch hat is a style of hat worn by witches in popular culture
depictions, characterized by a conical crown and a wide brim....
Origins and design
Woodcut showing a witch on a broomstick with a conical hat, from The History of Witches and Wizards (1720)
The origins of the witch hat as displayed today are disputed.
One
theory is that the image arose out of anti-Semitism: in 1215, the
Fourth Council of the Lateran issued an edict that all Jews must wear
identifying headgear, a pointed cap known as a Judenhat. Potentially,
this style of hat then became associated with black magic, Satan-worship
and other acts of which the Jews were accused.[1]
Another theory
posits that the witch hat has origins in the phrygian cap which is
associated with Mithraism, a Greek and then Roman mystery cult.[citation
needed]
An earlier theory is the mummified remains of the
"witches" of Subeshi, who wore very tall, pointed black hats that
resembled the iconic headgear of their sisters in medieval Europe.
Subeshi, dated to between the 4th and 2nd centuries BCE, is located in a
high gorge just to the east of the important city of Turfan.[citation
needed]
A similar theory posits that the image of the archetypal
witch hat was born from anti-Quaker prejudice. Although the hats
traditionally worn by Quakers themselves were not pointed, Quaker caps
were a focus of cultural controversy, and it is conceivable that the
Puritan backlash against Quakers in the mid-18th century contributed to
hats becoming part of the iconography of the demonic.[1]
Yet
another hypothesis proposes that witch hats originated as alewife hats,
distinctive headgear worn by women who home-brewed beer for sale.
According to this suggestion, these hats gained negative connotations
when the brewing industry, dominated by men, accused alewives of selling
diluted or tainted beer. In combination with the general suspicion that
women with knowledge of herbology were working in an occult domain, the
alewife hat could have become associated with witchcraft.[2]
L.
Frank Baum's 1900 novel The Wonderful Wizard of Oz featured
illustrations that portrayed the Wicked Witch of the West sporting a
tall, conical hat.[3] This fashion accessory was carried over for the
1939 film adaptation, in which the Wicked Witch was played by character
actress Margaret Hamilton.
In media
Witch hats have been worn by a number of fictional characters, including:
Granny Weatherwax, from the Discworld series by Terry Pratchett
The Wicked Witch of the West, from The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, 1900
Gandalf, from The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings, 1937
Jennifer (Veronica Lake), from I Married a Witch, 1942
Samantha Stephens, from Bewitched, 1964
Orko, from He-Man and the Masters of the Universe, 1983
Minerva McGonagall, from Harry Potter (the story includes a character
that is itself such a hat), 1997. The novels also describe "pointed
hats" as part of the student uniform for a school of witchcraft and
wizardry, though these rarely appear in the film adaptations.
Depending
upon the material in which the hat is made, the crown may regularly be
observed in a flexed, bent or crumpled condition." (wikipedia.org)
"Kawaii
(Japanese: かわいい or 可愛い, IPA: [kaɰaiꜜi]; 'lovely', 'loveable', 'cute',
or 'adorable')[1] is the culture of cuteness in Japan.[2][3][4] It can
refer to items, humans and non-humans that are charming, vulnerable, shy
and childlike.[2] Examples include cute handwriting, certain genres of
manga, and characters including Hello Kitty and Pikachu.[5][6]
The
word kawaii originally derives from the phrase 顔映し kao hayushi, which
literally means "(one's) face (is) aglow," commonly used to refer to
flushing or blushing of the face. The second morpheme is cognate with
-bayu in mabayui (眩い, 目映い, or 目映ゆい) "dazzling, glaring, blinding, too
bright; dazzlingly beautiful" (ma- is from 目 me "eye") and -hayu in
omohayui (面映い or 面映ゆい) "embarrassed/embarrassing, awkward, feeling
self-conscious/making one feel self-conscious" (omo- is from 面 omo, an
archaic word for "face, looks, features; surface; image, semblance,
vestige"). Over time, the meaning changed into the modern meaning of
"cute" or "shine" , and the pronunciation changed to かわゆい kawayui and
then to the modern かわいい kawaii.[8][9][10] It is commonly written in
hiragana, かわいい, but the ateji, 可愛い, has also been used. The kanji in the
ateji literally translates to "able to love/be loved, can/may love,
lovable."
History
Original definition
Kogal girl, identified by her shortened skirt. The soft bag and teddy bear that she carries are part of kawaii.
The
original definition of kawaii came from Lady Murasaki's 11th century
novel The Tale of Genji, where it referred to pitiable qualities.[11]
During the Shogunate period[when?] under the ideology of
neo-Confucianism, women came to be included under the term kawaii as the
perception of women being animalistic was replaced with the conception
of women as docile.[11] However, the earlier meaning survives into the
modern Standard Japanese adjectival noun かわいそう kawaisō (often written
with ateji as 可哀相 or 可哀想) "piteous, pitiable, arousing compassion, poor,
sad, sorry" (etymologically from 顔映様 "face / projecting, reflecting, or
transmitting light, flushing, blushing / seeming, appearance"). Forms
of kawaii and its derivatives kawaisō and kawairashii (with the suffix
-rashii "-like, -ly") are used in modern dialects to mean
"embarrassing/embarrassed, shameful/ashamed" or "good, nice, fine,
excellent, superb, splendid, admirable" in addition to the standard
meanings of "adorable" and "pitiable."
Cute handwriting
The concept of kawaii has had an
influence on a variety of products, including candy, such as Hi-Chew,
Koala's March and Hello Panda. Cuteness can be added to products by
adding cute features, such as hearts, flowers, stars and rainbows. Cute
elements can be found almost everywhere in Japan, from big business to
corner markets and national government, ward, and town offices.[22][31]
Many companies, large and small, use cute mascots to present their wares
and services to the public. For example:
All Nippon Airways Boeing 747 with a Pokémon livery
JNR Class C11 locomotive repainted as Thomas the Tank Engine, Japan, 2014" (wikipedia.org)
"Death
is the permanent, irreversible cessation of all biological functions
that sustain a living organism.[1] Brain death is sometimes used as a
legal definition of death.[2] The remains of a previously living
organism normally begin to decompose shortly after death. Death is an
inevitable, universal process that eventually occurs in all living
organisms.
Death is generally applied to whole organisms; the
similar process seen in individual components of a living organism, such
as cells or tissues, is necrosis. Something that is not considered a
living organism, such as a virus, can be physically destroyed but is not
said to die.
As of the early 21st century, over 150,000 humans die each day.[3]
Many
cultures and religions have the idea of an afterlife, and also may hold
the idea of judgement of good and bad deeds in one's life (Heaven,
Hell, Karma)....
Diagnosis
Problems of definition
Main article: Medical definition of death
Symbols of death in a painting: it shows a flower, a skull and an hourglass
A flower, a skull and an hourglass stand for life, death and time in this 17th-century painting by Philippe de Champaigne
The
concept of death is a key to human understanding of the phenomenon.[4]
There are many scientific approaches and various interpretations of the
concept. Additionally, the advent of life-sustaining therapy and the
numerous criteria for defining death from both a medical and legal
standpoint, have made it difficult to create a single unifying
definition.
One of the challenges in defining death is in
distinguishing it from life. As a point in time, death would seem to
refer to the moment at which life ends. Determining when death has
occurred is difficult, as cessation of life functions is often not
simultaneous across organ systems.[5] Such determination, therefore,
requires drawing precise conceptual boundaries between life and death.
This is difficult, due to there being little consensus on how to define
life.
It is possible to define life in terms of consciousness.
When consciousness ceases, a living organism can be said to have died.
One of the flaws in this approach is that there are many organisms that
are alive but probably not conscious (for example, single-celled
organisms). Another problem is in defining consciousness, which has many
different definitions given by modern scientists, psychologists and
philosophers. Additionally, many religious traditions, including
Abrahamic and Dharmic traditions, hold that death does not (or may not)
entail the end of consciousness. In certain cultures, death is more of a
process than a single event. It implies a slow shift from one spiritual
state to another.[6]
Other definitions for death focus on the
character of cessation of something.[7][clarification needed] More
specifically, death occurs when a living entity experiences irreversible
cessation of all functioning.[8] As it pertains to human life, death is
an irreversible process where someone loses their existence as a
person.[8]
Historically, attempts to define the exact moment of a
human's death have been subjective, or imprecise. Death was once
defined as the cessation of heartbeat (cardiac arrest) and of breathing,
but the development of CPR and prompt defibrillation have rendered that
definition inadequate because breathing and heartbeat can sometimes be
restarted. This type of death where circulatory and respiratory arrest
happens is known as the circulatory definition of death (DCDD).
Proponents of the DCDD believe that this definition is reasonable
because a person with permanent loss of circulatory and respiratory
function should be considered dead.[9] Critics of this definition state
that while cessation of these functions may be permanent, it does not
mean the situation is irreversible, because if CPR was applied, the
person could be revived.[9] Thus, the arguments for and against the DCDD
boil down to a matter of defining the actual words "permanent" and
"irreversible," which further complicates the challenge of defining
death. Furthermore, events which were causally linked to death in the
past no longer kill in all circumstances; without a functioning heart or
lungs, life can sometimes be sustained with a combination of life
support devices, organ transplants and artificial pacemakers.
Today,
where a definition of the moment of death is required, doctors and
coroners usually turn to "brain death" or "biological death" to define a
person as being dead; people are considered dead when the electrical
activity in their brain ceases. It is presumed that an end of electrical
activity indicates the end of consciousness. Suspension of
consciousness must be permanent, and not transient, as occurs during
certain sleep stages, and especially a coma. In the case of sleep, EEGs
can easily tell the difference.
The category of "brain death" is
seen as problematic by some scholars. For instance, Dr. Franklin Miller,
senior faculty member at the Department of Bioethics, National
Institutes of Health, notes: "By the late 1990s... the equation of brain
death with death of the human being was increasingly challenged by
scholars, based on evidence regarding the array of biological
functioning displayed by patients correctly diagnosed as having this
condition who were maintained on mechanical ventilation for substantial
periods of time. These patients maintained the ability to sustain
circulation and respiration, control temperature, excrete wastes, heal
wounds, fight infections and, most dramatically, to gestate fetuses (in
the case of pregnant "brain-dead" women)."[10]
While "brain
death" is viewed as problematic by some scholars, there are certainly
proponents of it that believe this definition of death is the most
reasonable for distinguishing life from death. The reasoning behind the
support for this definition is that brain death has a set of criteria
that is reliable and reproducible.[11] Also, the brain is crucial in
determining our identity or who we are as human beings. The distinction
should be made that "brain death" cannot be equated with one who is in a
vegetative state or coma, in that the former situation describes a
state that is beyond recovery.[11]
Those people maintaining that
only the neo-cortex of the brain is necessary for consciousness
sometimes argue that only electrical activity should be considered when
defining death. Eventually it is possible that the criterion for death
will be the permanent and irreversible loss of cognitive function, as
evidenced by the death of the cerebral cortex. All hope of recovering
human thought and personality is then gone given current and foreseeable
medical technology. At present, in most places the more conservative
definition of death – irreversible cessation of electrical activity in
the whole brain, as opposed to just in the neo-cortex – has been adopted
(for example the Uniform Determination Of Death Act in the United
States). In 2005, the Terri Schiavo case brought the question of brain
death and artificial sustenance to the front of American politics.
Even
by whole-brain criteria, the determination of brain death can be
complicated. EEGs can detect spurious electrical impulses, while certain
drugs, hypoglycemia, hypoxia, or hypothermia can suppress or even stop
brain activity on a temporary basis. Because of this, hospitals have
protocols for determining brain death involving EEGs at widely separated
intervals under defined conditions.
In the past, adoption of
this whole-brain definition was a conclusion of the President's
Commission for the Study of Ethical Problems in Medicine and Biomedical
and Behavioral Research in 1980.[12] They concluded that this approach
to defining death sufficed in reaching a uniform definition nationwide. A
multitude of reasons were presented to support this definition
including: uniformity of standards in law for establishing death;
consumption of a family's fiscal resources for artificial life support;
and legal establishment for equating brain death with death in order to
proceed with organ donation.[13]
Aside from the issue of support
of or dispute against brain death, there is another inherent problem in
this categorical definition: the variability of its application in
medical practice. In 1995, the American Academy of Neurology (AAN),
established a set of criteria that became the medical standard for
diagnosing neurologic death. At that time, three clinical features had
to be satisfied in order to determine "irreversible cessation" of the
total brain including: coma with clear etiology, cessation of breathing,
and lack of brainstem reflexes.[14] This set of criteria was then
updated again most recently in 2010, but substantial discrepancies still
remain across hospitals and medical specialties.[14]
The problem
of defining death is especially imperative as it pertains to the dead
donor rule, which could be understood as one of the following
interpretations of the rule: there must be an official declaration of
death in a person before starting organ procurement or that organ
procurement cannot result in death of the donor.[9] A great deal of
controversy has surrounded the definition of death and the dead donor
rule. Advocates of the rule believe the rule is legitimate in protecting
organ donors while also countering against any moral or legal objection
to organ procurement. Critics, on the other hand, believe that the rule
does not uphold the best interests of the donors and that the rule does
not effectively promote organ donation.[9]
Signs
Legal
The
death of a person has legal consequences that may vary between
different jurisdictions. A death certificate is issued in most
jurisdictions, either by a doctor, or by an administrative office upon
presentation of a doctor's declaration of death.
Misdiagnosed
See also: Premature burial
Antoine Wiertz's painting of a man buried alive
There
are many anecdotal references to people being declared dead by
physicians and then "coming back to life", sometimes days later in their
own coffin, or when embalming procedures are about to begin. From the
mid-18th century onwards, there was an upsurge in the public's fear of
being mistakenly buried alive,[15] and much debate about the uncertainty
of the signs of death. Various suggestions were made to test for signs
of life before burial, ranging from pouring vinegar and pepper into the
corpse's mouth to applying red hot pokers to the feet or into the
rectum.[16] Writing in 1895, the physician J.C. Ouseley claimed that as
many as 2,700 people were buried prematurely each year in England and
Wales, although others estimated the figure to be closer to 800.[17]
As
medical technologies advance, ideas about when death occurs may have to
be re-evaluated in light of the ability to restore a person to vitality
after longer periods of apparent death (as happened when CPR and
defibrillation showed that cessation of heartbeat is inadequate as a
decisive indicator of death). The lack of electrical brain activity may
not be enough to consider someone scientifically dead. Therefore, the
concept of information-theoretic death[19] has been suggested as a
better means of defining when true death occurs, though the concept has
few practical applications outside the field of cryonics.
There
have been some scientific attempts to bring dead organisms back to life,
but with limited success.[20] In science fiction scenarios where such
technology is readily available, real death is distinguished from
reversible death.
Causes
See also: List of causes of death by rate and Preventable causes of death
According to
Jean Ziegler (United Nations Special Reporter on the Right to Food, 2000
– Mar 2008), mortality due to malnutrition accounted for 58% of the
total mortality rate in 2006. Ziegler says worldwide approximately 62M
people died from all causes and of those deaths more than 36M died of
hunger or diseases due to deficiencies in micronutrients.[26]
Selye
proposed a unified non-specific approach to many causes of death. He
demonstrated that stress decreases adaptability of an organism and
proposed to describe the adaptability as a special resource, adaptation
energy. The animal dies when this resource is exhausted.[28] Selye
assumed that the adaptability is a finite supply, presented at birth.
Later on, Goldstone proposed the concept of a production or income of
adaptation energy which may be stored (up to a limit), as a capital
reserve of adaptation.[29] In recent works, adaptation energy is
considered as an internal coordinate on the "dominant path" in the model
of adaptation. It is demonstrated that oscillations of well-being
appear when the reserve of adaptability is almost exhausted.[30]
An
autopsy, also known as a postmortem examination or an obduction, is a
medical procedure that consists of a thorough examination of a human
corpse to determine the cause and manner of a person's death and to
evaluate any disease or injury that may be present. It is usually
performed by a specialized medical doctor called a pathologist.
Autopsies
are either performed for legal or medical purposes. A forensic autopsy
is carried out when the cause of death may be a criminal matter, while a
clinical or academic autopsy is performed to find the medical cause of
death and is used in cases of unknown or uncertain death, or for
research purposes. Autopsies can be further classified into cases where
external examination suffices, and those where the body is dissected and
an internal examination is conducted. Permission from next of kin may
be required for internal autopsy in some cases. Once an internal autopsy
is complete the body is generally reconstituted by sewing it back
together. Autopsy is important in a medical environment and may shed
light on mistakes and help improve practices.
A necropsy, which
is not always a medical procedure, was a term previously used to
describe an unregulated postmortem examination . In modern times, this
term is more commonly associated with the corpses of animals.
Senescence
Dead Camelthorn tree within Sossusvlei
Senescence
refers to a scenario when a living being is able to survive all
calamities, but eventually dies due to causes relating to old age.
Animal and plant cells normally reproduce and function during the whole
period of natural existence, but the aging process derives from
deterioration of cellular activity and ruination of regular functioning.
Aptitude of cells for gradual deterioration and mortality means that
cells are naturally sentenced to stable and long-term loss of living
capacities, even despite continuing metabolic reactions and viability.
In the United Kingdom, for example, nine out of ten of all the deaths
that occur on a daily basis relates to senescence, while around the
world it accounts for two-thirds of 150,000 deaths that take place daily
(Hayflick & Moody, 2003).
Almost all animals who survive
external hazards to their biological functioning eventually die from
biological aging, known in life sciences as "senescence". Some organisms
experience negligible senescence, even exhibiting biological
immortality. These include the jellyfish Turritopsis dohrnii,[33] the
hydra, and the planarian. Unnatural causes of death include suicide and
predation. From all causes, roughly 150,000 people die around the world
each day.[3] Of these, two thirds die directly or indirectly due to
senescence, but in industrialized countries – such as the United States,
the United Kingdom, and Germany – the rate approaches 90% (i.e., nearly
nine out of ten of all deaths are related to senescence).[3]
Physiological
death is now seen as a process, more than an event: conditions once
considered indicative of death are now reversible.[34] Where in the
process a dividing line is drawn between life and death depends on
factors beyond the presence or absence of vital signs. In general,
clinical death is neither necessary nor sufficient for a determination
of legal death. A patient with working heart and lungs determined to be
brain dead can be pronounced legally dead without clinical death
occurring. As scientific knowledge and medicine advance, formulating a
precise medical definition of death becomes more difficult.[35]
Cryonics
Technicians prepare a body for cryopreservation in 1985.
Main article: Cryonics
Life
extension refers to an increase in maximum or average lifespan,
especially in humans, by slowing down or reversing the processes of
aging. Average lifespan is determined by vulnerability to accidents and
age or lifestyle-related afflictions such as cancer, or cardiovascular
disease. Extension of average lifespan can be achieved by good diet,
exercise and avoidance of hazards such as smoking. Maximum lifespan is
also determined by the rate of aging for a species inherent in its
genes. Currently, the only widely recognized method of extending maximum
lifespan is calorie restriction. Theoretically, extension of maximum
lifespan can be achieved by reducing the rate of aging damage, by
periodic replacement of damaged tissues, or by molecular repair or
rejuvenation of deteriorated cells and tissues.
Researchers
of life extension are a subclass of biogerontologists known as
"biomedical gerontologists". They try to understand the nature of aging
and they develop treatments to reverse aging processes or to at least
slow them down, for the improvement of health and the maintenance of
youthful vigor at every stage of life. Those who take advantage of life
extension findings and seek to apply them upon themselves are called
"life extensionists" or "longevists". The primary life extension
strategy currently is to apply available anti-aging methods in the hope
of living long enough to benefit from a complete cure to aging once it
is developed.
Location
Kyösti Kallio (in the middle), the fourth
President of the Republic of Finland, had a fatal heart attack a few
seconds after this photograph was taken by Hugo Sundström on December
19, 1940 at Helsinki railway station in Helsinki, Finland.[44][45]
Before
about 1930, most people in Western countries died in their own homes,
surrounded by family, and comforted by clergy, neighbors, and doctors
making house calls.[46] By the mid-20th century, half of all Americans
died in a hospital.[47] By the start of the 21st century, only about
20–25% of people in developed countries died outside of a medical
institution.[47][48][49] The shift away from dying at home towards dying
in a professional medical environment has been termed the "Invisible
Death".[47] This shift occurred gradually over the years, until most
deaths now occur outside the home.[50]
Psychology
Main article: Death anxiety (psychology)
Death studies is a field within psychology.[51]
Many
people are afraid of dying. Discussing, thinking, or planning their own
deaths causes them discomfort. This fear may cause them to put off
financial planning, preparing a will and testament, or requesting help
from a hospice organization.
Different people have different responses to the idea of their own deaths.
Philosopher
Galen Strawson writes that the death that many people wish for is an
instant, painless, unexperienced annihilation.[52] In this unlikely
scenario, the person dies without realizing it and without being able to
fear it. One moment the person is walking, eating, or sleeping, and the
next moment, the person is dead. Strawson reasons that this type of
death would not take anything away from the person, as he believes that a
person cannot have a legitimate claim to ownership in the
future.[52][53]
Society and culture
Main articles: Death and culture and Human skull symbolism
A duke insulting the corpse of Klaus Fleming
The regent duke Charles (later king Charles IX of Sweden) insulting the corpse of Klaus Fleming. Albert Edelfelt, 1878.
A naturally mummified body (from Guanajuato)
Dead bodies can be mummified either naturally, as this one from Guanajuato, or by intention, as those in ancient Egypt.
In
society, the nature of death and humanity's awareness of its own
mortality has for millennia been a concern of the world's religious
traditions and of philosophical inquiry. This includes belief in
resurrection or an afterlife (associated with Abrahamic religions),
reincarnation or rebirth (associated with Dharmic religions), or that
consciousness permanently ceases to exist, known as eternal oblivion
(associated with Secular humanism).[54]
Commemoration ceremonies
after death may include various mourning, funeral practices and
ceremonies of honouring the deceased. The physical remains of a person,
commonly known as a corpse or body, are usually interred whole or
cremated, though among the world's cultures there are a variety of other
methods of mortuary disposal. In the English language, blessings
directed towards a dead person include rest in peace (originally the
Latin requiescat in pace), or its initialism RIP.
Death is the
center of many traditions and organizations; customs relating to death
are a feature of every culture around the world. Much of this revolves
around the care of the dead, as well as the afterlife and the disposal
of bodies upon the onset of death. The disposal of human corpses does,
in general, begin with the last offices before significant time has
passed, and ritualistic ceremonies often occur, most commonly interment
or cremation. This is not a unified practice; in Tibet, for instance,
the body is given a sky burial and left on a mountain top. Proper
preparation for death and techniques and ceremonies for producing the
ability to transfer one's spiritual attainments into another body
(reincarnation) are subjects of detailed study in Tibet.[55]
Mummification or embalming is also prevalent in some cultures, to retard
the rate of decay.
Legal aspects of death are also part of many
cultures, particularly the settlement of the deceased estate and the
issues of inheritance and in some countries, inheritance taxation.
Gravestones in Japan
Gravestones in Kyoto, Japan
Death in
warfare and in suicide attack also have cultural links, and the ideas of
dulce et decorum est pro patria mori, mutiny punishable by death,
grieving relatives of dead soldiers and death notification are embedded
in many cultures. Recently in the western world, with the increase in
terrorism following the September 11 attacks, but also further back in
time with suicide bombings, kamikaze missions in World War II and
suicide missions in a host of other conflicts in history, death for a
cause by way of suicide attack, and martyrdom have had significant
cultural impacts.
All is Vanity by Charles Allan Gilbert is an example of a memento mori, intended to represent how life and death are intertwined
Talking
about death and witnessing it is a difficult issue with most cultures.
Western societies may like to treat the dead with the utmost material
respect, with an official embalmer and associated rites. Eastern
societies (like India) may be more open to accepting it as a fait
accompli, with a funeral procession of the dead body ending in an
open-air burning-to-ashes of the same.
Consciousness
Main article: Consciousness after death
Much
interest and debate surround the question of what happens to one's
consciousness as one's body dies. The belief in the permanent loss of
consciousness after death is often called eternal oblivion. Belief that
the stream of consciousness is preserved after physical death is
described by the term afterlife. Neither are likely to ever be confirmed
without the ponderer having to actually die.
In biology
After
death, the remains of an organism become part of the biogeochemical
cycle, during which animals may be consumed by a predator or a
scavenger. Organic material may then be further decomposed by
detritivores, organisms which recycle detritus, returning it to the
environment for reuse in the food chain, where these chemicals may
eventually end up being consumed and assimilated into the cells of a
living organism. Examples of detritivores include earthworms, woodlice
and dung beetles.
Contemporary
evolutionary theory sees death as an important part of the process of
natural selection. It is considered that organisms less adapted to their
environment are more likely to die having produced fewer offspring,
thereby reducing their contribution to the gene pool. Their genes are
thus eventually bred out of a population, leading at worst to extinction
and, more positively, making the process possible, referred to as
speciation. Frequency of reproduction plays an equally important role in
determining species survival: an organism that dies young but leaves
numerous offspring displays, according to Darwinian criteria, much
greater fitness than a long-lived organism leaving only one.
Extinction
Main article: Extinction
Painting of a dodo
A dodo, the bird that became a byword in the English language for the extinction of a species[58]
Inquiry
into the evolution of aging aims to explain why so many living things
and the vast majority of animals weaken and die with age (exceptions
include Hydra and the already cited jellyfish Turritopsis dohrnii, which
research shows to be biologically immortal). The evolutionary origin of
senescence remains one of the fundamental puzzles of biology.
Gerontology specializes in the science of human aging processes.
In
Buddhist doctrine and practice, death plays an important role.
Awareness of death was what motivated Prince Siddhartha to strive to
find the "deathless" and finally to attain enlightenment. In Buddhist
doctrine, death functions as a reminder of the value of having been born
as a human being. Being reborn as a human being is considered the only
state in which one can attain enlightenment. Therefore, death helps
remind oneself that one should not take life for granted. The belief in
rebirth among Buddhists does not necessarily remove death anxiety, since
all existence in the cycle of rebirth is considered filled with
suffering, and being reborn many times does not necessarily mean that
one progresses.[62]
Death is part of several key Buddhist tenets, such as the Four Noble Truths and dependent origination.[62]
Christianity
See also: Soul in the Bible, Second death, and Resurrection of the dead § Christianity
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Hinduism
In
Hindu texts, death is described as the individual eternal spiritual
jiva-atma (soul or conscious self) exiting the current temporary
material body. The soul exits this body when the body can no longer
sustain the conscious self (life), which may be due to mental or
physical reasons, or more accurately, the inability to act on one's kama
(material desires). During conception, the soul enters a compatible new
body based on the remaining merits and demerits of one's karma
(good/bad material activities based on dharma) and the state of one's
mind (impressions or last thoughts) at the time of death.
Usually
the process of reincarnation (soul's transmigration) makes one forget
all memories of one's previous life. Because nothing really dies and the
temporary material body is always changing, both in this life and the
next, death simply means forgetfulness of one's previous experiences
(previous material identity).
Material existence is described as
being full of miseries arising from birth, disease, old age, death,
mind, weather, etc. To conquer samsara (the cycle of death and rebirth)
and become eligible for one of the different types of moksha
(liberation), one has to first conquer kama (material desires) and
become self-realized. The human form of life is most suitable for this
spiritual journey, especially with the help of sadhu (self-realized
saintly persons), sastra (revealed spiritual scriptures), and guru
(self-realized spiritual masters), given all three are in agreement.
Islam
See also: Islamic view of death
Judaism
A yahrzeit candle lit in memory of a loved one on the anniversary of the death
See also: Bereavement in Judaism
There
are a variety of beliefs about the afterlife within Judaism, but none
of them contradict the preference of life over death. This is partially
because death puts a cessation to the possibility of fulfilling any
commandments.[citation needed]
Language around death
Study of Skeletons, c. 1510, by Leonardo da Vinci
The
word death comes from Old English dēaþ, which in turn comes from
Proto-Germanic *dauþuz (reconstructed by etymological analysis). This
comes from the Proto-Indo-European stem *dheu- meaning the "process,
act, condition of dying".[63]
The concept and symptoms of death,
and varying degrees of delicacy used in discussion in public forums,
have generated numerous scientific, legal, and socially acceptable terms
or euphemisms for death. When a person has died, it is also said they
have passed away, passed on, expired, or are gone, among numerous other
socially accepted, religiously specific, slang, and irreverent terms.
As
a formal reference to a dead person, it has become common practice to
use the participle form of "decease", as in the deceased; another noun
form is decedent.
Bereft of life, the dead person is then a
corpse, cadaver, a body, a set of remains, and when all flesh has rotted
away, a skeleton. The terms carrion and carcass can also be used,
though these more often connote the remains of non-human animals. The
ashes left after a cremation are sometimes referred to by the neologism
cremains." (wikipedia.org)
"Memento
mori (Latin for 'remember that you [have to] die'[2]) is an artistic or
symbolic reminder of the inevitability of death.[2] The concept has its
roots in the philosophers of classical antiquity and Christianity, and
appeared in funeral art and architecture of the medieval period. Memento
mori jewelry with skull or coffin motifs became popular in the late
16th century, and it was reflected in the artistic genre of vanitas,
where symbolic objects such as hourglasses and wilting flowers signified
the impermanence of human life....
Pronunciation and translation
In English, the phrase is pronounced /məˈmɛntoʊ ˈmɔːri/, mə-MEN-toh MOR-ee.
Memento
is the 2nd person singular active imperative of meminī, 'to remember,
to bear in mind', usually serving as a warning: "remember!" Morī is the
present infinitive of the deponent verb morior 'to die'.[3]
In other words, "remember death" or "remember that you die".[4]
History of the concept
In classical antiquity
The
philosopher Democritus trained himself by going into solitude and
frequenting tombs.[5] Plato's Phaedo, where the death of Socrates is
recounted, introduces the idea that the proper practice of philosophy is
"about nothing else but dying and being dead".[6]
The Stoics of
classical antiquity were particularly prominent in their use of this
discipline, and Seneca's letters are full of injunctions to meditate on
death.[7] The Stoic Epictetus told his students that when kissing their
child, brother, or friend, they should remind themselves that they are
mortal, curbing their pleasure, as do "those who stand behind men in
their triumphs and remind them that they are mortal".[8] The Stoic
Marcus Aurelius invited the reader to "consider how ephemeral and mean
all mortal things are" in his Meditations.[9][10]
In Judaism
Several
passages in the Old Testament urge a remembrance of death. In Psalm 90,
Moses prays that God would teach his people "to number our days that we
may get a heart of wisdom" (Ps. 90:12). In Ecclesiastes, the Preacher
insists that "It is better to go to the house of mourning than to go to
the house of feasting, for this is the end of all mankind, and the
living will lay it to heart" (Eccl. 7:2). In Isaiah, the lifespan of
human beings is compared to the short lifespan of grass: "The grass
withers, the flower fades when the breath of the LORD blows on it;
surely the people are grass" (Is. 40:7).
In early Christianity
The
expression memento mori developed with the growth of Christianity,
which emphasized Heaven, Hell, and salvation of the soul in the
afterlife.[11] The 2nd-century Christian writer Tertullian claimed that
during his triumphal procession, a victorious general would have someone
(in later versions, a slave) standing behind him, holding a crown over
his head and whispering "Respice post te. Hominem te memento" ("Look
after you [to the time after your death] and remember you're [only] a
man."). Though in modern times this has become a standard trope, in fact
no other ancient authors confirm this, and it may have been Christian
moralizing rather than an accurate historical report.[12]
In Europe from the medieval era to the Victorian era
Dance of Death (15th-century fresco). No matter one's station in life, the Dance of Death unites all.
Philosophy
The
thought was then utilized in Christianity, whose strong emphasis on
divine judgment, heaven, hell, and the salvation of the soul brought
death to the forefront of consciousness.[13] In the Christian context,
the memento mori acquires a moralizing purpose quite opposed to the nunc
est bibendum (now is the time to drink) theme of classical antiquity.
To the Christian, the prospect of death serves to emphasize the
emptiness and fleetingness of earthly pleasures, luxuries, and
achievements, and thus also as an invitation to focus one's thoughts on
the prospect of the afterlife. A Biblical injunction often associated
with the memento mori in this context is In omnibus operibus tuis
memorare novissima tua, et in aeternum non peccabis (the Vulgate's Latin
rendering of Ecclesiasticus 7:40, "in all thy works be mindful of thy
last end and thou wilt never sin.") This finds ritual expression in the
rites of Ash Wednesday, when ashes are placed upon the worshipers' heads
with the words, "Remember Man that you are dust and unto dust, you
shall return."
Memento mori has been an important part of ascetic
disciplines as a means of perfecting the character by cultivating
detachment and other virtues, and by turning the attention towards the
immortality of the soul and the afterlife.[14]
Architecture
Unshrouded skeleton on Diana Warburton's tomb (dated 1693) in St John the Baptist Church, Chester
The
most obvious places to look for memento mori meditations are in funeral
art and architecture. Perhaps the most striking to contemporary minds
is the transi or cadaver tomb, a tomb that depicts the decayed corpse of
the deceased. This became a fashion in the tombs of the wealthy in the
fifteenth century, and surviving examples still offer a stark reminder
of the vanity of earthly riches. Later, Puritan tomb stones in the
colonial United States frequently depicted winged skulls, skeletons, or
angels snuffing out candles. These are among the numerous themes
associated with skull imagery.
Another example of memento mori is
provided by the chapels of bones, such as the Capela dos Ossos in Évora
or the Capuchin Crypt in Rome. These are chapels where the walls are
totally or partially covered by human remains, mostly bones. The
entrance to the Capela dos Ossos has the following sentence: "We bones,
lying here bare, await yours."
Visual art
Philippe de Champaigne's Vanitas (c. 1671) is reduced to three essentials: Life, Death, and Time
Timepieces
have been used to illustrate that the time of the living on Earth grows
shorter with each passing minute. Public clocks would be decorated with
mottos such as ultima forsan ("perhaps the last" [hour]) or vulnerant
omnes, ultima necat ("they all wound, and the last kills"). Clocks have
carried the motto tempus fugit, "time flees". Old striking clocks often
sported automata who would appear and strike the hour; some of the
celebrated automaton clocks from Augsburg, Germany had Death striking
the hour. Private people carried smaller reminders of their own
mortality. Mary, Queen of Scots owned a large watch carved in the form
of a silver skull, embellished with the lines of Horace, "Pale death
knocks with the same tempo upon the huts of the poor and the towers of
Kings."
In the late 16th and through the 17th century, memento
mori jewelry was popular. Items included mourning rings,[15] pendants,
lockets, and brooches.[16] These pieces depicted tiny motifs of skulls,
bones, and coffins, in addition to messages and names of the departed,
picked out in precious metals and enamel.[16][17]
During the same
period there emerged the artistic genre known as vanitas, Latin for
"emptiness" or "vanity". Especially popular in Holland and then
spreading to other European nations, vanitas paintings typically
represented assemblages of numerous symbolic objects such as human
skulls, guttering candles, wilting flowers, soap bubbles, butterflies,
and hourglasses. In combination, vanitas assemblies conveyed the
impermanence of human endeavours and of the decay that is inevitable
with the passage of time. See also the themes associated with the image
of the skull.
Literature
Memento mori is also an important
literary theme. Well-known literary meditations on death in English
prose include Sir Thomas Browne's Hydriotaphia, Urn Burial and Jeremy
Taylor's Holy Living and Holy Dying. These works were part of a Jacobean
cult of melancholia that marked the end of the Elizabethan era. In the
late eighteenth century, literary elegies were a common genre; Thomas
Gray's Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard and Edward Young's Night
Thoughts are typical members of the genre.
In the European
devotional literature of the Renaissance, the Ars Moriendi, memento mori
had moral value by reminding individuals of their mortality.[18]
Music
Apart
from the genre of requiem and funeral music, there is also a rich
tradition of memento mori in the Early Music of Europe. Especially those
facing the ever-present death during the recurring bubonic plague
pandemics from the 1340s onward tried to toughen themselves by
anticipating the inevitable in chants, from the simple Geisslerlieder of
the Flagellant movement to the more refined cloistral or courtly songs.
The lyrics often looked at life as a necessary and god-given vale of
tears with death as a ransom, and they reminded people to lead sinless
lives to stand a chance at Judgment Day. The following two Latin stanzas
(with their English translations) are typical of memento mori in
medieval music; they are from the virelai ad mortem festinamus of the
Llibre Vermell de Montserrat from 1399:
Danse macabre
The
danse macabre is another well-known example of the memento mori theme,
with its dancing depiction of the Grim Reaper carrying off rich and poor
alike. This and similar depictions of Death decorated many European
churches....
The salutation of the Hermits of St. Paul of France
Memento
mori was the salutation used by the Hermits of St. Paul of France
(1620-1633), also known as the Brothers of Death.[19] It is sometimes
claimed that the Trappists use this salutation, but this is not
true.[20]
In Puritan America
Thomas Smith's Self-Portrait
Colonial
American art saw a large number of memento mori images due to Puritan
influence. The Puritan community in 17th-century North America looked
down upon art because they believed that it drew the faithful away from
God and, if away from God, then it could only lead to the devil.
However, portraits were considered historical records and, as such, they
were allowed. Thomas Smith, a 17th-century Puritan, fought in many
naval battles and also painted. In his self-portrait, we see these
pursuits represented alongside a typical Puritan memento mori with a
skull, suggesting his awareness of imminent death.
Another manifestation
of memento mori is found in the Mexican "Calavera", a literary
composition in verse form normally written in honour of a person who is
still alive, but written as if that person were dead. These compositions
have a comedic tone and are often offered from one friend to another
during Day of the Dead.[21]
Contemporary culture
Roman
Krznaric suggests Memento Mori is an important topic to bring back into
our thoughts and belief system; “Philosophers have come up with lots of
what I call ‘death tasters’ – thought experiments for seizing the day."
These
thought experiments are powerful to get us re-oriented back to death
into current awareness and living with spontaneity. Albert Camus stated
“Come to terms with death, thereafter anything is possible.” Jean-Paul
Sartre expressed that life is given to us early, and is shortened at the
end, all the while taken away at every step of the way, emphasizing
that the end is only the beginning every day.[22]
Similar concepts in other religions and cultures
In Buddhism
In
Japan, the influence of Zen Buddhist contemplation of death on
indigenous culture can be gauged by the following quotation from the
classic treatise on samurai ethics, Hagakure:[23]
The Way of
the Samurai is, morning after morning, the practice of death,
considering whether it will be here or be there, imagining the most
sightly way of dying, and putting one's mind firmly in death. Although
this may be a most difficult thing, if one will do it, it can be done.
There is nothing that one should suppose cannot be done.[24]
In
the annual appreciation of cherry blossom and fall colors, hanami and
momijigari, it was philosophized that things are most splendid at the
moment before their fall, and to aim to live and die in a similar
fashion.[citation needed]
In Tibetan Buddhism
Tibetan Citipati
mask depicting Mahākāla. The skull mask of Citipati is a reminder of the
impermanence of life and the eternal cycle of life and death.
There
are a number of classic verse formulations of these contemplations
meant for daily reflection to overcome our strong habitual tendency to
live as though we will certainly not die today.
Lalitavistara Sutra
The
Tibetan Canon also includes copious materials on the meditative
preparation for the death process and intermediate period bardo between
death and rebirth. Amongst them are the famous "Tibetan Book of the
Dead", in Tibetan Bardo Thodol, the "Natural Liberation through Hearing
in the Bardo"(wikipedia.org)
"A
vanitas is a symbolic work of art showing the transience of life, the
futility of pleasure, and the certainty of death, often contrasting
symbols of wealth and symbols of ephemerality and death. Best-known are
vanitas still lifes, a common genre in Low Countries of the 16th and
17th centuries; they have also been created at other times and in other
media and genres....
Etymology
The
Latin noun vanitas (from the Latin adjective vanus 'empty') means
'emptiness', 'futility', or 'worthlessness', the traditional Christian
view being that earthly goods and pursuits are transient and
worthless.[2] It alludes to Ecclesiastes 1:2; 12:8, where vanitas
translates the Hebrew word hevel, which also includes the concept of
transitoriness.[3][4][5]
Themes
Vanitas
themes were common in medieval funerary art, with most surviving
examples in sculpture. By the 15th century, these could be extremely
morbid and explicit, reflecting an increased obsession with death and
decay also seen in the Ars moriendi, the Danse Macabre, and the
overlapping motif of the Memento mori. From the Renaissance such motifs
gradually became more indirect and, as the still-life genre became
popular, found a home there. Paintings executed in the vanitas style
were meant to remind viewers of the transience of life, the futility of
pleasure, and the certainty of death. They also provided a moral
justification for painting attractive objects.
Motifs
Common
vanitas symbols include skulls, which are a reminder of the certainty
of death; rotten fruit (decay); bubbles (the brevity of life and
suddenness of death); smoke, watches, and hourglasses (the brevity of
life); and musical instruments (brevity and the ephemeral nature of
life). Fruit, flowers and butterflies can be interpreted in the same
way, and a peeled lemon was, like life, attractive to look at but bitter
to taste. Art historians debate how much, and how seriously, the
vanitas theme is implied in still-life paintings without explicit
imagery such as a skull. As in much moralistic genre painting, the
enjoyment evoked by the sensuous depiction of the subject is in a
certain conflict with the moralistic message.[6]
Composition of
flowers is a less obvious style of vanitas by Abraham Mignon in the
National Museum, Warsaw. Barely visible amid vivid and perilous nature
(snakes, poisonous mushrooms), a bird skeleton is a symbol of vanity and
shortness of life.
Vanitas by Jan Sanders van Hemessen
Outside visual art" (wikipedia.org)
"A
skeleton is a type of physically manifested undead often found in
fantasy, gothic and horror fiction, and mythical art. Most are human
skeletons, but they can also be from any creature or race found on Earth
or in the fantasy world....
Myth and folklore
Animated
human skeletons have been used as a personification of death in Western
culture since the Middle Ages, a personification perhaps influenced by
the valley of the dry bones in the Book of Ezekiel.[1] The Grim Reaper
is often depicted as a hooded skeleton holding a scythe (and
occasionally an hourglass), which has been attributed to Hans Holbein
the Younger (1538).[2] Death as one of the biblical horsemen of the
Apocalypse has been depicted as a skeleton riding a horse. The Triumph
of Death is a 1562 painting by Pieter Bruegel the Elder depicting an
army of skeletons raiding a town and slaughtering its occupants.[3]
"The
Boy Who Wanted the Willies" is a Brothers Grimm fairy tale in which a
boy named Hans joins a circle of dancing skeletons.[citation needed]
In Japanese folklore, Mekurabe are rolling skulls with eyeballs who menace Taira no Kiyomori.[4]
José Guadalupe Posada's 1913 La Calavera Catrina zinc etching
Mexico
Figurines
and images of skeletons doing routine things are common in Mexico's Day
of the Dead celebration, where skulls symbolize life and their familiar
circumstances invite levity. Highly-decorated sugar-skull candy has
become one of the most recognizable elements of the celebrations.[5][6]
They are known in Mexico as calacas, a Mexican Spanish term simply
meaning "skeleton". The moderns association between skeleton iconography
and the Day of the Dead was inspired by La Calavera Catrina, a zinc
etching created by Mexican cartoonist José Guadalupe Posada in the 1910s
and published posthumously in 1930.[7] Initially a satire of Mexican
women who were ashamed of their indigenous origins and dressed imitating
the French style, wearing heavy makeup to make their skin look whiter,
it later became a more general symbol of vanity.[8] During the 20th
Century, the Catrina entrenched itself in the Mexican consciousness and
became a national icon, often depicted in folk art.
In the Disney Pixar film Coco, the calacas appear to be ghosts.
Modern fiction
Literature
The animated skeleton features in some Gothic fiction. One early
example is in the short story "Thurnley Abbey" (1908) by Perceval
Landon, originally published in his collection Raw Edges.[9] It is
reprinted in many modern anthologies, such as The 2nd Fontana Book of
Great Ghost Stories and The Penguin Book of Horror Stories.
An
anthropomorphic depiction of Death which looks like a skeleton in a
black robe appears in almost all volumes of Terry Pratchett's fantasy
series Discworld, including five novels where he is the lead
character.[10]
Film and TV
Undead skeletons have been
portrayed in fantasy films such as The 7th Voyage of Sinbad (1958), The
Black Cauldron (1985), Army of Darkness (1992), The Nightmare Before
Christmas (1993), and Corpse Bride (2005).
An extended battle
scene against an army of skeletal warriors was produced by animator Ray
Harryhausen for Jason and the Argonauts (1963) and is remembered as one
of the most sophisticated and influential visual effects sequences of
its day.[11]
A CG art skeleton, as commonly found in modern fantasy-theme games.
Games
Animated skeletons have been used and portrayed extensively in fantasy
role-playing games. In a tradition that goes back to the pen-and-paper
game Dungeons & Dragons, the basic animated skeleton is commonly
employed as a low-level undead enemy, typically easy for a player to
defeat in combat. Thus, in games which make use of them, such enemies
often appear relatively early in the gameplay and are considered a
suitable opponent for novice players.[12] In these contexts, they are
commonly armed with medieval weapons and sometimes wear armor. Some
games may also introduce higher-level variants with heightened
resilience or combat skills as well as the ability to cast spells or
communicate.[13]
In the PlayStation action-adventure series
MediEvil, the protagonist is an animated skeleton knight named Sir
Daniel Fortesque.[14]
In the 1999 cult classic Planescape:
Torment, Morte is a character who joins the protagonist on his quest and
is essentially a sentient, levitating human skull with intact eyeballs
who cracks wise and fights by biting.[15]
In the 2009 Minecraft
video game, skeletons appear as a bow-wielding monster that shoots
players with their bow and burn under the sunlight. Sometimes the
skeletons spawn with enchanted bows or a random piece of armor, or
random full armor, or without bow, and they can pick melee weapons. In
Halloween, they can spawn wearing carved pumpkin or Jack O' Lantern on
their heads.
In the video game Fable III, there exist a race of
antagonal characters called "hollow men" which are featured throughout
the game.
A duo of animated skeleton brothers plays an important
role in the role-playing game Undertale. Named Sans and Papyrus, the
brothers' dialogue text is printed in Comic Sans and Papyrus fonts,
respectively.[16]
Following a poll taken during their Kickstarter
campaign, Larian Studios added a playable skeleton race in their 2017
RPG Divinity: Original Sin II, as well as an ancient skeletal character
named Fane.[17]
Following the first game, the skeletons were
re-added in Minecraft Dungeons, a 2020 dungeon crawler game released by
Mojang Studios as the guards of The Nameless One, the king of the
undead. In this form, they are equipped with glaives, shields, and iron
helmets and chestplates, and are referred to as Skeleton Vanguards. They
also spawn as their original bow-wielding form, sometimes wearing iron
helmet." (wikipedia.org)
"Skull
symbolism is the attachment of symbolic meaning to the human skull. The
most common symbolic use of the skull is as a representation of death,
mortality and the unachievable nature of immortality.
Humans can
often recognize the buried fragments of an only partially revealed
cranium even when other bones may look like shards of stone. The human
brain has a specific region for recognizing faces,[1] and is so attuned
to finding them that it can see faces in a few dots and lines or
punctuation marks; the human brain cannot separate the image of the
human skull from the familiar human face. Because of this, both the
death and the now-past life of the skull are symbolized.
Hindu temples and depiction of some Hindu deities have displayed association with skulls.
Moreover,
a human skull with its large eye sockets displays a degree of neoteny,
which humans often find visually appealing—yet a skull is also obviously
dead, and to some can even seem to look sad due to the downward facing
slope on the ends of the eye sockets. A skull with the lower jaw intact
may also appear to be grinning or laughing due to the exposed teeth. As
such, human skulls often have a greater visual appeal than the other
bones of the human skeleton, and can fascinate even as they repel. Our
present society predominantly associates skulls with death and evil.
Unicode reserves character U+1F480 (💀) for a human skull pictogram....
Examples
The
skull that is often engraved or carved on the head of early New England
tombstones might be merely a symbol of mortality, but the skull is also
often backed by an angelic pair of wings,[2] lofting mortality beyond
its own death.
lady at round mirror and dressing table resembling a skull "All is Vanity" by C. Allan Gilbert
All is Vanity by C. Allan Gilbert, 1873-1929
One
of the best-known examples of skull symbolism occurs in Shakespeare's
Hamlet, where the title character recognizes the skull of an old friend:
"Alas, poor Yorick! I knew him, Horatio; a fellow of infinite jest..."
Hamlet is inspired to utter a bitter soliloquy of despair and rough
ironic humor.
Compare Hamlet's words "Here hung those lips that I
have kissed I know not how oft" to Talmudic sources: "...Rabi Ishmael
[the High Priest]... put [the severed head of a martyr] in his lap...
and cried: oh sacred mouth!...who buried you in ashes...!". The skull
was a symbol of melancholy for Shakespeare's contemporaries.[3]
Skull
art is found in depictions of some Hindu Gods. Lord Shiva has been
depicted as carrying skull.[4] Goddess Chamunda is described as wearing a
garland of severed heads or skulls (Mundamala). Kedareshwara Temple,
Hoysaleswara Temple, Chennakeshava Temple, Lakshminarayana Temple are
some of the Hindu temples that include sculptures of skulls and Goddess
Chamunda.[5] The temple of Kali is veneered with skulls, but the goddess
Kali offers life through the welter of blood.
In Elizabethan
England, the Death's-Head Skull, usually a depiction without the lower
jawbone, was emblematic of bawds, rakes, sexual adventurers and
prostitutes; the term Death's-Head was actually parlance for these
rakes, and most of them wore half-skull rings to advertise their
station, either professionally or otherwise. The original Rings were
wide silver objects, with a half-skull decoration not much wider than
the rest of the band; This allowed it to be rotated around the finger to
hide the skull in polite company, and to reposition it in the presence
of likely conquests.[citation needed]
Sugar skull given for the Day of the Dead, made with chocolate and amaranth from Mexico
Sugar skull given for the Day of the Dead, made with chocolate and amaranth
Skulls
and skeletons are the main symbol of the Day of the Dead, a Mexican
holiday. Skull-shaped decorations called calaveras are a common sight
during the festivities.
Venetian painters of the 16th century
elaborated moral allegories for their patrons, and memento mori was a
common theme. The theme carried by an inscription on a rustic tomb, "Et
in Arcadia ego"—"I too [am] in Arcadia", if it is Death that is
speaking—is made famous by two paintings by Nicolas Poussin, but the
motto made its pictorial debut in Guercino's version, 1618-22 (in the
Galleria Barberini, Rome): in it, two awestruck young shepherds come
upon an inscribed plinth, in which the inscription ET IN ARCADIA EGO
gains force from the prominent presence of a wormy skull in the
foreground.
Next to Mary Magdalene's dressing-mirror, in a
convention of Baroque painting[citation needed], the Skull has quite
different connotations and reminds the viewer that the Magdalene has
become a symbol for repentance. In C. Allan Gilbert's much-reproduced
lithograph of a lovely Gibson Girl seated at her fashionable toilette,
an observer can witness its transformation into an alternate image. A
ghostly echo of the worldly Magdalene's repentance motif lurks behind
this turn-of-the-20th century icon.
The skull becomes an icon
itself when its painted representation becomes a substitute for the real
thing. Simon Schama chronicled the ambivalence of the Dutch to their
own worldly success during the Dutch Golden Age of the first half of the
17th century in The Embarrassment of Riches. The possibly frivolous and
merely decorative nature of the still life genre was avoided by Pieter
Claesz in his Vanitas (illustration, below right): Skull, opened
case-watch, overturned emptied wineglasses, snuffed candle, book: "Lo,
the wine of life runs out, the spirit is snuffed, oh Man, for all your
learning, time yet runs on: Vanity!" The visual cues of the hurry and
violence of life are contrasted with eternity in this somber, still and
utterly silent painting.
Skull on table Vanitas, by Pieter Claesz, painted in 1630 from the Mauritzhuis, The Hague
Vanitas, by Pieter Claesz, 1630 (Mauritzhuis, The Hague)
When
the skull appears in Nazi SS insignia, the death's-head (Totenkopf)
represents loyalty unto death. However, when tattooed on the forearm its
apotropaic power helps an outlaw biker cheat death.[6] The skull and
crossbones signify "Poison" when they appear on a glass bottle
containing a white powder, or any container in general. But it is not
the same emblem when it flies high above the deck as the Jolly Roger:
there the pirate death's-head epitomizes the pirates' ruthlessness and
despair; their usage of death imagery might be paralleled with their
occupation challenging the natural order of things.[7] "Pirates also
affirmed their unity symbolically", Marcus Rediker asserts, remarking
the skeleton or skull symbol with bleeding heart and hourglass on the
black pirate ensign, and asserting "it triad of interlocking symbols—
death, violence, limited time—simultaneously pointed to meaningful parts
of the seaman's experience, and eloquently bespoke the pirates' own
consciousness of themselves as preyed upon in turn. Pirates seized the
symbol of mortality from ship captains who used the skull 'as a marginal
sign in their logs to indicate the record of a death'"[8]
Today, humans typically note the skull and crossbones sign as the almost universal symbol for toxicity.
The skull of Adam at the foot of the Cross: detail from a Crucifixion by Fra Angelico, from 1435
The skull of Adam at the foot of the Cross: detail from a Crucifixion by Fra Angelico, 1435
When
a skull was worn as a trophy on the belt of the Lombard king Alboin, it
was a constant grim triumph over his old enemy, and he drank from it.
In the same way a skull is a warning when it decorates the palisade of a
city, or deteriorates on a pike at a Traitor's Gate. The Skull Tower,
with the embedded skulls of Serbian rebels, was built in 1809 on the
highway near Niš, Serbia, as a stark political warning from the Ottoman
government. In this case the skulls are the statement: that the current
owner had the power to kill the former. "Drinking out of a skull the
blood of slain (sacrificial) enemies is mentioned by Ammianus and
Livy,[9] and Solinus describes the Irish custom of bathing the face in
the blood of the slain and drinking it."[10] The rafters of a
traditional Jívaro house in Peru,[11] or in New Guinea.
The
late medieval and Early Renaissance Northern and Italian painters place
the skull where it lies at the foot of the Cross at Golgotha (Aramaic
for the place of the skull). But for them it has become quite
specifically the skull of Adam.
The Serpent crawling through the
eyes of a skull is a familiar image that survives in contemporary Goth
subculture. The serpent is a chthonic god of knowledge and of
immortality, because he sloughs off his skin. The serpent guards the
Tree in the Greek Garden of the Hesperides and, later, a Tree in the
Garden of Eden. The serpent in the skull is always making its way
through the socket that was the eye: knowledge persists beyond death,
the emblem says, and the serpent has the secret.
Symbolism of Fortuna's wheel divine justice and Skull mortality in a Pompeiian mosaic
Symbolism of chance (Fortuna's wheel) divine justice (right angle and plumb-bob) and mortality in a Pompeiian mosaic
The
skull speaks. It says "Et in Arcadia ego" or simply "Vanitas." In a
first-century mosaic tabletop from a Pompeiian triclinium (now in
Naples), the skull is crowned with a carpenter's square and plumb-bob,
which dangles before its empty eyesockets (Death as the great leveller),
while below is an image of the ephemeral and changeable nature of life:
a butterfly atop a wheel—a table for a philosopher's symposium.
Skull in lady's hat "Calavera de la Catrina" by José Guadalupe Posada
Calavera de la Catrina by José Guadalupe Posada (1851-1913)
An
example of the OSS "Black Propaganda" Humor: at left an Adolf Hitler
profile on a "German Reich" stamp; at right the OSS-forged Hitler face
version, turned into a death's head on a "Fallen Reich" stamp
Similarly,
a skull might be seen crowned by a chaplet of dried roses, a carpe
diem, though rarely as bedecked as Mexican printmaker José Guadalupe
Posada's Catrina.
In Mesoamerican architecture, stacks of skulls
(real or sculpted) represented the result of human sacrifices. The skull
speaks in the catacombs of the Capuchin brothers beneath the church of
Santa Maria della Concezione in Rome,[12] where disassembled bones and
teeth and skulls of the departed Capuchins have been rearranged to form a
rich Baroque architecture of the human condition, in a series of
anterooms and subterranean chapels with the inscription, set in bones:
An
old Yoruba folktale[13] tells of a man who encountered a skull mounted
on a post by the wayside. To his astonishment, the skull spoke. The man
asked the skull why it was mounted there. The skull said that it was
mounted there for talking. The man then went to the king, and told the
king of the marvel he had found, a talking skull. The king and the man
returned to the place where the skull was mounted; the skull remained
silent. The king then commanded that the man be beheaded, and ordered
that his head be mounted in place of the skull.
In Vajrayana Buddhist iconography, skull symbolism is often used in depictions of wrathful deities and of dakinis.
In
some Korean life replacement narratives, a person discovers an
abandoned skull and worships it. The skull later gives advice on how to
cheat the gods of death and prevent an early death.
In fashion
Alexander
McQueen is credited with popularizing a fashion trend with stylized
skulls, starting with skull-decorated bags and scarves. The trend is
extant by the early 2010s." (wikipedia.org)
"In
works of art, the adjective macabre (US: /məˈkɑːb/ or UK: /məˈkɑːbrə/;
French: [makabʁ]) means "having the quality of having a grim or ghastly
atmosphere". The macabre works to emphasize the details and symbols of
death. The term also refers to works particularly gruesome in nature....
History
The
quality is not often found in ancient Greek and Latin writers[citation
needed], though there are traces of it in Apuleius and the author of the
Satyricon. Outstanding instances in English literature include the
works of John Webster, Robert Louis Stevenson, Mervyn Peake, Charles
Dickens, Roald Dahl, Thomas Hardy and Cyril Tourneur.[1] In American
literature, authors whose work feature this quality include Edgar Allan
Poe, H. P. Lovecraft, and Stephen King. The word has gained its
significance from its use in French as la danse macabre for the
allegorical representation of the ever-present and universal power of
death, known in English as the Dance of Death and in German as
Totentanz. The typical form which the allegory takes is that of a series
of images in which Death appears, either as a dancing skeleton or as a
shrunken shrouded corpse, to people representing every age and condition
of life, and leads them all in a dance to the grave. Of the numerous
examples painted or sculptured on the walls of cloisters or church yards
through medieval Europe, few remain except in woodcuts and engravings.
The series at Basel originally at the Klingenthal, a nunnery in Little
Basel, dated from the beginning of the 14th century. In the middle of
the 15th century this was moved to the churchyard of the Predigerkloster
at Basel, and was restored, probably by Hans Kluber, in 1568. The
collapse of the wall in 1805 reduced it to fragments, and only drawings
of it remain.
A Dance of Death in its simplest form still
survives in the Marienkirche at Lübeck as 15th-century painting on the
walls of a chapel. Here there are 24 figures in couples, between each is
a dancing Death linking the groups by outstretched hands, the whole
ring being led by a Death playing on a pipe.
In Tallinn,
Estonia there is a well-known Danse Macabre painting by Bernt Notke
displayed at St. Nikolaus Church (Niguliste), dating the end of 15th
century.
At Dresden there is a sculptured life-size series in the
old Neustädter Kirchhoff, moved here from the palace of Duke George in
1701 after a fire.
At Rouen in the cloister of St Maclou there also remains a sculptured danse macabre.
There was a celebrated fresco of the subject in the cloister of Old St Pauls in London.
There was another in the now destroyed Hungerford Chapel at Salisbury,
of which only a single woodcut, "Death and the Gallant", remains.
Of the many engraved reproductions of the Old St Pauls fresco, the most famous is the series drawn by Holbein.
The
theme continued to inspire artists and musicians long after the
medieval period, Schubert's string quartet Death and the Maiden (1824)
being one example, and Camille Saint-Saëns' tone poem Danse macabre, op.
40 (1847).
In the 20th century, Ingmar Bergman's 1957 film The Seventh Seal has a personified Death, and could thus count as macabre.
The
origin of this allegory in painting and sculpture is disputed. It
occurs as early as the 14th century, and has often been attributed to
the overpowering consciousness of the presence of death due to the Black
Death and the miseries of the Hundred Years' War. It has also been
attributed to a form of the Morality, a dramatic dialogue between Death
and his victims in every station of life, ending in a dance off the
stage.[2] The origin of the peculiar form the allegory has taken has
also been found in the dancing skeletons on late Roman sarcophagi and
mural paintings at Cumae or Pompeii, and a false connection has been
traced with "The Triumph of Death", attributed to Orcagna, in the Campo
Santo at Pisa.
Etymology
The etymology of the word "macabre" is
uncertain. According to Gaston Paris[3] it first occurs in the form
"macabre" in Jean le Fèvre's Respit de la mort (1376), Je fis de Macabré
la danse, and he takes this accented form to be the true one, and
traces it in the name of the first painter of the subject. The more
usual explanation is based on the Latin name, Machabaeorum chorea (Dance
of Maccabees). The seven tortured brothers, with their mother and
Eleazar (2 Maccabees 6 and 7) were prominent figures on this hypothesis
in the supposed dramatic dialogues.[4] Other connections have been
suggested, as for example with St. Macarius, or Macaire, the hermit,
who, according to Vasari, is to be identified with the figure pointing
to the decaying corpses in the Pisan Triumph of Death, or with an Arabic
word maqābir (مقابر), cemeteries (plural of maqbara." (wikipedia.org)
"Lawn ornaments are decorative objects placed in the grassy area of a property....
Common lawn ornaments
Animal forms: animal statues such as frogs, turtles, rabbits, deer, flamingoes and ducks are cast in plastic or cement.
Bathtub
Madonna: a statue of Mary the mother of Jesus is placed in a bathtub
half buried under the ground. Statues of Mary are most often made of
white concrete, but are sometimes painted with a blue garment.
Bird
bath: a structure designed to hold water for birds to bathe in or
drink, generally supported upon a pedestal, is known as a bird bath.
Bird
feeder: a container for foods such as bird seeds is often designed to
look like a miniature house or barn, and may be mounted on a stake,
post, or column.
Concrete Aboriginal, a lawn ornament once common in Australia.
Concrete goose, a popular lawn ornament in the United States.
Found object art: items such as bowling balls, toilet planters, and antique farm equipment may be repurposed as lawn ornaments.
Francis of Assisi: a saint often associated with nature and animals may be cast in plaster or cement.
Garden gnome: a small, generally colorful gnome statuette.
Human
form: a depiction of a human being. Human form lawn ornaments can be
two-dimensional, generally vertically supported by being thrust in the
ground, or three-dimensional. Examples of human form lawn ornaments
include the concrete Aboriginal, lawn jockey and groomsman. Examples of
two-dimensional human form lawn ornaments include renditions of Amish
and Pennsylvania Dutch people. A variation of the Pennsylvania Dutch
human form is a depiction of an older female bending over as in
gardening, thus revealing her undergarments.
Jigglers: plastic or
metal flowers, birds and insects fitted on spring-loaded stakes so that
they jiggle when the wind blows on them.
Lawn jockey, or Jocko,
or Groomsmen: an often diminutive statuette of a black horse attendant
dressed in slave clothing, also called a Jocko. Groomsmen were often
used as hitching posts. The origin of the groomsman is disputed, but it
is accepted that they originated in the U.S. South. No longer as common
since the civil rights movement. The "Cavalier" variation typically
depicts a white figure. One legend has it that the first Groomsman was
created at the commission of George Washington.
Lighthouses: small-scale representations of local lighthouses are popular in coastal areas.
Nest box/bird house: a small house for a bird normally made of wood and on a stake.
Plastic
flamingo: a generally lifesize replica of a pink flamingo. According to
some, the origin of the plastic flamingo was in 1946 with the company
Union Products in its "Plastics for the Lawn" product line. Their
collection included dog, ducks, frogs, and a flamingo.
Spinners:
usually shaped like flowers with petals that spin in the wind.
Variations include birds or insects with spinning wings.
Statuary and outdoor sculpture
Topiary specimens
Whirligig:
an often animalistic sculpture generally supported vertically by being
pushed in the ground characterized by at least one rotating member often
designed to appear as a bodypart of the sculpture.
Windmill: a
disconnected but free-spinning miniature, typically in the American
Aermotor style having about a dozen metal vanes, or the traditional
Dutch style having four wood vanes.
Yard globe: a
light-reflective sphere, as large as 12" in diameter or more and
generally displayed on top of a support structure. Also called gazing
globes or gazing balls." (wikipedia.org)
"A garden ornament is an item used for garden, landscape, and park enhancement and decoration. Garden ornaments include:
bird baths
bird feeders
birdhouses
columns – cast stone
flower box
window box
folly
fountains
jardiniere
kugel fountain
garden furniture
gazing spheres
hanging baskets
holiday – seasonal ornaments and decorations
landscape lighting – decorative fixtures
lawn ornaments
bathtub madonnas
concrete geese
garden gnomes
lawn jockeys
plastic pink flamingos
moon bridge – small ornament versions
outdoor fireplace
outdoor sculpture
found objects such as recycled bowling balls, toilet planters, antique farm equipment
kinetic sculpture
masks
obelisks
renewable energy sculpture
pagoda – small versions
pedestals – e.g. terracotta, cast stone
pond – rocks and boulders with basins
pots
urns
ceramic art vases
rain chains
reflecting pools – small/portable types
sundials
topiary specimens
waterfalls – small prefabricated type
weathervanes
wind chimes...
History
This
section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by
adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be
challenged and removed. (April 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this
template message)
Early examples of the use of garden ornaments
in western culture were seen in Ancient Roman gardens such as those
excavated at Pompeii and Herculaneum. The Italian Renaissance garden and
French formal garden styles were the peak of using created forms in the
garden and landscape, with high art and kitsch interpretations ever
since. The English landscape garden expanded the scale of some garden
ornaments to temple follies
The Asian tradition of making garden
ornaments, often functioning in association with Feng Shui principles,
has a nearly timeless history. Chinese gardens with Chinese scholar's
rocks, Korean stone art, and Japanese gardens with Suiseki and Zen rock
gardens have and symbolic meaning and natural ornamental qualities."
(wikipedia.org)
"Timothy
Walter Burton[a] (born August 25, 1958) is an American film director,
producer, writer and artist. He is known for his gothic fantasy and
horror films such as Beetlejuice (1988), Edward Scissorhands (1990), The
Nightmare Before Christmas (1993), Ed Wood (1994), Sleepy Hollow
(1999), Corpse Bride (2005), Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet
Street (2007), and Frankenweenie (2012). Burton also directed the
superhero films Batman (1989) and Batman Returns (1992), the sci-fi film
Planet of the Apes (2001), the fantasy-drama Big Fish (2003), the
musical adventure film Charlie and the Chocolate Factory (2005), and the
fantasy films Alice in Wonderland (2010) and Miss Peregrine's Home for
Peculiar Children (2016).
Burton has often worked with actors
Johnny Depp, and Helena Bonham Carter (his former domestic partner), and
composer Danny Elfman (who has composed scores for all but three of the
films Burton has directed). He wrote and illustrated the poetry book
The Melancholy Death of Oyster Boy & Other Stories, published in
1997 by British publishing house Faber and Faber, and a compilation of
his drawings, sketches, and other artwork, entitled The Art of Tim
Burton, was released in 2009. A follow-up to that book, entitled The
Napkin Art of Tim Burton: Things You Think About in a Bar, containing
sketches made by Burton on napkins at bars and restaurants he visited,
was released in 2015. His accolades include nominations for two Academy
Awards and three BAFTA Awards, and wins for an Emmy Award and a Golden
Globe Award....
Early life
Burton
was born on August 25, 1958, in Burbank, California, the son of Jean
Burton (née Erickson, 1933–2002), later the owner of a cat-themed gift
shop, and William "Bill" Burton (1930–2000), a former minor league
baseball player who was working for the Burbank Parks and Recreation
Department.[4][5] As a preteen, Burton would make short films in his
backyard on 2101 N Evergreen Street using crude stop motion animation
techniques or shooting on 8 mm film without sound (one of his oldest
known juvenile films is The Island of Doctor Agor, which he made when he
was 13 years old). Burton attended Providencia Elementary School in
Burbank, and afterward to Burbank High School but was not a particularly
good student. He played on the water polo team at Burbank High. Burton
was an introspective person and found pleasure in painting, drawing, and
watching movies. His future work would be heavily influenced by the
works of such childhood heroes as Dr. Seuss and Roald Dahl.[6] After
graduating from Burbank High School, Burton attended the California
Institute of the Arts in Valencia, Santa Clarita, to study character
animation.[7] As a student at CalArts, Burton made the shorts Stalk of
the Celery Monster and King and Octopus.[8]
Career
1980s
Stalk
of the Celery Monster attracted the attention of Walt Disney
Productions' animation division, which offered Burton an animator's
apprenticeship at the studio.[7] He worked as an animator, storyboard
artist, graphic designer, art director, and concept artist on films such
as The Fox and the Hound (1981), Tron (1982), and The Black Cauldron
(1985). His concept art never made it into the finished films.
While
at Disney in 1982, Burton made his first short, Vincent, a six-minute
black-and-white stop motion film based on a poem written by Burton,
which depicts a young boy who fantasizes that he is his hero Vincent
Price, with Price himself providing narration. The film was produced by
Rick Heinrichs, whom Burton had befriended while working in the concept
art department at Disney. The film was shown at the Chicago Film
Festival and released, alongside the teen drama Tex, for two weeks in
one Los Angeles cinema. This was followed by Burton's first live-action
production, Hansel and Gretel, a Japanese-themed adaptation of the
Brothers Grimm fairy tale for the Disney Channel, which climaxes in a
kung fu fight between Hansel and Gretel and the witch. Having aired once
in 1983 at 10:30 pm on Halloween and promptly shelved, prints of the
film are extremely difficult to locate, fueling rumors that the project
did not exist. The short would finally go on public display in 2009 at
the Museum of Modern Art, and again in 2011 as part of the Tim Burton
art exhibit at LACMA.[9][10] It was again shown at the Seoul Museum of
Art in 2012.[11]
Burton's next live-action short film,
Frankenweenie, was released in 1984. It tells the story of a young boy
who tries to revive his dog after it is run over by a car. Filmed in
black-and-white, it stars Barret Oliver, Shelley Duvall (with whom he
would work again in 1986, directing an episode of her television series
Faerie Tale Theatre), and Daniel Stern. After Frankenweenie was
completed, Disney fired Burton, under the pretext of him spending the
company's resources on a film that would be too dark and scary for
children to see.[12]
Actor Paul Reubens saw Frankenweenie and
chose Burton to direct the cinematic spin-off of his popular character
Pee-wee Herman, stating on the audio commentary of 2000 DVD release of
Pee-wee's Big Adventure that as soon as the short began, he was sold on
Burton's style. Pee-wee Herman gained mainstream popularity with a
successful stage show at The Groundlings and the Roxy which was later
turned into an HBO special. The film, Pee-wee's Big Adventure, was made
on a budget of $8 million and grossed more than $40 million at the North
American box office. Burton, a fan of the eccentric musical group Oingo
Boingo, asked songwriter Danny Elfman to provide the music for the
film. Since then, Elfman has scored every film that Tim Burton has
directed, except for Ed Wood,[13] Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of
Fleet Street, and Miss Peregrine's Home for Peculiar Children.
After
directing episodes for the revitalized version of '50s/'60s anthology
horror series Alfred Hitchcock Presents and Shelley Duvall's Faerie Tale
Theatre, Burton directed his next big project: Beetlejuice (1988), a
supernatural comedy horror about a young couple forced to cope with life
after death and the family of pretentious yuppies who invade their
treasured New England home. Their teenage daughter, Lydia (Winona
Ryder), has an obsession with death which allows her to see the deceased
couple. Starring Alec Baldwin and Geena Davis, and featuring Michael
Keaton as the obnoxious bio-exorcist Beetlejuice, the film grossed $80
million on a relatively low budget and won an Academy Award for Best
Makeup. It would be converted into a cartoon of the same name, with
Burton playing a role as executive producer, that ran on ABC and later
Fox.
Burton's ability to produce hits with low budgets impressed
studio executives, and he received his first big budget film, Batman.
The production was plagued with problems. Burton repeatedly clashed with
the film's producers, Jon Peters and Peter Guber, but the most notable
debacle involved casting. For the title role, Burton chose to cast
Michael Keaton as Batman following their previous collaboration in
Beetlejuice, despite Keaton's average physique, inexperience with action
films, and reputation as a comic actor. Although Burton won in the end,
the furor over the casting provoked enormous fan animosity, to the
extent that Warner Brothers' share price slumped.[citation needed]
Burton had considered it ridiculous to cast a "bulked-up"
ultra-masculine man as Batman, insisting that Batman should be an
ordinary man who dressed up in an elaborate bat costume to frighten
criminals. Burton cast Jack Nicholson as The Joker (Tim Curry being his
second choice) in a move that helped assuage fans' fears, as well as
attracting older audiences not as interested in a superhero film. When
the film opened in June 1989, it was backed by the biggest marketing and
merchandising campaign in film history at the time, and became one of
the biggest box office hits of all time, grossing over $250 million in
the U.S. and $400 million worldwide (numbers not adjusted for inflation)
and earning critical acclaim for the performances of both Keaton and
Nicholson, as well as the film's production aspects, which won the
Academy Award for Best Art Direction. The success of the film helped
establish Burton as a profitable director, and it proved to be a huge
influence on future superhero films, which eschewed the bright,
all-American heroism of Richard Donner's Superman for a grimmer, more
realistic look and characters with more psychological depth. It also
became a major inspiration for the successful 1990s cartoon Batman: The
Animated Series, as the darkness of Burton's film and its sequel allowed
for a darker Batman on television.
1990s
In 1990, Burton co-wrote
(with Caroline Thompson) and directed Edward Scissorhands, re-uniting
with Winona Ryder from Beetlejuice. His friend Johnny Depp, a teen idol
at the end of the 1980s due primarily to his work on the hit TV series
21 Jump Street, was cast in the title role of Edward, who was the
creation of an eccentric and old-fashioned inventor (played by Vincent
Price in one of his last screen appearances). Edward looked human, but
was left with scissors in the place of hands due to the untimely death
of his creator. Set in suburbia (and shot in Land o' Lakes, Florida),
the film is largely seen as Burton's autobiography of his childhood in
Burbank. Burton's idea[15] for the character of Edward Scissorhands came
from a drawing he created in high school. Depp wrote a similar comment
in the foreword to Mark Salisbury's book, Burton on Burton, regarding
his first meeting with Burton over the casting of the film. Edward
Scissorhands is considered one of Burton's best movies by some
critics.[16] Burton has stated that this is his most personal and
meaningful film because it's a representation of him not being able to
communicate effectively with others as a teenager.
After the
success of Batman, Burton agreed to direct the sequel for Warner Bros.
on the condition that he would be granted total control. The result was
Batman Returns, which featured Michael Keaton returning as Batman, and a
new triad of villains: Danny DeVito (as the Penguin), Michelle Pfeiffer
(as Catwoman) and Christopher Walken (as Max Shreck, an evil corporate
tycoon and original character created for the film). Darker and
considerably more personal than its predecessor, concerns were raised
that the film was too scary for children. Audiences were more
uncomfortable at the film's overt sexuality, personified by the sleek,
fetish-inspired styling of Catwoman's costume. Burton made many changes
to the Penguin which would subsequently be applied to the character in
both comics and television. While in the comics, he was an ordinary man,
Burton created a freak of nature resembling a penguin with webbed,
flipper-like fingers, a hooked, beak-like nose, and a penguin-like body
(resulting in a rotund, obese man). Released in 1992, Batman Returns
grossed $282.8 million worldwide, making it a financial success, though
not to the extent of its predecessor.
Due to schedule constraints
on Batman Returns, Burton produced, but did not direct, The Nightmare
Before Christmas (1993) for Disney, originally meant to be a children's
book in rhyme. The film was directed by Henry Selick and written by
Caroline Thompson, based on Burton's original story, world, and
characters. The film received positive reviews for the stop motion
animation, musical score, and original storyline. It was a box office
success, grossing $50 million. Because of the nature of the film, it was
not produced under Disney's name, but rather Disney owned Touchstone
Pictures. Disney wanted the protagonist to have eyes,[17] but the final
iteration did not. Over 100 people worked on this motion picture just to
create the characters, and it took three years of work to produce the
film.[17] Burton collaborated with Selick again for James and the Giant
Peach (1996), which Burton co-produced.
In 1994, Burton and
frequent co-producer Denise Di Novi produced the 1994 fantasy-comedy
Cabin Boy, starring comedian Chris Elliott and directed/written by Adam
Resnick. Burton was originally supposed to direct the film after seeing
Elliott perform on Get a Life, but he handed the directing
responsibility to Resnick once he was offered Ed Wood. Burton's next
film, Ed Wood (1994), was of a much smaller scale, depicting the life of
infamous director Ed Wood. Starring Johnny Depp in the title role, the
film is an homage to the low-budget science fiction and horror films of
Burton's childhood and handles its comical protagonist and his motley
band of collaborators with surprising fondness and sensitivity. Owing to
creative squabbles during the making of The Nightmare Before Christmas,
Danny Elfman declined to score Ed Wood, and the assignment went to
Howard Shore. While a commercial failure at the time of its release, Ed
Wood was well received by critics. Martin Landau received the Academy
Award for Best Supporting Actor for his portrayal of Bela Lugosi, and
the film received the Academy Award for Best Makeup.
Despite
Burton's intention to still lead the Batman franchise, Warner Bros.
considered Batman Returns too dark and unsafe for children. To attract
the young audience, it was decided that Joel Schumacher, who had
directed films like The Client, would lead the third film, while Burton
would only produce it in conjunction with Peter MacGregor-Scott.
Following this change and the changes made by the new director, Michael
Keaton resigned from the lead role and was replaced by Val Kilmer.
Filming for Batman Forever began in late 1994 with new actors: Tommy Lee
Jones as Harvey Dent/Two-Face, Nicole Kidman as Dr. Chase Meridian,
Chris O'Donnell as Dick Grayson/Robin and Jim Carrey as Edward Nygma/The
Riddler; the only two actors who returned after Batman Returns were Pat
Hingle as Commissioner Gordon and Michael Gough as Alfred Pennyworth.
The film, a combination of the darkness that characterized the saga and
colors and neon signs proposed by Schumacher, was a huge box office
success, earning $336 million. Warner Bros. demanded that Schumacher
delete some scenes so the film did not have the same tone as its
predecessor, Batman Returns (later they were added as deleted scenes on
the 2005 DVD release).
In 1996, Burton and Selick reunited for
the musical fantasy James and the Giant Peach, based on the book by
Roald Dahl which contains magical elements and references to drugs and
alcohol.[18] The film, a combination of live action and stop motion
footage, starred Richard Dreyfuss, Susan Sarandon, David Thewlis, Simon
Callow and Jane Leeves among others, with Burton producing and Selick
directing. The film was mostly praised by critics and was nominated for
the Academy Award for Best Original Musical or Comedy Score (by Randy
Newman).
Elfman and Burton reunited for Mars Attacks! (1996).
Based on a popular science-fiction trading card series, the film was a
hybrid of 1950s science fiction and 1970s all-star disaster films.
Coincidence made it an inadvertent spoof of the blockbuster Independence
Day, which had been released five months earlier. The film boasted an
all-star cast, including Jack Nicholson, Glenn Close, Annette Bening,
Danny DeVito, Pierce Brosnan, Michael J. Fox, Sarah Jessica Parker,
Natalie Portman, Lukas Haas, Martin Short, Rod Steiger, Christina
Applegate, and Jack Black.
Sleepy Hollow, released in late 1999,
had a supernatural setting and starred Johnny Depp as Ichabod Crane, a
detective with an interest in forensic science rather than the
schoolteacher of Washington Irving's original tale. With Sleepy Hollow,
Burton paid homage to the horror films of the English company Hammer
Films. Christopher Lee, one of Hammer's stars, was given a cameo role. A
host of Burton regulars appeared in supporting roles (Michael Gough,
Jeffrey Jones, and Christopher Walken, among others), and Christina
Ricci was cast as Katrina van Tassel. A well-regarded supporting cast
was headed by Miranda Richardson, Michael Gambon, Richard Griffiths and
Ian McDiarmid. Mostly well received by critics, and with a special
mention to Elfman's gothic score, the film won an Academy Award for Best
Art Direction, as well as two BAFTAs for Best Costume Design and Best
Production Design. A box office success, Sleepy Hollow was also a
turning point for Burton. Along with change in his personal life
(separation from actress Lisa Marie), Burton changed radically in style
for his next project, leaving the haunted forests and colorful outcasts
behind to go on to directing Planet of the Apes which, as Burton had
repeatedly noted, was "not a remake" of the earlier film.
2000s
Burton (right) and Pedro Almodóvar at the première of Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street in Madrid, in 2007
Charlie
and the Chocolate Factory (2005) is an adaptation of the book of the
same name by Roald Dahl. Starring Johnny Depp as Willy Wonka, Freddie
Highmore as Charlie Bucket, and Deep Roy as the Oompa-Loompas, the film
generally took a more faithful approach to the source material than the
1971 adaptation, Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory, although some
liberties were taken, such as adding Wonka's issue with his father
(played by Christopher Lee). Charlie and the Chocolate Factory was later
nominated for the Academy Award for Best Costume Design. The film made
over $207 million domestically. Filming proved difficult as Burton,
Depp, and Danny Elfman had to work on this and Burton's Corpse Bride
(2005) at the same time, which was Burton's first full-length stop
motion film as a director, featuring the voices of Johnny Depp as Victor
and Helena Bonham Carter as Emily .
Burton directed his first
music video, "Bones", in 2006. "Bones" is the sixth overall single by
American indie rock band The Killers and the second released from their
second studio album, Sam's Town. Starring in this video were actors
Michael Steger and Devon Aoki. Burton went to direct a second music
video for The Killers, "Here with Me", starring Winona Ryder, released
in 2012.[19]
The DreamWorks/Warner Bros. production Sweeney Todd:
The Demon Barber of Fleet Street, based on the 1979 Broadway musical,
was released on December 21, 2007. Burton's work on Sweeney Todd won the
National Board of Review Award for Best Director,[20] received a Golden
Globe nomination for Best Director,[21] and won an Academy Award for
Best Art Direction. The film blends explicit gore and Broadway tunes,
and was well received by critics. Johnny Depp's performance as Sweeney
Todd was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor.
In 2005,
filmmaker Shane Acker released his short film 9, a story about a
sentient rag doll living in a post-apocalyptic world who tries to stop
machines from destroying the rest of his eight fellow rag dolls. The
film won numerous awards and was nominated for an Academy Award for Best
Animated Short Film. After seeing the short film, Tim Burton and Timur
Bekmambetov, director of Wanted, showed interest in producing a
feature-length adaptation of the film. Directed by Acker, the
full-length film was produced by Burton, written by Acker (story) and
Pamela Pettler (screenplay, co-writer of Corpse Bride), and featured the
voice work of Elijah Wood, John C. Reilly, Jennifer Connelly,
Christopher Plummer, Martin Landau, and Crispin Glover, among others.
2010s
Burton speaking about 9 at Comic-Con, 2009
Tim
Burton appeared at the 2009 Comic-Con in San Diego, California, to
promote both 9 and Alice in Wonderland; the latter won two Academy
Awards, for Best Art Direction and Best Costume Design. In Burton's
version of Alice in Wonderland, the story is set 13 years after the
original Lewis Carroll tales. Mia Wasikowska was cast as Alice. The
original start date for filming was May 2008.[22] Torpoint and Plymouth
were the locations used for filming from September 1 – October 14, and
the film remains set in the Victorian era. During this time, filming
took place in Antony House in Torpoint.[23] 250 local extras were chosen
in early August.[24][25] Other production work took place in
London.[26] The film was originally to be released in 2009, but was
pushed to March 5, 2010.[27] The film starred Johnny Depp as the Mad
Hatter; Matt Lucas as both Tweedledee and Tweedledum; Helena Bonham
Carter as the Red Queen; Stephen Fry as the Cheshire Cat; Anne Hathaway
as the White Queen; Alan Rickman as Absolem the Caterpillar; Michael
Sheen as McTwisp the White Rabbit; and Crispin Glover as the Knave of
Hearts, with his face and voice added onto a CGI body. Burton produced
the film's sequel, Alice Through the Looking Glass (2016).[28]
Dark
Shadows once again saw the collaboration of Burton with actors Johnny
Depp and Helena Bonham Carter, composer Danny Elfman, and costume
designer Colleen Atwood. The film was released on May 11, 2012, and
received mixed reviews from critics. Burton co-produced Abraham Lincoln:
Vampire Hunter with Timur Bekmambetov, who also served as director
(they previously worked together in 9). The film, released on June 22,
2012, was based on the novel by Seth Grahame-Smith, who wrote the film's
screenplay and also authored Pride and Prejudice and Zombies. The film
starred Benjamin Walker as Abraham Lincoln, Anthony Mackie as William H.
Johnson, Joseph Mawle as Lincoln's father Thomas, Robin McLeavy as
Lincoln's mother, Nancy, and Mary Elizabeth Winstead as Lincoln's love
interest (and later wife), Mary Ann Todd. The film received mixed
reviews.[29][30] He then remade his 1984 short film Frankenweenie as a
feature-length stop motion film, distributed by Walt Disney
Pictures.[31] Burton has said, "The film is based on a memory that I had
when I was growing up and with my relationship with a dog that I
had."[32] The film was released on October 5, 2012, and met with
positive reviews.[33]
Burton directed the 2014 biographical drama
film Big Eyes about American artist Margaret Keane (Amy Adams), whose
work was fraudulently claimed in the 1950s and 1960s by her
then-husband, Walter Keane (Christoph Waltz), and their heated divorce
trial after Margaret accused Walter of stealing credit for her
paintings. The script was written by the screenwriters behind Burton's
Ed Wood, Scott Alexander and Larry Karaszewski. Filming began in
Vancouver, British Columbia, in mid-2013. The film was distributed by
The Weinstein Company and released in U.S. theaters on December 25,
2014. It received generally positive reviews from critics.[34][35] In
September 2016, an adaptation of Ransom Riggs's novel Miss Peregrine's
Home for Peculiar Children, directed by Burton, was released, starring
Asa Butterfield and Eva Green.[36] Burton also directed a live-action
adaptation of Dumbo, released in 2019, with Colin Farrell, Danny DeVito,
Eva Green, and Michael Keaton starring.
Unrealized projects
Further information: Tim Burton's unrealized projects
After
Kevin Smith had been hired to write a new Superman film, he suggested
Burton to direct.[37] Burton came on and Warner Bros. set a theatrical
release date for the summer of 1998, the 60th anniversary of the
character's debut in Action Comics.[38] Nicolas Cage was signed on to
play Superman, Burton hired Wesley Strick to rewrite Smith's script, and
the film entered pre-production in June 1997. For budgetary reasons,
Warner Bros. ordered another rewrite from Dan Gilroy, delayed the film,
and ultimately put it on hold in April 1998. Burton then left to direct
Sleepy Hollow.[38] Burton has depicted the experience as a difficult
one, citing differences with producer Jon Peters and the studio,
stating, "I basically wasted a year. A year is a long time to be working
with somebody that you don't really want to be working with."[39]
In
2001, The Walt Disney Company began to consider producing a sequel to
The Nightmare Before Christmas, but rather than using stop motion,
Disney wanted to use computer animation.[40] Burton convinced Disney to
drop the idea. "I was always very protective of ['Nightmare'], not to do
sequels or things of that kind," Burton explained. "You know, 'Jack
visits Thanksgiving world' or other kinds of things, just because I felt
the movie had a purity to it and the people that like it... Because
it's a mass-market kind of thing, it was important to kind of keep that
purity of it."[41] Regardless, in 2009, Henry Selick stated that he
could make a sequel to Nightmare if he and Burton could create a good
story for it.[42]
In 2012, Shane Acker confirmed that Burton
would work with Valve to create his next animated feature film, Deep.
Like 9, the film would take place in a post-apocalyptic world (although
set in a different universe). Deep would be another darker animated
film, as Shane Acker has expressed his interest in creating more PG-13
animated films.[43] Since then, there have been no further mentions of
Deep, with Acker focusing on another project announced in 2013 (Beasts
of Burden).[44][45]
On January 19, 2010, it was announced that
after Dark Shadows, Burton's next project would be Maleficent, a
Wicked-like film that showed the origin and the past of Sleeping
Beauty's antagonist Maleficent. In an interview with Fandango published
February 23, 2010, however, Burton denied he was directing any upcoming
Sleeping Beauty film.[46] However, on November 23, 2010, in an interview
with MTV, Burton confirmed that he was indeed putting together a script
for Maleficent.[47] It was announced by The Hollywood Reporter on May
16, 2011, that Burton was no longer attached to Maleficent.[48]
It
was reported that Burton would direct a 3D stop motion animation
adaptation of The Addams Family, which was confirmed by Christopher
Meledandri,[49] but the project was scrapped on July 17, 2013.[50] On
July 19, 2010, Burton was announced as the director of the upcoming film
adaptation of Monsterpocalypse.[51]
In 2011, it was reported
that Burton was working on a live-action adaptation of The Hunchback of
Notre-Dame starring Josh Brolin, who would also be co-producing. The
project did not move forward.[52][53]
In July 2012, following the
release of both Dark Shadows and Abraham Lincoln: Vampire Hunter, it
was announced that screenwriter and novelist Seth Grahame-Smith was
working alongside Burton on a potential Beetlejuice sequel. Actor
Michael Keaton has also expressed interest in reprising his role as the
title character along with Winona Ryder.[54][55] In October 2017,
Deadline Hollywood reported that Mike Vukadinovich was hired to write a
script in time for the film's 30th anniversary.[56] In April 2019,
Warner Bros. stated the sequel had been shelved.[57]
Frequent collaborators
Main article: List of frequent Tim Burton collaborators
Personal life
Burton
was married to Lena Gieseke, a German-born artist. Their marriage ended
in 1991 after four years.[58] He went on to live with model and actress
Lisa Marie; she acted in the films he made during their relationship
from 1992 to 2001, most notably in Sleepy Hollow, Ed Wood, and Mars
Attacks!. Burton developed a romantic relationship with English actress
Helena Bonham Carter, whom he met while filming Planet of the Apes.
Marie responded in 2005 by holding an auction of personal belongings
that Burton had left behind, much to his dismay.[59]
Burton and
Bonham Carter have two children: a son, William Raymond, named after his
and Bonham Carter's fathers, born in 2003; and a daughter, Nell, born
in 2007.[60] Bonham Carter's representative said in December 2014 that
she and Burton had broken up amicably earlier that year.[61] It is
unclear whether or not they were married; Bonham Carter has used the
word divorce when discussing the end of their relationship[62] while
other news outlets state that they never married.[61]
On March
15, 2010, Burton received the insignia of Chevalier of Arts and Letters
from then-Minister of Culture Frédéric Mitterrand.[63] The same year,
Burton was the President of the Jury for the 63rd annual Cannes Film
Festival, held from May 12 to 24 in Cannes, France.[64]
Exhibitions
From
November 22, 2009, to April 26, 2010, Burton had a retrospective at the
MoMA in New York with over 700 "drawings, paintings, photographs,
storyboards, moving-image works, puppets, maquettes, costumes and
cinematic ephemera", including many from the filmmaker's personal
collection.[65]
From MoMA, the "Tim Burton" exhibition traveled
directly to Australian Centre for the Moving Image in Melbourne. Running
from June 24 to October 10, 2010, the ACMI exhibition incorporated
additional material from Burton's Alice in Wonderland, which was
released in March 2010.[66]
"The Art of Tim Burton" was exhibited
at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art from May 29 to October 31,
2011, in the Museum's Resnick Pavilion.[67] LACMA also featured six
films of Tim Burton's idol, Vincent Price.[68]
"Tim Burton, the
exhibition/Tim Burton, l'exposition" was exhibited at the Cinémathèque
Française from March 7 to August 5, 2012, in Paris, France.[69] All of
Tim Burton's movies were shown during the exhibition.
"Tim Burton
at Seoul Museum of Art" was exhibited as a promotion of Hyundai Card at
Seoul Museum of Art from December 12, 2012, to April 15, 2013, in
Seoul, South Korea.[70] This exhibition featured 862 of Burton's works
including drawings, paintings, short films, sculptures, music, and
costumes that have been used in the making of his feature-length movies.
The exhibition was divided into three parts: the first part, "Surviving
Burbank", covered his younger years, from 1958 to 1976. The second,
"Beautifying Burbank", covers 1977 to 1984, including his time with
CalArts and Walt Disney. The last segment, "Beyond Burbank", covers 1985
onward.[71]
"Tim Burton and His World" was exhibited at the
Stone Bell House from March 3 to August 8, 2014, in Prague, Czech
Republic.[72] The exhibition later premiered at the Museu da Imagem e do
Som in São Paulo, Brazil, on February 4, 2016, and lasted until June
5.[73] The exhibition was later held in Artis Tree in Taikoo Place, Hong
Kong, from November 5, 2016, to January 23, 2017.[74] The exhibition
returned to Brazil from May 28 to August 11, 2019, being held at the
Centro Cultural Banco do Brasil in Brasília.[75]
Burton's first
exhibition in the United States in nearly a decade, Lost Vegas: Tim
Burton, opened in October 2019 at The Neon Museum in Las Vegas.[76]
Filmography
See also: Tim Burton filmography and Tim Burton's unrealized projects
Directed features Year Title Distributor
1985 Pee-wee's Big Adventure Warner Bros.
1988 Beetlejuice
1989 Batman
1990 Edward Scissorhands 20th Century Fox
1992 Batman Returns Warner Bros.
1994 Ed Wood Touchstone Pictures
1996 Mars Attacks! Warner Bros.
1999 Sleepy Hollow Paramount Pictures
2001 Planet of the Apes 20th Century Fox
2003 Big Fish Sony Pictures Releasing
2005 Charlie and the Chocolate Factory Warner Bros. Pictures
Corpse Bride
2007 Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street
2010 Alice in Wonderland Walt Disney Pictures
2012 Dark Shadows Warner Bros. Pictures
Frankenweenie Walt Disney Pictures
2014 Big Eyes The Weinstein Company
2016 Miss Peregrine's Home for Peculiar Children 20th Century Fox
2019 Dumbo Walt Disney Pictures
Books
Burton on Burton, edited by Mark Salisbury (1995, revised editions 2000, 2006)
The Melancholy Death of Oyster Boy & Other Stories (1997)
The Art of Tim Burton, written by Leah Gallo (2009)
The Napkin Art of Tim Burton: Things You Think About in a Bar, edited by Holly Kempf and Leah Gallo (2015)" (wikipedia.org)
"Trick-or-treating
is a traditional Halloween custom for children and adults in some
countries. In the evening before All Saints' Day (1 November), children
in costumes travel from house to house, asking for treats with the
phrase "Trick or treat". The "treat" is usually some form of candy,
although in some cultures money is given instead. The "trick" refers to a
threat, usually idle, to perform mischief on the homeowner(s) or their
property if no treat is given. Trick-or-treating usually occurs on the
evening of October 31. Some homeowners signal that they are willing to
hand out treats by putting up Halloween decorations outside their doors;
others simply leave treats available on their porches for the children
to take freely. Houses may also leave their porch light on as a
universal indicator that they have candy.
In Scotland and other
parts of Britain and Ireland, the tradition of guising, going house to
house at Halloween and putting on a small performance to be rewarded
with food or treats, goes back at least as far as the 16th century, as
does the tradition of people wearing costumes at Halloween. There are
many accounts from 19th-century Scotland and Ireland of people going
house to house in costume at Halloween, reciting verses in exchange for
food, and sometimes warning of misfortune if they were not
welcomed.[1][2] While going house to house in costume has long been
popular among the Scots and Irish, it is only in the 2000s that saying
"Trick or treat" has become common in Scotland and Ireland.[3] Prior to
this, children in Ireland would commonly say "Help the Halloween Party"
at the doors of homeowners.[3]
In North America,
trick-or-treating has been a Halloween tradition since the 1920s. The
earliest known occurrence there of the Scottish Halloween custom of
"guising" – children going from house to house for food or money while
disguised in costume[2] – is from 1911, when children were recorded as
having done this in Ontario, Canada.[4]
The activity is prevalent
in the United Kingdom, Ireland, the United States, Canada, Australia,
and northwestern and central Mexico. In the last, this practice is
called calaverita (Spanish diminutive for calavera, "skull" in English),
and instead of "Trick or treat", the children ask, "¿Me da mi
calaverita?" ("Can you give me my little skull?"), where a calaverita is
a small skull made of sugar or chocolate....
History
Ancient precursors
Traditions
similar to the modern custom of trick-or-treating extend all the way
back to classical antiquity, although it is extremely unlikely that any
of them are directly related to the modern custom. The ancient Greek
writer Athenaeus of Naucratis records in his book The Deipnosophists
that, in ancient times, the Greek island of Rhodes had a custom in which
children would go from door-to-door dressed as swallows, singing a
song, which demanded the owners of the house to give them food and
threatened to cause mischief if the owners of the house
refused.[5][6][7] This tradition was claimed to have been started by the
Rhodian lawgiver Cleobulus.[8]
Origins
Since the Middle Ages,
a tradition of mumming on a certain holiday has existed in parts of
Britain and Ireland. It involved going door-to-door in costume,
performing short scenes or parts of plays in exchange for food or drink.
The custom of trick-or-treating on Halloween may come from the belief
that supernatural beings, or the souls of the dead, roamed the earth at
this time and needed to be appeased.
It may otherwise have
originated in a Celtic festival, held on 31 October–1 November, to mark
the beginning of winter. It was Samhain in Ireland, Scotland and the
Isle of Man, and Calan Gaeaf in Wales, Cornwall, and Brittany. The
festival is believed to have pre-Christian roots. In the 9th century,
the Catholic Church made 1 November All Saints' Day. Among
Celtic-speaking peoples, it was seen as a liminal time, when the spirits
or fairies (the Aos Sí), and the souls of the dead, came into our world
and were appeased with offerings of food and drink. Similar beliefs and
customs were found in other parts of Europe. It is suggested that
trick-or-treating evolved from a tradition whereby people impersonated
the spirits, or the souls of the dead, and received offerings on their
behalf. S. V. Peddle suggests they "personify the old spirits of the
winter, who demanded reward in exchange for good fortune".[9]
Impersonating these spirits or souls was also believed to protect
oneself from them.[10]
"A soul-cake, a soul-cake, have mercy on all Christian souls for a soul-cake." — a popular English souling rhyme[11]
At
least as far back as the 15th century, among Christians, there had been
a custom of sharing soul-cakes at Allhallowtide (October 31 through
November 2).[12][13] People would visit houses and take soul-cakes,
either as representatives of the dead, or in return for praying for
their souls.[14] Later, people went "from parish to parish at Halloween,
begging soul-cakes by singing under the windows some such verse as
this: 'Soul, souls, for a soul-cake; Pray you good mistress, a
soul-cake!'"[15] They typically asked for "mercy on all Christian souls
for a soul-cake".[16] It was known as 'Souling' and was recorded in
parts of Britain, Flanders, southern Germany, and Austria.[17]
Shakespeare mentions the practice in his comedy The Two Gentlemen of
Verona (1593), when Speed accuses his master of "puling [whimpering or
whining] like a beggar at Hallowmas".[18]
The wearing of
costumes, or "guising", at Hallowmas, had been recorded in Scotland in
the 16th century[19] and was later recorded in other parts of Britain
and Ireland.[20] There are many references to mumming, guising or
souling at Halloween in Britain and Ireland during the late 18th century
and the 19th century. In parts of southern Ireland, a man dressed as a
Láir Bhán (white mare) led youths house to house reciting verses—some of
which had pagan overtones—in exchange for food. If the household
donated food it could expect good fortune from the 'Muck Olla', but if
they refused to do so, it would bring misfortune.[21] In Scotland,
youths went house to house in white with masked, painted or blackened
faces, reciting rhymes and often threatening to do mischief if they were
not welcomed.[20][22][23] In parts of Wales, peasant men went house to
house dressed as fearsome beings called gwrachod, or presenting
themselves as the cenhadon y meirw (representatives of the dead).[20] In
western England, mostly in the counties bordering Wales, souling was
common.[13] According to one 19th century English writer "parties of
children, dressed up in fantastic costume […] went round to the farm
houses and cottages, singing a song, and begging for cakes (spoken of as
"soal-cakes"), apples, money, or anything that the goodwives would give
them".[24]
Girl in a Halloween costume in 1928 in Ontario, Canada,
the same province where the Scottish Halloween custom of "guising" is
first recorded in North America
A contemporary account of guising
at Halloween in Scotland is recorded in 1895, where masqueraders in
disguise carrying lanterns made out of scooped out turnips, visit homes
to be rewarded with cakes, fruit, and money.[25] The earliest known
occurrence of the practice of guising at Halloween in North America is
from 1911, when a newspaper in Kingston, Ontario, Canada reported on
children going "guising" around the neighborhood.[4]
American
historian and author Ruth Edna Kelley of Massachusetts wrote the first
book length history of the holiday in the US; The Book of Hallowe'en
(1919), and references souling in the chapter "Hallowe'en in America";
"The taste in Hallowe'en festivities now is to study old traditions, and
hold a Scotch party, using Burn's poem Hallowe'en as a guide; or to go
a-souling as the English used. In short, no custom that was once honored
at Hallowe'en is out of fashion now."[26] Kelley lived in Lynn,
Massachusetts, a town with 4,500 Irish immigrants, 1,900 English
immigrants, and 700 Scottish immigrants in 1920.[27] In er book, Kelley
touches on customs that arrived from across the Atlantic; "Americans
have fostered them, and are making this an occasion something like what
it must have been in its best days overseas. All Hallowe'en customs in
the United States are borrowed directly or adapted from those of other
countries".[28]
While the first reference to "guising" in North
America occurs in 1911, another reference to ritual begging on Halloween
appears, place unknown, in 1915, with a third reference in Chicago in
1920.[29]
The earliest known use in print of the term "trick or treat" appears in 1927, from Blackie, Alberta:
Hallowe’en provided an opportunity for real strenuous fun. No real
damage was done except to the temper of some who had to hunt for wagon
wheels, gates, wagons, barrels, etc., much of which decorated the front
street. The youthful tormentors were at back door and front demanding
edible plunder by the word “trick or treat” to which the inmates gladly
responded and sent the robbers away rejoicing.[30]
The thousands
of Halloween postcards produced between the start of the 20th century
and the 1920s commonly show children but do not depict
trick-or-treating.[31] The editor of a collection of over 3,000 vintage
Halloween postcards writes, "There are cards which mention the custom
[of trick-or-treating] or show children in costumes at the doors, but as
far as we can tell they were printed later than the 1920s and more than
likely even the 1930s. Tricksters of various sorts are shown on the
early postcards, but not the means of appeasing them".[32]
Trick-or-treating
does not seem to have become a widespread practice until the 1930s,
with the first U.S. appearance of the term in 1932,[33] and the first
use in a national publication occurring in 1939.[34]
Behavior
similar to trick-or-treating was more commonly associated with
Thanksgiving from 1870 (shortly after that holiday's formalization)
until the 1930s. In New York City, a Thanksgiving ritual known as
Ragamuffin Day involved children dressing up as beggars and asking for
treats, which later evolved into dressing up in more diverse
costumes.[35][36] Increasing hostility toward the practice in the 1930s
eventually led to the begging aspects being dropped, and by the 1950s,
the tradition as a whole had ceased.
Increased popularity
Almost
all pre-1940 uses of the term "trick-or-treat" are from the United
States and Canada. Trick-or-treating spread throughout the United
States, stalled only by World War II sugar rationing that began in
April, 1942 and lasted until June, 1947.[37][38]
Magazine advertisement in 1962
Early
national attention to trick-or-treating was given in October, 1947
issues of the children's magazines Jack and Jill and Children's
Activities,[39] and by Halloween episodes of the network radio programs
The Baby Snooks Show in 1946 and The Jack Benny Show and The Adventures
of Ozzie and Harriet in 1948.[40] Trick-or-treating was depicted in the
Peanuts comic strip in 1951.[41] The custom had become firmly
established in popular culture by 1952, when Walt Disney portrayed it in
the cartoon Trick or Treat, and Ozzie and Harriet were besieged by
trick-or-treaters on an episode of their television show.[42] In 1953
UNICEF first conducted a national campaign for children to raise funds
for the charity while trick-or-treating.[43]
Although some
popular histories of Halloween have characterized trick-or-treating as
an adult invention to re-channel Halloween activities away from Mischief
Night vandalism, there are very few records supporting this. Des
Moines, Iowa is the only area known to have a record of
trick-or-treating being used to deter crime.[44] Elsewhere, adults, as
reported in newspapers from the mid-1930s to the mid-1950s, typically
saw it as a form of extortion, with reactions ranging from bemused
indulgence to anger.[45] Likewise, as portrayed on radio shows, children
would have to explain what trick-or-treating was to puzzled adults, and
not the other way around. Sometimes even the children protested: for
Halloween 1948, members of the Madison Square Boys Club in New York City
carried a parade banner that read "American Boys Don't Beg."[46] The
National Confectioners Association reported in 2005 that 80 percent of
adults in the United States planned to give out confectionery to
trick-or-treaters,[47] and that 93 percent of children, teenagers, and
young adults planned to go trick-or-treating or participating in other
Halloween activities.[48]
Phrase introduction to the UK and Ireland
Despite
the concept of trick-or-treating originating in Britain and Ireland in
the form of souling and guising, the use of the term "trick or treat" at
the doors of homeowners was not common until the 1980s, with its
popularisation in part through the release of the film E.T.[49] Guising
requires those going door-to-door to perform a song or poem without any
jocular threat,[50] and according to one BBC journalist, in the 1980s,
"trick or treat" was still often viewed as an exotic and not
particularly welcome import, with the BBC referring to it as "the
Japanese knotweed of festivals" and "making demands with menaces".[51]
In Ireland before the phrase "trick or treat" became common in the
2000s, children would say "Help the Halloween Party".[3] Very often, the
phrase "trick or treat" is simply said and the revellers are given
sweets, with the choice of a trick or a treat having been discarded.
Etiquette
Two children trick-or-treating on Halloween in Arkansas, United States
Trick-or-treating
typically begins at dusk which can vary according to region on October
31. It can range between 5:30PM–9:00PM. Some municipalities specify
times that can be found on city/town sites. Some municipalities choose
other dates.[52] Homeowners wishing to participate sometimes decorate
their homes with artificial spider webs, plastic skeletons and
jack-o-lanterns. While not every residence may be decorated for the
holiday, those participating in the handing out of candy will opt to
leave a porch light on to signify that the opportunity for candy is
available. Some homeowners may go as far as asking trick-or-treaters for
a "trick" before providing them with candy, while others simply leave
the candy in bowls on the porch.
The nonprofit Food Allergy
Research & Education says on its website that in 2014 it started the
practice of teal pumpkins as decorations to indicate that a house is
giving out items other than food. This inspired Alicia Plumer, the
mother of an autistic son, to start the blue bucket movement in 2018.
Plumer's son carried a blue bucket, and National Autism Association
president Wendy Fournier encouraged the use of blue buckets by other
autistic children, to indicate that they might not have the abilities of
other children but still deserved to be included.[53]
Local variants
Guising
"Guising" redirects here. For other uses, see Guising (disambiguation).
Halloween shop in Derry, Northern Ireland. Halloween masks are called ‘false faces’ in Ireland.[54]
In
Scotland and Ireland, "guising" – children going from door to door in
disguise – is traditional, and a gift in the form of food, coins or
"apples or nuts for the Halloween party" (in more recent times
chocolate) is given out to the children.[3][55][56] The tradition is
called "guising" because of the disguises or costumes worn by the
children.[2][57] In the West Mid Scots dialect, guising is known as
"galoshans".[58] Halloween masks are referred to as ‘false faces’ in
Ireland and Scotland.[54] While guising has been recorded in Scotland in
the 16th century, a more contemporary record of guising at Halloween in
Scotland is in 1895, where masqueraders in disguise carrying lanterns
made out of scooped out turnips, visit homes to be rewarded with cakes,
fruit, and money.[25] Guising also involved going to wealthy homes, and
in the 1920s, boys went guising at Halloween up to the affluent
Thorntonhall, South Lanarkshire.[59] An account of guising in the 1950s
in Ardrossan, North Ayrshire, records a child receiving 12 shillings and
sixpence, having knocked on doors throughout the neighbourhood and
performed.[50] In Ireland, kids in their masks and costumes would
commonly say "Help the Halloween Party" at the doors of
homeowners.[3][60] Growing up in Derry, Northern Ireland in the 1960s,
Michael Bradley recalls kids asking, “Any nuts or apples?”.[61]
There
is a significant difference from the way the practice has developed in
North America with the jocular threat. In Scotland and Ireland, the
children are only supposed to receive treats if they perform a party
trick for the households they go to. This normally takes the form of
singing a song or reciting a joke or a funny poem which the child has
memorised before setting out.[50] Occasionally a more talented child may
do card tricks, play the mouth organ, or something even more
impressive, but most children will earn plenty of treats even with
something very simple. Often they won't even need to perform.[55] While
going from door to door in disguise has remained popular among Scots and
Irish at Halloween, the North American saying "trick-or-treat" has
become common in the 2000s.[3][60]
Trunk-or-treat
Trunk-or-treating event held at St. John Lutheran Church & Early Learning Center in Darien, Illinois
Some
organizations around the United States and Canada sponsor a
"trunk-or-treat" on Halloween night (or on occasion, a day immediately
preceding Halloween or a few days from it on a weekend, depending on
what is convenient), where trick-or-treating is done from parked car to
parked car in a local parking lot, often at a school or church. This
annual event began in the mid-1990s as a "Fall Festival" for an
alternative to trick-or-treating, but became "trunk-or-treat" two
decades later. The activity involves the open trunk of a car, displaying
candy, and often games and decorations. Some parents regard
trunk-or-treating as a safer alternative to trick-or-treating;[62] while
other parents see it as an easier alternative to walking the
neighborhood with their children. Some have called for more city or
community group-sponsored trunk-or-treats, so they can be more
inclusive.[63] These have become increasingly popular in recent
years.[64]
Other
Children of the St. Louis, Missouri area are
expected to perform a joke, usually a simple Halloween-themed pun or
riddle, before receiving any candy; this "trick" earns the "treat".[65]
Children in Des Moines, Iowa also tell jokes or otherwise perform before
receiving their treat.
In most areas where trick-or-treating is
practiced, it is strictly meant for children. In fact, there are a
diversity of opinions regarding when to end trick or treating, the most
restrictive of which is age 12, the least restrictive at any age, and a
common rule of thumb being "if you are old enough to drive a car you are
too old to beg strangers for candy".[66] It is generally expected that a
teenager will transition into more mature expressions of celebrating
the holiday, such as fancy dress, games, and diversions like bonfires
and bobbing for apples, and sweets like caramel apples, and teenagers
will often attend school or community events with a Halloween theme
where there will be dancing and music.[67] Dressing up is common at all
ages, adults will often dress up to accompany their children, and young
adults may dress up to go out and ask for gifts for a charity.
In
some parts of Canada, children sometimes say "Halloween apples" instead
of "trick or treat". This probably originated when the toffee apple was
a popular type of candy. Apple-giving in much of Canada, however, has
been taboo since the 1960s when stories (of almost certainly
questionable authenticity) appeared of razors hidden inside Halloween
apples; parents began to check over their children's "loot" for safety
before allowing them to eat it. In Quebec, children also go door to door
on Halloween. However, in French-speaking neighbourhoods, instead of
"Trick or treat", they will simply say "Halloween", though it
traditionally used to be "La charité, s'il-vous-plaît" ("Charity,
please").[68]
In Portugal, children go from house to house in All
Saints Day and All Souls Day, carrying pumpkin carved lanterns called
coca,[69] asking everyone they see for Pão-por-Deus singing rhymes where
they remind people why they are begging, saying "...It is for me and
for you, and to give to the deceased who are dead and buried"[70] or "It
is to share with your deceased"[71] If a door is not open or the
children don't get anything, they end their singing saying "In this
house smells like lard, here must live someone deceased". In the Azores
the bread given to the children takes the shape of the top of a
skull.[72] The tradition of pão-por-Deus was already recorded in the
15th century.[73] After this ritual begging, takes place the Magusto and
big bonfires are lit with the "firewood of the souls". The young people
play around smothering their faces with the ashes. The ritual begging
for the deceased used to take place all over the year as in several
regions the dead, those who were dear, were expected to arrive and take
part in the major celebrations like Christmas and a plate with food or a
seat at the table was always left for them.[74]
In Sweden,
children dress up as witches and monsters when they go trick-or-treating
on Maundy Thursday (the Thursday before Easter) while Danish children
dress up in various attires and go trick-or-treating on Fastelavn (or
the next day, Shrove Monday). In Norway, "trick-or-treat" is called
"knask eller knep", which means almost the same thing, although with the
word order reversed, and the practice is quite common among children,
who come dressed up to people's doors asking for, mainly, candy. Many
Norwegians prepare for the event by consciously buying a small stock of
sweets prior to it, to come in handy should any kids come knocking on
the door, which is very probable in most areas. The Easter witch
tradition is done on Palm Sunday in Finland (virvonta). In parts of
Flanders and some parts of the Netherlands and most areas of Germany,
Switzerland, and Austria, children go to houses with homemade beet
lanterns or with paper lanterns (which can hold a candle or electronic
light), singing songs about St. Martin on St. Martin's Day (the 11th of
November), in return for treats.[75] In Northern Germany and Southern
Denmark, children dress up in costumes and go trick-or-treating on New
Year's Eve in a tradition called "Rummelpott [de]".[76]
Trick or Treat for Charity
UNICEF
started a program in 1950 called Trick-or-Treat for UNICEF in which
trick-or-treaters ask people to give money for the organization, usually
instead of collecting candy. Participating trick-or-treaters say when
they knock at doors "Trick-or-treat for UNICEF!"[77] This program
started as an alternative to candy. The organization has long produced
disposable collection boxes that state on the back what the money can be
used for in developing countries.
In Canada, students from the
local high schools, colleges, and universities dress up to collect food
donations for the local Food Banks as a form of trick-or-treating. This
is sometimes called "Trick-or-Eat"." (wikipedia.org)
"Halloween
costumes are costumes worn on or around Halloween, a festival which
falls on October 31. An early reference to wearing costumes at Halloween
comes from Scotland in 1585, but they may pre-date this. There are many
references to the custom during the 18th and 19th centuries in the
Celtic countries of Scotland, Ireland, Mann and Wales. It has been
suggested that the custom comes from the Celtic festivals of Samhain and
Calan Gaeaf, or from the practise of "souling" during the Christian
observance of Allhallowtide. Wearing costumes and mumming has long been
associated with festivals at other times of the year, such as on
Christmas.[1] Halloween costumes are traditionally based on frightening
supernatural or folkloric beings. However, by the 1930s costumes based
on characters in mass media such as film, literature, and radio were
popular. Halloween costumes have tended to be worn mainly by young
people, but since the mid-20th century they have been increasingly worn
by adults also....
History of Halloween costumes
An early 20th-century Irish Halloween mask (a "rhymer" or a "vizor") displayed at the Museum of Country Life.
The
wearing of costumes at Halloween may come from the belief that
supernatural beings, or the souls of the dead, roamed the earth at this
time.
The practice may have originated in a Celtic festival, held
on 31 October–1 November, to mark the beginning of winter. It was
called Samhain in Ireland, Scotland and the Isle of Man, and Calan Gaeaf
in Wales, Cornwall and Brittany. The festival is believed to have
pre-Christian roots. After the Christianization of Ireland in the 5th
century, some of these customs may have been retained in the Christian
observance of All Hallows' Eve in that region—which continued to be
called Samhain/Calan Gaeaf—blending the traditions of their ancestors
with Christian ones.[2][3] It was seen as a liminal time, when the
spirits or fairies (the Aos Sí), and the souls of the dead, could more
easily come into our world.[4] It was believed that the Aos Sí needed to
be propitiated to ensure that the people and their livestock survived
the winter.
From at least the 16th century,[5] the festival
included mumming and guising,[6] which involved people going
house-to-house in costume (or in disguise), usually reciting verses or
songs in exchange for food.[6] It may have originally been a tradition
whereby people impersonated the Aos Sí, or the souls of the dead, and
received offerings on their behalf. Impersonating these beings, or
wearing a disguise, was also believed to protect oneself from them.[7]
It is suggested that the mummers and guisers "personify the old spirits
of the winter, who demanded reward in exchange for good fortune".[8] F.
Marian McNeill suggests the ancient pagan festival included people
wearing masks or costumes to represent the spirits, and that faces were
marked (or blackened) with ashes taken from the sacred bonfire.[5] In
parts of southern Ireland, a man dressed as a Láir Bhán (white mare) led
youths house-to-house reciting verses—some of which had pagan
overtones—in exchange for food. If the household donated food it could
expect good fortune from the 'Muck Olla'; not doing so would bring
misfortune.[9] In 19th century Scotland, youths went house-to-house with
masked, painted or blackened faces, often threatening to do mischief if
they were not welcomed.[6] In parts of Wales, men went about dressed as
fearsome beings called gwrachod,[6] while in some places, young people
cross-dressed.[6] Elsewhere in Europe, mumming and costumes were part of
other yearly festivals. However, in the Celtic-speaking regions they
were "particularly appropriate to a night upon which supernatural beings
were said to be abroad and could be imitated or warded off by human
wanderers".[6] It has also been suggested that the wearing of Halloween
costumes developed from the custom of souling, which was practised by
Christians in parts of Western Europe from at least the 15th
century.[10][11] At Allhallowtide, groups of poor people would go
door-to-door, collecting soul cakes – either as representatives of the
dead,[12] or in return for saying prayers for them.[13] One 19th century
English writer said it "used to consist of parties of children, dressed
up in fantastic costume, who went round to the farm houses and
cottages, singing a song, and begging for cakes (spoken of as
"Soal-cakes"), apples, money, or anything that the goodwives would give
them".[14] The soulers typically asked for "mercy on all Christian souls
for a soul cake".[15] The practice was mentioned by Shakespeare his
play The Two Gentlemen of Verona (1593).[16][17] Christian minister
Prince Sorie Conteh wrote on the wearing of costumes: "It was
traditionally believed that the souls of the departed wandered the earth
until All Saints' Day, and All Hallows' Eve provided one last chance
for the dead to gain vengeance on their enemies before moving to the
next world. In order to avoid being recognised by any soul that might be
seeking such vengeance, people would don masks or costumes to disguise
their identities".[18] In the Middle Ages, statues and relics of
martyred saints were paraded through the streets at Allhallowtide. Some
churches who could not afford these things had people dress as saints
instead.[19][20] Some believers continue the practice of dressing as
saints, biblical figures, and reformers in Halloween celebrations
today.[21] Many Christians in continental Europe, especially in France,
believed that on Halloween "the dead of the churchyards rose for one
wild, hideous carnival," known as the danse macabre, which has often
been depicted in church decoration.[22] An article published by
Christianity Today claimed the danse macabre was enacted at village
pageants and at court masques, with people "dressing up as corpses from
various strata of society", and suggested this was the origin of
Halloween costume parties.[23][24]
People in Halloween Costumes
The
custom of guising at Halloween in North America is first recorded in
1911, where a newspaper in Kingston, Ontario reported children going
"guising" around the neighborhood.[25] In 19th century America,
Halloween was often celebrated with costume parades and "licentious
revelries".[26] However, efforts were made to "domesticate" the festival
to conform with Victorian era morality. Halloween was made into a
private rather than public holiday, celebrations involving liquor and
sensuality de-emphasized, and only children were expected to celebrate
the festival.[27] Early Halloween costumes emphasized the gothic nature
of Halloween, and were aimed primarily at children. Costumes were also
made at home, or using items (such as make-up) which could be purchased
and utilized to create a costume. But in the 1930s, A.S. Fishbach, Ben
Cooper, Inc., and other firms began mass-producing Halloween costumes
for sale in stores as trick-or-treating became popular in North America.
Halloween costumes are often designed to imitate supernatural and scary
beings. Costumes are traditionally those of monsters such as vampires,
werewolves, zombies, ghosts,[28] skeletons, witches, goblins, trolls,
devils, etc. or in more recent years such science fiction-inspired
characters as aliens and superheroes. There are also costumes of pop
culture figures like presidents, athletes, celebrities, or characters in
film, television, literature, etc. Another popular trend is for women
(and in some cases, men) to use Halloween as an excuse to wear sexy
Child in a plain white mask
or
revealing costumes, showing off more skin than would be socially
acceptable otherwise.[29] Young girls also often dress as entirely
non-scary characters at Halloween, including princesses, fairies,
angels, cute animals and flowers.
Halloween costume parties
generally take place on or around October 31, often on the Friday or
Saturday prior to the holiday. Halloween parties are the 3rd most
popular type of party held in Western countries, falling behind only to
Super Bowl & New Year's Eve parties.[30]
College students dressed up for Halloween.
A couple trying Halloween face masks at a costume store in Iowa
Economics of Halloween costumes
[31]
Researchers conducted a survey for the National Retail Federation in
the United States and found that 53.3 percent of consumers planned to
buy a costume for Halloween 2005, spending $38.11 on average (up $10
from the year before). They were also expected to spend $4.96 billion in
2006, up significantly from just $3.3 billion the previous year.[32]
The troubled economy has caused many Americans to cut back on Halloween
spending. In 2009, the National Retail Federation anticipated that
American households would decrease Halloween spending by as much as 15%
to $56.31.[33] In 2013, Americans spent an estimated $6.9 billion to
celebrate Halloween, including a predicted $2.6 billion on costumes
(with more spent on adult costumes than for children's costumes) and
$330 million on pet costumes.[34][35] In 2017 it was estimated that
Americans would spend $9.1 billion on Halloween merchandise with $3.4
billion of that being on spend on Halloween costumes.[36] Another survey
by NRF showed that 67% of Halloween shoppers would buy Halloween
costumes spending $3.2 Billion in 2019.[37] And it is estimated that the
Halloween spending in 2020 could reach $8 billion
Halloween
costumes in the contemporary Western world sometimes depict people and
things from present times and are sometimes read in terms of their
political and cultural significance. Halloween costumes are sometimes
denounced for cultural appropriation when they uncritically use
stereotypical representations of other groups of people such as gypsies
and Native Americans.[39][40] Immigration and Customs Enforcement
Secretary Julie Myers was involved in a scandal when she awarded "Best
Costume" at the ICE Halloween party to an 'escaped Jamaican prisoner'
dressed in dreadlocks and blackface." (wikipedia.org)
"Glitter
is an assortment of small, reflective particles that come in a variety
of shapes, sizes, and colors. Glitter particles reflect light at
different angles, causing the surface to sparkle or shimmer. Glitter is
similar to confetti, sparkles and sequins, but somewhat smaller.
Since
prehistoric times, glitter has been made from many different materials
including stones such as malachite, and mica,[1] as well as insects[2]
and glass.[3] Modern glitter is usually manufactured from the
combination of aluminum and plastic which is rarely recycled leading to
calls from scientists for bans on plastic glitter....
Glitter manufacturing
Magnified nail polish
The
first production of modern plastic glitter is credited to the American
machinist Henry Ruschmann, Sr., who found a way to cut sheets of plastic
such as mylar into glitter in 1934.[1] During World War II, glass
glitter became unavailable so Ruschmann found a market for scrap
plastics, which were ground into glitter.[1][5] In 1943, he purchased
Meadowbrook Farm in Bernardsville, New Jersey where he founded
Meadowbrook Inventions, Inc. to produce industrial glitter.[6] Decades
later he filed a patent for a mechanism for cross-cutting films as well
as other related inventions.[7]
Today over 20,000 varieties of
glitter are manufactured in a vast number of different colors, sizes,
and materials.[8] One estimate suggests 10 million pounds (4.5 million
kilograms) of glitter was either purchased or produced between the years
of 1989 and 2009 however the source[9] provides no evidence or
reference point. Commercial glitter ranges in size from 0.002 to .25
inches (0.05 to 6.35 mm)[10] a side. First, flat multi-layered sheets
are produced combining plastic, coloring, and reflective material such
as aluminium, titanium dioxide, iron oxide, and bismuth oxychloride.
These sheets are then cut into tiny particles of many shapes including
squares, triangles, rectangles, and hexagons.[10]
Ancient glitter
Mica
Glittering
surfaces have been found to be used since prehistoric times in the arts
and in cosmetics. The modern English word "glitter" comes from the
Middle English word gliteren, possibly by way of the Old Norse word
glitra.[11] However, as early as 30,000 years ago, mica flakes were used
to give cave paintings a glittering appearance.[1] Prehistoric humans
are believed to have used cosmetics,[12] made of powdered hematite, a
sparkling mineral.[13]
8,000 years ago people of the Americas
were using powdered , to produce a bright
greyish-white glittering paint used for objects of adornment.[14] The
collecting and surface mining of galena was prevalent in the Upper
Mississippi Valley region by the Cahokia native peoples, for regional
trade both raw and crafted into beads or other objects.[14]
From
40,000 BC to 200 BC, ancient Egyptians, produced "glitter-like
substances from crushed beetles"[15] as well as finely ground green
malachite crystal. Researchers believe Mayan temples were sometimes
painted with red, green, and grey glitter paint made from mica dust,
based on infrared scans of the remnants of paint still found on the
structures in present-day Guatemala.[16]
Why glitter is used
Glitter nail polish
Iridescent fishing lures
Furniture made of glitter PVC.
Prior
to fabrics made with modern glitter, sequins were sewn or woven on to
fabric to give it a glittering appearance. Edible glitter made from gum
arabic and other ingredients is even used by culinary artists.[17]
Glitter
is used in cosmetics to make the face and nails shiny or sparkly.
Additionally, it is commonly used in arts and crafts to color,
accessorise and texture items. The small, brightly colored particles
often stick to clothing, skin, and furniture, and can be difficult to
remove. It is also used on optically variable inks.
Glitter coatings or finishes are frequently used on fishing lures to draw attention by simulating the scales of prey fish.[18]
Due
to its unique characteristics, glitter has also proven to be useful
forensic evidence. Because of the tens of thousands of different
commercial glitters, identical glitter particles can be compelling
evidence that a suspect has been at a crime scene. Forensic scientist
Edwin Jones has one of the largest collections of glitter consisting of
over 1,000 different samples used in comparison of samples taken from
crime scenes. Glitter particles are easily transferred through the air
or by touch, yet cling to bodies and clothing, often unnoticed by
suspects.[19]
Subculture
Glitter can be seen as a tool of
fashion used by various subcultures, as it allows for a visible
statement to be worn and seen on the body. This is because it has been theorized to be a "flickering signifier", or something that destabilizes
known notions of popular culture, identity, and society.[20] Glitter is
associated with "fringe cultures", which often use excessive glam and
glamor such as glitter to evoke a deeper understanding between the
relationships of commercialized popular culture and "high" culture, or
"high-brow" art.[21]
Used by glam rockers, such as David Bowie,
Gary Glitter and Iggy Pop, glitter is also used as a tool to help blur
gender lines. This helped to create the more extreme "glitter rock" – an
even more heightened version of glam rock.[22]
Glitter is also
used by nail artists and make-up artists to make statements about
femininity and beauty standards. The flashy, sparkling nature of glitter
allows users to push standard ideas of beauty and what is and isn't
considered "excessive" in terms of make-up. Glitter is usually
associated with nightlife and not professionalism, but wearing it in
different settings can push these boundaries.[20]
Glitter is also
used for glitter bombing, which is an act of protest in which activists
throw glitter on people at public events.[23] Glitter bombers have
frequently been motivated by, though not limited to, their targets'
opposition to same-sex marriage.[24] Some legal officials argue glitter
bombing is technically assault and battery. It is possible for glitter
to enter the eyes or nose and cause damage to the cornea or other soft
tissues potentially irritating them or leading to infection,[25]
depending on the size of the glitter. Whether a prosecutor would pursue
the charges depends on a number of factors." (wikipedia.org)
"Various
images are used traditionally to symbolize death; these rank from blunt
depictions of cadavers and their parts to more allusive suggestions
that time is fleeting and all men are mortals.
The human skull is
an obvious and frequent symbol of death, found in many cultures and
religious traditions.[1] Human skeletons and sometimes non-human animal
skeletons and skulls can also be used as blunt images of death; the
traditional figures of the Grim Reaper – a black-hooded skeleton with a
scythe – is one use of such symbolism.[2] Within the Grim Reaper itself,
the skeleton represents the decayed body whereas the robe symbolizes
those worn by religious people conducting funeral services.[2] The skull
and crossbones motif (☠) has been used among Europeans as a symbol of
both piracy and poison.[3] The skull is also important as it remains the
only "recognizable" aspect of a person once they have died.[3]
Decayed
cadavers can also be used to depict death; in medieval Europe, they
were often featured in artistic depictions of the danse macabre, or in
cadaver tombs which depicted the living and decomposed body of the
person entombed. Coffins also serve as blunt reminders of mortality.[4]
Europeans were also seen to use coffins and cemeteries to symbolize the
wealth and status of the person who has died, serving as a reminder to
the living and the deceased as well.[4] Less blunt symbols of death
frequently allude to the passage of time and the fragility of life, and
can be described as memento mori;[5] that is, an artistic or symbolic
reminder of the inevitability of death. Clocks, hourglasses, sundials,
and other timepieces both call to mind that time is passing.[3]
Similarly, a candle both marks the passage of time, and bears witness
that it will eventually burn itself out as well as a symbol of hope of
salvation.[3] These sorts of symbols were often incorporated into
vanitas paintings, a variety of early still life.
Certain animals
such as crows, cats, owls, moths, vultures and bats are associated with
death; some because they feed on carrion, others because they are
nocturnal.[3] Along with death, vultures can also represent
transformation and renewal.[3]
Religious symbols
Veve of Maman Brigitte, the loa of death in Haitian Vodou.
Religious symbols of death and depictions of the afterlife will vary with the religion practiced by the people who use them.
Tombs,
tombstones, and other items of funeral architecture are obvious
candidates for symbols of death.[3] In ancient Egypt, the gods Osiris
and Ptah were typically depicted as mummies; these gods governed the
Egyptian afterlife. In Christianity, the Christian cross is frequently
used on graves, and is meant to call to mind the crucifixion of
Jesus.[3] Some Christians also erect temporary crosses along public
highways as memorials for those who died in accidents. In Buddhism, the
symbol of a wheel represents the perpetual cycle of death and rebirth
that happens in samsara.[6] The symbol of a grave or tomb, especially
one in a picturesque or unusual location, can be used to represent
death, as in Nicolas Poussin's famous painting Et in Arcadia ego.
Images
of life in the afterlife are also symbols of death. Here, again, the
ancient Egyptians produced detailed pictorial representations of the
life enjoyed by the dead. In Christian folk religion, the spirits of the
dead are often depicted as winged angels or angel-like creatures,
dwelling among the clouds; this imagery of the afterlife is frequently
used in comic depictions of the life after death.[3] In the Islamic view
of the Afterlife, death is symbolised by a black and white ram which in
turn will be slain to symbolise the Death of Death.
The Banshee
also symbolizes the coming of death in Irish Mythology.[3] This is
typically represented by an older woman who is seen sobbing to symbolize
the suffering of a person before their death.[3]
Colors
Black is
the color of mourning in many European cultures. Black clothing is
typically worn at funerals to show mourning for the death of the person.
In East Asia, white is similarly associated with mourning; it
represented the purity and perfection of the deceased person's
spirit.[7] During the Victorian era, purple and grey were considered to
be mourning colors in addition to black.[8] Furthermore, in Revelation 6
in The Bible, Death is one of the four horsemen; and he rides a pale
horse." (wikipedia.org)
"A
magician, also known as an archmage, mage, magus, magic-user,
spellcaster, enchanter/enchantress, sorcerer/sorceress, warlock, witch,
or wizard, is someone who uses or practices magic derived from
supernatural, occult, or arcane sources.[2]: 54 Magicians are common
figures in works of fantasy, such as fantasy literature and role-playing
games, and enjoy a rich history in mythology, legends, fiction, and
folklore.
Character archetypes
The Enchanter Merlin, by Howard Pyle, from The Story of King Arthur and His Knights (1903)
People
who work magic are called by several names in fantasy works, and
terminology differs widely from one fantasy world to another. While
derived from real-world vocabulary, the terms: magician, mage, magus,
enchanter/enchantress, sorcerer/sorceress, warlock, witch, and wizard,
each have different meanings depending upon context and the story in
question.[3]: 619 Archmage is used in fantasy works to indicate a
powerful magician or a leader of magicians.[3]: 1027
The Love Potion by Evelyn De Morgan (1903)
Enchanters
typically practice a type of imbued magic that produces no permanent
effects on objects or people, and are temporary, or of an indefinite
duration, or which may require some item or act, to nullify or reverse.
For example, this could include enchanting a weapon or tool to be more
(or less) effective, enchanting a person or object to have a changed
shape or appearance, creating illusions intended to deceive the
observer, compelling a person to perform an action they might not
normally do, or attempting to charm or seduce someone.[3]: 318 For
instance, the Lady of the Green Kirtle in C. S. Lewis's The Silver Chair
can transform herself into a large green serpent. She also enchants
Rilian, compelling him to forget his father and Narnia. And when that
enchantment is broken, she attempts further enchantments with a
sweet-smelling smoke and a thrumming musical instrument to attempt to
baffle him and his rescuers into forgetting them again.[4]
The
term sorcerer has moved from meaning a fortune-teller, or "one who
alters fate", to meaning a practitioner of magic who can alter reality.
They are also sometimes shown as able to conjure supernatural beings or
spirits, such as in The Sorcerer's Apprentice. Due to this perception of
their powers, this character may be depicted as feared, or even seen as
evil. In sword and sorcery works, typically the hero would be the
sword-wielder, thus leaving the sorcery for his opponent. Villainous
sorcerers were so crucial to pulp fantasy that the genre in which they
appeared was dubbed "sword and sorcery".[3]: 885
Witch (an—often
female—practitioner of witchcraft) and wicked (an adjective meaning
"bad, evil, false") are both derivative terms from the word, wicca (an
Old English word with varied meaning, including: soothsayer, astrologer,
herbalist, poisoner, seductress, or devotee of supernatural beings or
spirits). L. Frank Baum combined these terms in naming the Wicked Witch
of the West, and other witches in the Land of Oz. Baum named Glinda the
"Good Witch of the South" in The Wonderful Wizard of Oz. In The
Marvelous Land of Oz, he dubbed her "Glinda the Good," and from that
point forward and in subsequent books, Baum referred to her as a
sorceress rather than a witch to avoid the term that was more regarded
as evil.[5] In modern fiction, a witch may be depicted more neutrally,
such as the female witches (comparable to the male wizards) in the Harry
Potter series of books by J. K. Rowling.
In medieval chivalric
romance, the wizard often appears as a wise old man and acts as a
mentor, with Merlin from the King Arthur stories being a prime
example.[6]: 195 Wizards such as Gandalf in The Lord of the Rings and
Albus Dumbledore from Harry Potter are also featured as mentors, and
Merlin remains prominent as both an educative force and mentor in modern
works of Arthuriana.[3]: 637 [7]
Wizards can be cast similarly
to the absent-minded professor: being foolish and prone to misconjuring.
They can also be capable of great magic, both good or
evil.[2]: 140–141 Even comical magicians are often capable of great
feats, such as those of Miracle Max in The Princess Bride; although he
is a washed-up wizard fired by the villain, he saves the dying hero.[8]
Other
wizards, such as Saruman from The Lord of the Rings or Lord Voldemort
from Harry Potter, can appear as hostile villains.[6]: 193
Ursula
K. Le Guin's A Wizard of Earthsea explored the question of how wizards
learned their art, introducing to modern fantasy the role of the wizard
as protagonist.[9] This theme has been further developed in modern
fantasy, often leading to wizards as heroes on their own quests.[10]
Such heroes may have their own mentor, a wizard as well.[3]: 637
In role-playing games
Magicians
in role-playing games often use names borrowed from fiction, myth and
legend. They are typically delineated and named so that the game's
players and game masters can know which rules apply.[3]: 385 Gary Gygax
and Dave Arneson introduced the term "magic-user" in the original
Dungeons & Dragons as a generic term for a practitioner of magic (in
order to avoid the connotations of terms such as wizard or warlock);
this lasted until the second edition of Advanced Dungeons & Dragons,
where it was replaced with mage (later to become wizard). The exact
rules vary from game to game.[citation needed] The wizard or mage, as a
character class, is distinguished by the ability to cast certain kinds
of magic but being weak in combat; sub-classes are distinguished by
strengths in some areas of magic and weakness in others.[11] Sorcerers
are distinguished from wizards as having an innate gift with magic, as
well as having mystical or magical ancestry.[12] Warlocks are
distinguished from wizards as creating forbidden "pacts" with powerful
creatures to harness their innate magical gifts.
Appearance
White-haired and white-bearded wizard with robes and hat
In fantasy, a
magician may be shown wearing a pointed hat, robes, and/or a cloak. In
more modern stories, a magician may be dressed similarly to a stage
magician, wearing a top hat and tails, with an optional cape.
A magician's crystal ball is a crystal or glass ball commonly associated with clairvoyance, fortune-telling, or scrying.
Wands
and staves have long been used as requirements for the
magician.[6]: 152 Possibly derived from wand-like implements used in
fertility rituals, such as apotropaic wands, the earliest known instance
of the modern magical wand was featured in the Odyssey, used by Circe
to transform Odysseus's men into animals. Italian fairy tales put wands
into the hands of powerful fairies by the Late Middle Ages.[17] Today,
magical wands are widespread in literature and are used from Witch World
to Harry Potter. In The Lord of the Rings, Gandalf refuses to surrender
his own staff, breaking Saruman's, which strips the latter of his
power. This dependency on a particular magical item is common, and
necessary to limit the magician's power for the story's sake – without
it, the magician's powers may be weakened or absent entirely.[18] In the
Harry Potter universe, a wizard must expend much greater effort and
concentration to use magic without a wand, and only a few can control
magic without one; taking away a wizard's wand in battle essentially
disarms them.[citation needed]
Magicians
normally learn spells by reading ancient tomes called grimoires, which
may have magical properties of their own.[3]: 126 Sorcerers in Conan
the Barbarian often gained powers from such books, which are demarcated
by their strange bindings. In worlds where magic is not an innate trait,
the scarcity of these strange books may be a facet of the story; in
Poul Anderson's A Midsummer Tempest, Prince Rupert seeks out the books
of the magician Prospero to learn magic. The same occurs in the Dungeons
and Dragons-based novel series Dragonlance Chronicles, wherein Raistlin
Majere seeks out the books of the sorcerer Fistandantilus. In JK
Rowling's Harry Potter series, wizards already have skills of magic but
they need to practise magic in Wizarding Schools in order to be able to
use it properly.
Some magicians, even after training, continue
their education by learning more spells, inventing new ones (and new
magical objects), or rediscovering ancient spells, beings, or objects.
For example, Dr. Strange from the Marvel Universe continues to learn
about magic even after being named Sorcerer Supreme. He often encounters
creatures that haven't been seen for centuries or more. In the same
universe, Dr. Doom continues to pursue magical knowledge after mastering
it by combining magic with science. Fred and George Weasley from Harry
Potter invent new magical items and sell them as legitimate defense
items, new spells and potions can be made in the Harry Potter Universe;
Severus Snape invented a variety of jinxes and hexes as well as
substantial improvements in the process of making potions; Albus
Dumbledore, along with Nicolas Flamel, is credited with discovering the
twelve uses of dragon's blood.
Limits on magic
A common motif in fiction is that the ability to
use magic is innate and often rare, or gained through a large amount of
study and practice.[3]: 616 In J. R. R. Tolkien's Middle-earth, it is
mostly limited to non-humans, such as the Istari (more commonly known as
wizards), or elves crafting magical items. In many writers' works, it
is reserved for a select group of humans,[citation needed] such as in
Katherine Kurtz's Deryni novels, JK Rowling's Harry Potter novels or
Randall Garrett's Lord Darcy universe.
A common limit invented by
Jack Vance in his The Dying Earth series, and later popularized in
role-playing games is that a wizard can only cast a specific number of
spells in a day.[3]: 385 In Larry Niven's The Magic Goes Away, once an
area's mana is exhausted, no one can use magic.[3]: 942
Magic
may require rare and precious materials, such as rare herbs or flowers
(often selected by rituals), minerals or metals such as
mercury, parts of creatures such as the eye of a newt, or even fantastic
ingredients like the cool of a soft breeze on a summer's day. Even if
the magician lacks scruples, obtaining the materials in question may be
difficult.[19] This can vary by fantasy work. Many magicians require no
materials at all;[3]: 617 or those that do may require only simple and
easily obtained materials. Role-playing games are more likely to require
such materials for at least some spells for game balance
reasons.[20][self-published source?]
Use of magic in society
At other times, magic and technology do
develop in tandem; this is most common in the alternate history
genre.[citation needed] Patricia Wrede's Regency fantasies include a
Royal Society of Wizards and a technological level equivalent to the
actual Regency; Randall Garrett's Lord Darcy series, Robert A.
Heinlein's Magic, Incorporated, and Poul Anderson's Operation Chaos all
depict modern societies with magic equivalent to twentieth-century
technology. In Harry Potter, wizards have magical equivalents to
non-magical inventions; sometimes they duplicate them, as with the
Hogwarts Express train.
In
the magic-noir world of the Dresden Files, wizards generally keep a low
profile, though there is no explicit prohibition against interacting
openly with non-magical humanity. The protagonist of the series, Harry
Dresden, openly advertises in the Yellow Pages under the heading
"Wizard" and maintains a business office, though other wizards tend to
resent him for practicing his craft openly. Dresden primarily uses his
magic to make a living finding lost items and people, performing
exorcisms, and providing protection against the supernatural.[22]
"Magic,
sometimes spelled magick,[1] is an ancient practice rooted in rituals,
spiritual divinations, and/or cultural lineage—with an intention to
invoke, manipulate, or otherwise manifest supernatural forces, beings,
or entities in the natural world.[2] It is a categorical yet often
ambiguous term which has been used to refer to a wide variety of beliefs
and practices, frequently considered separate from both religion and
science.[3]
Connotations have varied from positive to negative at
times throughout history,[4] Within Western culture, magic has been
linked to ideas of the Other,[5] foreignness,[6] and primitivism;[7]
indicating that it is "a powerful marker of cultural difference"[8] and
likewise, a non-modern phenomenon.[9] During the late nineteenth and
early twentieth century, Western intellectuals perceived the practice of
magic to be a sign of a primitive mentality and also commonly
attributed it to marginalised groups of people.[8]
In modern
occultism and neopagan religions, many self-described magicians and
witches regularly practice ritual magic;[10] defining magic as a
technique for bringing about change in the physical world through the
force of one's will. This definition was popularised by Aleister Crowley
(1875–1947), an influential British occultist. This view has been
incorporated into chaos magic and the new religious movements of Thelema
and Wicca.
Etymology
One of the earliest surviving accounts of the Persian mágoi was provided by the Greek historian Herodotus.
The
English words magic, mage and magician come from the Latin term magus,
through the Greek μάγος, which is from the Old Persian maguš.
(𐎶𐎦𐎢𐏁|𐎶𐎦𐎢𐏁, magician).[11] The Old Persian magu- is derived from
the Proto-Indo-European megʰ-*magh (be able). The Persian term may have
led to the Old Sinitic *Mγag (mage or shaman).[12] The Old Persian form
seems to have permeated ancient Semitic languages as the Talmudic
Hebrew magosh, the Aramaic amgusha (magician), and the Chaldean maghdim
(wisdom and philosophy); from the first century BCE onwards, Syrian
magusai gained notoriety as magicians and soothsayers.
Since
the nineteenth century, academics in various disciplines have employed
the term magic but have defined it in different ways and used it in
reference to different things. One approach, associated with the
anthropologists Edward Tylor (1832–1917) and James G. Frazer
(1854–1941), uses the term to describe beliefs in hidden sympathies
between objects that allow one to influence the other. Defined in this
way, magic is portrayed as the opposite to science. An alternative
approach, associated with the sociologist Marcel Mauss (1872–1950) and
his uncle Émile Durkheim (1858–1917), employs the term to describe
private rites and ceremonies and contrasts it with religion, which it
defines as a communal and organised activity. By the 1990s many scholars
were rejecting the term's utility for scholarship. They argued that the
label drew arbitrary lines between similar beliefs and practices that
were alternatively considered religious, and that it constituted
ethnocentric to apply the connotations of magic—rooted in Western and
Christian history—to other cultures.
Branches or types
White, gray and black
Historian
Owen Davies says the term "white witch" was rarely used before the 20th
century.[15] White magic is understood as the use of magic for selfless
or helpful purposes, while black magic was used for selfish, harmful or
evil purposes.[16] Black magic is the malicious counterpart of the
benevolent white magic. There is no consensus as to what constitutes
white, gray or black magic, as Phil Hine says, "like many other aspects
of occultism, what is termed to be 'black magic' depends very much on
who is doing the defining."[17] Gray magic, also called "neutral magic",
is magic that is not performed for specifically benevolent reasons, but
is also not focused towards completely hostile practices.[18][19]
High and low
Historians
and anthropologists have distinguished between practitioners who engage
in high magic, and those who engage in low magic.[20] High magic, also
known as theurgy and ceremonial or ritual magic,[21] is more complex,
involving lengthy and detailed rituals as well as sophisticated,
sometimes expensive, paraphernalia.[20] Low magic and natural magic[21]
are associated with peasants and folklore[22] with simpler rituals such
as brief, spoken spells.[20] Low magic is also closely associated with
sorcery and witchcraft.[23] Anthropologist Susan Greenwood writes that
"Since the Renaissance, high magic has been concerned with drawing down
forces and energies from heaven" and achieving unity with divinity.[24]
High magic is usually performed indoors while witchcraft is often
performed outdoors.[25]
History
Main article: History of magic
Mesopotamia
Magic
was invoked in many kinds of rituals and medical formulae, and to
counteract evil omens. Defensive or legitimate magic in Mesopotamia
(asiputu or masmassutu in the Akkadian language) were incantations and
ritual practices intended to alter specific realities. The ancient
Mesopotamians believed that magic was the only viable defense against
demons, ghosts, and evil sorcerers.[26] To defend themselves against the
spirits of those they had wronged, they would leave offerings known as
kispu in the person's tomb in hope of appeasing them.[27] If that
failed, they also sometimes took a figurine of the deceased and buried
it in the ground, demanding for the gods to eradicate the spirit, or
force it to leave the person alone.[28]
The ancient Mesopotamians
also used magic intending to protect themselves from evil sorcerers who
might place curses on them.[29] Black magic as a category did not exist
in ancient Mesopotamia, and a person legitimately using magic to defend
themselves against illegitimate magic would use exactly the same
techniques.[29] The only major difference was that curses were enacted
in secret;[29] whereas a defense against sorcery was conducted in the
open, in front of an audience if possible.[29] One ritual to punish a
sorcerer was known as Maqlû, or "The Burning".[29] The person viewed as
being afflicted by witchcraft would create an effigy of the sorcerer and
put it on trial at night.[29] Then, once the nature of the sorcerer's
crimes had been determined, the person would burn the effigy and thereby
break the sorcerer's power over them.[29]
The ancient
Mesopotamians also performed magical rituals to purify themselves of
sins committed unknowingly.[29] One such ritual was known as the Šurpu,
or "Burning",[30] in which the caster of the spell would transfer the
guilt for all their misdeeds onto various objects such as a strip of
dates, an onion, and a tuft of wool.[30] The person would then burn the
objects and thereby purify themself of all sins that they might have
unknowingly committed.[30] A whole genre of love spells existed.[31]
Such spells were believed to cause a person to fall in love with another
person, restore love which had faded, or cause a male sexual partner to
be able to sustain an erection when he had previously been unable.[31]
Other spells were used to reconcile a man with his patron deity or to
reconcile a wife with a husband who had been neglecting her.[32]
The
ancient Mesopotamians made no distinction between rational science and
magic.[33][34][35] When a person became ill, doctors would prescribe
both magical formulas to be recited as well as medicinal
treatments.[34][35][36] Most magical rituals were intended to be
performed by an āšipu, an expert in the magical arts.[34][35][36][37]
The profession was generally passed down from generation to
generation[36] and was held in extremely high regard and often served as
advisors to kings and great leaders.[38] An āšipu probably served not
only as a magician, but also as a physician, a priest, a scribe, and a
scholar.[38]
The Sumerian god Enki, who was later syncretized
with the East Semitic god Ea, was closely associated with magic and
incantations;[39] he was the patron god of the bārȗ and the ašipū and
was widely regarded as the ultimate source of all arcane
knowledge.[40][41][42] The ancient Mesopotamians also believed in omens,
which could come when solicited or unsolicited.[43] Regardless of how
they came, omens were always taken with the utmost seriousness.[43]
Incantation bowls
Main article: Incantation bowl
See also: Jewish magical papyri
Mandaic-language incantation bowl
A
common set of shared assumptions about the causes of evil and how to
avert it are found in a form of early protective magic called
incantation bowl or magic bowls. The bowls were produced in the Middle
East, particularly in Upper Mesopotamia and Syria, what is now Iraq and
Iran, and fairly popular during the sixth to eighth centuries.[44][45]
The bowls were buried face down and were meant to capture demons. They
were commonly placed under the threshold, courtyards, in the corner of
the homes of the recently deceased and in cemeteries.[46] A subcategory
of incantation bowls are those used in Jewish magical practice. Aramaic
incantation bowls are an important source of knowledge about Jewish
magical practices.[47][48][49][50][51]
Egypt
Ancient Egyptian Eye of Horus amulet
In
ancient Egypt (Kemet in the Egyptian language), Magic (personified as
the god heka) was an integral part of religion and culture which is
known to us through a substantial corpus of texts which are products of
the Egyptian tradition.[52]
While the category magic has been
contentious for modern Egyptology, there is clear support for its
applicability from ancient terminology.[53] The Coptic term hik is the
descendant of the pharaonic term heka, which, unlike its Coptic
counterpart, had no connotation of impiety or illegality, and is
attested from the Old Kingdom through to the Roman era.[53] heka was
considered morally neutral and was applied to the practices and beliefs
of both foreigners and Egyptians alike.[54] The Instructions for
Merikare informs us that heka was a beneficence gifted by the creator to
humanity "... in order to be weapons to ward off the blow of
events".[55]
Magic was practiced by both the literate priestly
hierarchy and by illiterate farmers and herdsmen, and the principle of
heka underlay all ritual activity, both in the temples and in private
settings.[56]
The
interior walls of the pyramid of Unas, the final pharaoh of the
Egyptian Fifth Dynasty, are covered in hundreds of magical spells and
inscriptions, running from floor to ceiling in vertical
columns.[57]: 54 These inscriptions are known as the Pyramid
Texts[57]: 54 and they contain spells needed by the pharaoh in order to
survive in the Afterlife.[57]: 54 The Pyramid Texts were strictly for
royalty only;[57]: 56 the spells were kept secret from commoners and
were written only inside royal tombs.[57]: 56 During the chaos and
unrest of the First Intermediate Period, however, tomb robbers broke
into the pyramids and saw the magical inscriptions.[57]: 56 Commoners
began learning the spells and, by the beginning of the Middle Kingdom,
commoners began inscribing similar writings on the sides of their own
coffins, hoping that doing so would ensure their own survival in the
afterlife.[57]: 56 These writings are known as the Coffin
Texts.[57]: 56
After a person died, his or her corpse would be
mummified and wrapped in linen bandages to ensure that the deceased's
body would survive for as long as possible[60] because the Egyptians
believed that a person's soul could only survive in the afterlife for as
long as his or her physical body survived here on earth.[60] The last
ceremony before a person's body was sealed away inside the tomb was
known as the Opening of the Mouth.[60] In this ritual, the priests would
touch various magical instruments to various parts of the deceased's
body, thereby giving the deceased the ability to see, hear, taste, and
smell in the afterlife.[60]
Amulets
Main article: Amulet
The
use of amulets, (meket) was widespread among both living and dead
ancient Egyptians.[61][57]: 66 They were used for protection and as a
means of "...reaffirming the fundamental fairness of the universe".[62]
The oldest amulets found are from the predynastic Badarian Period, and
they persisted through to Roman times.[63]
Judea
Main article: Witchcraft in the Middle East
In
the Mosaic Law, practices such as witchcraft (Heb. קְסָמִ֔ים), being a
soothsayer (מְעוֹנֵ֥ן) or a sorcerer (וּמְכַשֵּֽׁף) or one who conjures
spells (וְחֹבֵ֖ר חָ֑בֶר) or one who calls up the dead (וְדֹרֵ֖שׁ
אֶל־הַמֵּתִֽים) are specifically forbidden as abominations to the
Lord.[64]
Although
magic was forbidden by Levitical law in the Hebrew Bible, it was widely
practised in the late Second Temple period, and particularly well
documented in the period following the destruction of the temple into
the 3rd, 4th, and 5th centuries CE.[69][70][71]
Asia
Further information: Asian witchcraft
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This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (August 2023)
China
Main article: Chinese shamanism
Further information: Taoism
Chinese
shamanism, alternatively called Wuism (Chinese: 巫教; pinyin: wū jiào;
lit. 'wu religion, shamanism, witchcraft'; alternatively 巫觋宗教 wū xí
zōngjiào), refers to the shamanic religious tradition of China.[72][73]
Its features are especially connected to the ancient Neolithic cultures
such as the Hongshan culture.[74] Chinese shamanic traditions are
intrinsic to Chinese folk religion.[75] Various ritual traditions are
rooted in original Chinese shamanism: contemporary Chinese ritual
masters are sometimes identified as wu by outsiders,[76] though most
orders do not self-identify as such.
Also Taoism has some of its
origins from Chinese shamanism:[72][77] it developed around the pursuit
of long life (shou 壽/寿), or the status of a xian (仙, "mountain man",
"holy man").[72] Taoism in ancient times until the modern day has used
rituals, mantras, and amulets with godly or supernatural powers. Taoist
worldviews were thought of as magical or alchemical.[78]
Greco-Roman world
Hecate, the ancient Greek goddess of magic
Main articles: Magic in the Greco-Roman world and Sorcery (goetia)
The
English word magic has its origins in ancient Greece.[79] During the
late sixth and early fifth centuries BCE, the Persian maguš was
Graecicized and introduced into the ancient Greek language as μάγος and
μαγεία.[14] In doing so it transformed meaning, gaining negative
connotations, with the magos being regarded as a charlatan whose ritual
practices were fraudulent, strange, unconventional, and dangerous.[14]
As noted by Davies, for the ancient Greeks—and subsequently for the
ancient Romans—"magic was not distinct from religion but rather an
unwelcome, improper expression of it—the religion of the other".[80] The
historian Richard Gordon suggested that for the ancient Greeks, being
accused of practicing magic was "a form of insult".[81]
This
change in meaning was influenced by the military conflicts that the
Greek city-states were then engaged in against the Persian Empire.[14]
In this context, the term makes appearances in such surviving text as
Sophocles' Oedipus Rex, Hippocrates' De morbo sacro, and Gorgias'
Encomium of Helen.[14] In Sophocles' play, for example, the character
Oedipus derogatorily refers to the seer Tiresius as a magos—in this
context meaning something akin to quack or charlatan—reflecting how this
epithet was no longer reserved only for Persians.[82]
In the
first century BCE, the Greek concept of the magos was adopted into Latin
and used by a number of ancient Roman writers as magus and magia.[14]
The earliest known Latin use of the term was in Virgil's Eclogue,
written around 40 BCE, which makes reference to magicis... sacris (magic
rites).[83] The Romans already had other terms for the negative use of
supernatural powers, such as veneficus and saga.[83] The Roman use of
the term was similar to that of the Greeks, but placed greater emphasis
on the judicial application of it.[14] Within the Roman Empire, laws
would be introduced criminalising things regarded as magic.[84]
In
ancient Roman society, magic was associated with societies to the east
of the empire; the first century CE writer Pliny the Elder for instance
claimed that magic had been created by the Iranian philosopher
Zoroaster, and that it had then been brought west into Greece by the
magician Osthanes, who accompanied the military campaigns of the Persian
King Xerxes.[85]
Ancient Greek scholarship of the 20th century,
almost certainly influenced by Christianising preconceptions of the
meanings of magic and religion, and the wish to establish Greek culture
as the foundation of Western rationality, developed a theory of ancient
Greek magic as primitive and insignificant, and thereby essentially
separate from Homeric, communal (polis) religion. Since the last decade
of the century, however, recognising the ubiquity and respectability of
acts such as katadesmoi (binding spells), described as magic by modern
and ancient observers alike, scholars have been compelled to abandon
this viewpoint.[86]: 90–95 The Greek word mageuo (practice magic)
itself derives from the word Magos, originally simply the Greek name for
a Persian tribe known for practicing religion.[87] Non-civic mystery
cults have been similarly re-evaluated:[86]: 97–98
the
choices which lay outside the range of cults did not just add additional
options to the civic menu, but ... sometimes incorporated critiques of
the civic cults and Panhellenic myths or were genuine alternatives to
them.
— Simon Price, Religions of the Ancient Greeks (1999)[88]
Katadesmoi
(Latin: defixiones), curses inscribed on wax or lead tablets and buried
underground, were frequently executed by all strata of Greek society,
sometimes to protect the entire polis.[86]: 95–96 Communal curses
carried out in public declined after the Greek classical period, but
private curses remained common throughout antiquity.[89] They were
distinguished as magical by their individualistic, instrumental and
sinister qualities.[86]: 96 These qualities, and their perceived
deviation from inherently mutable cultural constructs of normality, most
clearly delineate ancient magic from the religious rituals of which
they form a part.[86]: 102–103
A large number of magical papyri,
in Greek, Coptic, and Demotic, have been recovered and translated.[90]
They contain early instances of:
the use of magic words said to have the power to command spirits;[91]
the use of mysterious symbols or sigils which are thought to be useful when invoking or evoking spirits.[92]
The practice of magic was banned in the late Roman world, and the Codex Theodosianus (438 AD) states:[93]
Further information: Medieval European magic and Sorcery (goetia)
Magic
practices such as divination, interpretation of omens, sorcery, and use
of charms had been specifically forbidden in Mosaic Law [94] and
condemned in Biblical histories of the kings.[95] Many of these
practices were spoken against in the New Testament as well.[96][97]
Some
commentators say that in the first century CE, early Christian authors
absorbed the Greco-Roman concept of magic and incorporated it into their
developing Christian theology,[84]and that these Christians retained
the already implied Greco-Roman negative stereotypes of the term and
extented them by incorporating conceptual patterns borrowed from Jewish
thought, in particular the opposition of magic and miracle.[84] Some
early Christian authors followed the Greek-Roman thinking by ascribing
the origin of magic to the human realm, mainly to Zoroaster and
Osthanes. The Christian view was that magic was a product of the
Babylonians, Persians, or Egyptians.[98] The Christians shared with
earlier classical culture the idea that magic was something distinct
from proper religion, although drew their distinction between the two in
different ways.[99]
A 17th-century depiction of the medieval writer Isidore of Seville, who provided a list of activities he regarded as magical
For
early Christian writers like Augustine of Hippo, magic did not merely
constitute fraudulent and unsanctioned ritual practices, but was the
very opposite of religion because it relied upon cooperation from
demons, the henchmen of Satan.[84] In this, Christian ideas of magic
were closely linked to the Christian category of paganism,[100] and both
magic and paganism were regarded as belonging under the broader
category of superstitio (superstition), another term borrowed from
pre-Christian Roman culture.[99] This Christian emphasis on the inherent
immorality and wrongness of magic as something conflicting with good
religion was far starker than the approach in the other large
monotheistic religions of the period, Judaism and Islam.[101] For
instance, while Christians regarded demons as inherently evil, the
jinn—comparable entities in Islamic mythology—were perceived as more
ambivalent figures by Muslims.[101]
The model of the magician in
Christian thought was provided by Simon Magus, (Simon the Magician), a
figure who opposed Saint Peter in both the Acts of the Apostles and the
apocryphal yet influential Acts of Peter.[102] The historian Michael D.
Bailey stated that in medieval Europe, magic was a "relatively broad and
encompassing category".[103] Christian theologians believed that there
were multiple different forms of magic, the majority of which were types
of divination, for instance, Isidore of Seville produced a catalogue of
things he regarded as magic in which he listed divination by the four
elements i.e. geomancy, hydromancy, aeromancy, and pyromancy, as well as
by observation of natural phenomena e.g. the flight of birds and
astrology. He also mentioned enchantment and ligatures (the medical use
of magical objects bound to the patient) as being magical.[104] Medieval
Europe also saw magic come to be associated with the Old Testament
figure of Solomon; various grimoires, or books outlining magical
practices, were written that claimed to have been written by Solomon,
most notably the Key of Solomon.[105]
In early medieval Europe,
magia was a term of condemnation.[106] In medieval Europe, Christians
often suspected Muslims and Jews of engaging in magical practices;[107]
in certain cases, these perceived magical rites—including the alleged
Jewish sacrifice of Christian children—resulted in Christians massacring
these religious minorities.[108] Christian groups often also accused
other, rival Christian groups such as the Hussites—which they regarded
as heretical—of engaging in magical activities.[102][109] Medieval
Europe also saw the term maleficium applied to forms of magic that were
conducted with the intention of causing harm.[103] The later Middle Ages
saw words for these practitioners of harmful magical acts appear in
various European languages: sorcière in French, Hexe in German, strega
in Italian, and bruja in Spanish.[110] The English term for malevolent
practitioners of magic, witch, derived from the earlier Old English term
wicce.[110]
Ars Magica or magic is a major component and
supporting contribution to the belief and practice of spiritual, and in
many cases, physical healing throughout the Middle Ages. Emanating from
many modern interpretations lies a trail of misconceptions about magic,
one of the largest revolving around wickedness or the existence of
nefarious beings who practice it. These misinterpretations stem from
numerous acts or rituals that have been performed throughout antiquity,
and due to their exoticism from the commoner's perspective, the rituals
invoked uneasiness and an even stronger sense of dismissal.[111][112]
An excerpt from Sefer Raziel HaMalakh, featuring various magical sigils (סגולות segulot in Hebrew)
In
the Medieval Jewish view, the separation of the mystical and magical
elements of Kabbalah, dividing it into speculative theological Kabbalah
(Kabbalah Iyyunit) with its meditative traditions, and theurgic
practical Kabbalah (Kabbalah Ma'asit), had occurred by the beginning of
the 14th century.[113]
One societal force in the Middle Ages more
powerful than the singular commoner, the Christian Church, rejected
magic as a whole because it was viewed as a means of tampering with the
natural world in a supernatural manner associated with the biblical
verses of Deuteronomy 18:9–12.[further explanation needed] Despite the
many negative connotations which surround the term magic, there exist
many elements that are seen in a divine or holy light.[114]
The
divine right of kings in England was thought to be able to give them
"sacred magic" power to heal thousands of their subjects from
sicknesses.[115]
Diversified instruments or rituals used in
medieval magic include, but are not limited to: various amulets,
talismans, potions, as well as specific chants, dances, and prayers.
Along with these rituals are the adversely imbued notions of demonic
participation which influence of them. The idea that magic was devised,
taught, and worked by demons would have seemed reasonable to anyone who
read the Greek magical papyri or the Sefer-ha-Razim and found that
healing magic appeared alongside rituals for killing people, gaining
wealth, or personal advantage, and coercing women into sexual
submission.[116] Archaeology is contributing to a fuller understanding
of ritual practices performed in the home, on the body and in monastic
and church settings.[117][118]
The Islamic reaction towards magic
did not condemn magic in general and distinguished between magic which
can heal sickness and possession, and sorcery. The former is therefore a
special gift from God, while the latter is achieved through help of
Jinn and devils. Ibn al-Nadim held that exorcists gain their power by
their obedience to God, while sorcerers please the devils by acts of
disobedience and sacrifices and they in return do him a favor.[119]
According to Ibn Arabi, Al-Ḥajjāj ibn Yusuf al-Shubarbuli was able to
walk on water due to his piety.[120] According to the Quran 2:102, magic
was also taught to humans by devils and the fallen angels Harut and
Marut.[121]
Frontispiece of an English translation of Natural Magick published in London in 1658
During
the early modern period, the concept of magic underwent a more positive
reassessment through the development of the concept of magia naturalis
(natural magic).[84] This was a term introduced and developed by two
Italian humanists, Marsilio Ficino and Giovanni Pico della
Mirandola.[84] For them, magia was viewed as an elemental force
pervading many natural processes,[84] and thus was fundamentally
distinct from the mainstream Christian idea of demonic magic.[122] Their
ideas influenced an array of later philosophers and writers, among them
Paracelsus, Giordano Bruno, Johannes Reuchlin, and Johannes
Trithemius.[84] According to the historian Richard Kieckhefer, the
concept of magia naturalis took "firm hold in European culture" during
the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries,[123] attracting the interest of
natural philosophers of various theoretical orientations, including
Aristotelians, Neoplatonists, and Hermeticists.[124]
Adherents of
this position argued that magia could appear in both good and bad
forms; in 1625, the French librarian Gabriel Naudé wrote his Apology for
all the Wise Men Falsely Suspected of Magic, in which he distinguished
"Mosoaicall Magick"—which he claimed came from God and included
prophecies, miracles, and speaking in tongues—from "geotick" magic
caused by demons.[125] While the proponents of magia naturalis insisted
that this did not rely on the actions of demons, critics disagreed,
arguing that the demons had simply deceived these magicians.[126] By the
seventeenth century the concept of magia naturalis had moved in
increasingly 'naturalistic' directions, with the distinctions between it
and science becoming blurred.[127] The validity of magia naturalis as a
concept for understanding the universe then came under increasing
criticism during the Age of Enlightenment in the eighteenth
century.[128]
Despite the attempt to reclaim the term magia for
use in a positive sense, it did not supplant traditional attitudes
toward magic in the West, which remained largely negative.[128] At the
same time as magia naturalis was attracting interest and was largely
tolerated, Europe saw an active persecution of accused witches believed
to be guilty of maleficia.[124] Reflecting the term's continued negative
associations, Protestants often sought to denigrate Roman Catholic
sacramental and devotional practices as being magical rather than
religious.[129] Many Roman Catholics were concerned by this allegation
and for several centuries various Roman Catholic writers devoted
attention to arguing that their practices were religious rather than
magical.[130] At the same time, Protestants often used the accusation of
magic against other Protestant groups which they were in contest
with.[131] In this way, the concept of magic was used to prescribe what
was appropriate as religious belief and practice.[130] Similar claims
were also being made in the Islamic world during this period. The
Arabian cleric Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab—founder of Wahhabism—for
instance condemned a range of customs and practices such as divination
and the veneration of spirits as sihr, which he in turn claimed was a
form of shirk, the sin of idolatry.[132]
The Renaissance
Main article: Renaissance magic
Renaissance
humanism saw a resurgence in hermeticism and Neo-Platonic varieties of
ceremonial magic. The Renaissance, on the other hand, saw the rise of
science, in such forms as the dethronement of the Ptolemaic theory of
the universe, the distinction of astronomy from astrology, and of
chemistry from alchemy.[133][page needed]
There was great
uncertainty in distinguishing practices of superstition, occultism, and
perfectly sound scholarly knowledge or pious ritual. The intellectual
and spiritual tensions erupted in the Early Modern witch craze, further
reinforced by the turmoil of the Protestant Reformation, especially in
Germany, England, and Scotland.[133][page needed]
In Hasidism,
the displacement of practical Kabbalah using directly magical means, by
conceptual and meditative trends gained much further emphasis, while
simultaneously instituting meditative theurgy for material blessings at
the heart of its social mysticism.[134] Hasidism internalised Kabbalah
through the psychology of deveikut (cleaving to God), and cleaving to
the Tzadik (Hasidic Rebbe). In Hasidic doctrine, the tzaddik channels
Divine spiritual and physical bounty to his followers by altering the
Will of God (uncovering a deeper concealed Will) through his own
deveikut and self-nullification. Dov Ber of Mezeritch is concerned to
distinguish this theory of the Tzadik's will altering and deciding the
Divine Will, from directly magical process.[135]
In the nineteenth
century, the Haitian government began to legislate against Vodou,
describing it as a form of witchcraft; this conflicted with Vodou
practitioners' own understanding of their religion.[136]
In the
sixteenth century, European societies began to conquer and colonise
other continents around the world, and as they did so they applied
European concepts of magic and witchcraft to practices found among the
peoples whom they encountered.[137] Usually, these European colonialists
regarded the natives as primitives and savages whose belief systems
were diabolical and needed to be eradicated and replaced by
Christianity.[138] Because Europeans typically viewed these non-European
peoples as being morally and intellectually inferior to themselves, it
was expected that such societies would be more prone to practicing
magic.[139] Women who practiced traditional rites were labelled as
witches by the Europeans.[139]
In various cases, these imported
European concepts and terms underwent new transformations as they merged
with indigenous concepts.[140] In West Africa, for instance, Portuguese
travellers introduced their term and concept of the feitiçaria (often
translated as sorcery) and the feitiço (spell) to the native population,
where it was transformed into the concept of the fetish. When later
Europeans encountered these West African societies, they wrongly
believed that the fetiche was an indigenous African term rather than the
result of earlier inter-continental encounters.[140] Sometimes,
colonised populations themselves adopted these European concepts for
their own purposes. In the early nineteenth century, the newly
independent Haitian government of Jean-Jacques Dessalines began to
suppress the practice of Vodou, and in 1835 Haitian law-codes
categorised all Vodou practices as sortilège (sorcery/witchcraft),
suggesting that it was all conducted with harmful intent, whereas among
Vodou practitioners the performance of harmful rites was already given a
separate and distinct category, known as maji.[136]
Baroque period
Further information: Isaac Newton's occult studies
During
the Baroque era, several intriguing figures engaged with occult and
magical themes that went beyond conventional thinking. Michael
Sendivogius (1566–1636), a Polish alchemist, emphasized empirical
experimentation in alchemy and made notable contributions to early
chemistry. Tommaso Campanella (1568–1639), an Italian philosopher,
blended Christianity with mysticism in works like The City of the Sun,
envisioning an ideal society governed by divine principles. Jakob Böhme
(1575–1624), a German mystic, explored the relationship between the
divine and human experience, influencing later mystical movements.
By
the nineteenth century, European intellectuals no longer saw the
practice of magic through the framework of sin and instead regarded
magical practices and beliefs as "an aberrational mode of thought
antithetical to the dominant cultural logic – a sign of psychological
impairment and marker of racial or cultural inferiority".[141]
As
educated elites in Western societies increasingly rejected the efficacy
of magical practices, legal systems ceased to threaten practitioners of
magical activities with punishment for the crimes of diabolism and
witchcraft, and instead threatened them with the accusation that they
were defrauding people through promising to provide things which they
could not.[142]
This spread of European colonial power across the
world influenced how academics would come to frame the concept of
magic.[143] In the nineteenth century, several scholars adopted the
traditional, negative concept of magic.[128] That they chose to do so
was not inevitable, for they could have followed the example adopted by
prominent esotericists active at the time like Helena Blavatsky who had
chosen to use the term and concept of magic in a positive sense.[128]
Various writers also used the concept of magic to criticise religion by
arguing that the latter still displayed many of the negative traits of
the former. An example of this was the American journalist H. L. Mencken
in his polemical 1930 work Treatise on the Gods; he sought to critique
religion by comparing it to magic, arguing that the division between the
two was misplaced.[144] The concept of magic was also adopted by
theorists in the new field of psychology, where it was often used
synonymously with superstition, although the latter term proved more
common in early psychological texts.[145]
In the late nineteenth
and twentieth centuries, folklorists examined rural communities across
Europe in search of magical practices, which at the time they typically
understood as survivals of ancient belief systems.[146] It was only in
the 1960s that anthropologists like Jeanne Favret-Saada also began
looking in depth at magic in European contexts, having previously
focused on examining magic in non-Western contexts.[147] In the
twentieth century, magic also proved a topic of interest to the
Surrealists, an artistic movement based largely in Europe; the
Surrealism André Breton for instance published L'Art magique in 1957,
discussing what he regarded as the links between magic and art.[148]
The
scholarly application of magic as a sui generis category that can be
applied to any socio-cultural context was linked with the promotion of
modernity to both Western and non-Western audiences.[149]
The
term magic has become pervasive in the popular imagination and idiom.[7]
In contemporary contexts, the word magic is sometimes used to "describe
a type of excitement, of wonder, or sudden delight", and in such a
context can be "a term of high praise".[150] Despite its historical
contrast against science, scientists have also adopted the term in
application to various concepts, such as magic acid, magic bullets, and
magic angles.[7]
Many concepts of modern ceremonial magic are heavily influenced by the ideas of Aleister Crowley.
Modern
Western magic has challenged widely-held preconceptions about
contemporary religion and spirituality.[151] The polemical discourses
about magic influenced the self-understanding of modern magicians,
several whom—such as Aleister Crowley —were well versed in academic
literature on the subject.[152] According to scholar of religion Henrik
Bogdan, "arguably the best known emic definition" of the term magic was
provided by Crowley.[152] Crowley—who favoured the spelling 'magick'
over magic to distinguish it from stage illusionism[1]—was of the view
that "Magick is the Science and Art of causing Change to occur in
conformity with Will".[152] Crowley's definition influenced that of
subsequent magicians.[152] Dion Fortune of the Fraternity of the Inner
Light for instance stated that "Magic is the art of changing
consciousness according to Will".[152] Gerald Gardner, the founder of
Gardnerian Wicca, stated that magic was "attempting to cause the
physically unusual",[152] while Anton LaVey, the founder of LaVeyan
Satanism, described magic as "the change in situations or events in
accordance with one's will, which would, using normally acceptable
methods, be unchangeable."[152]
The chaos magic movement emerged
during the late 20th century, as an attempt to strip away the symbolic,
ritualistic, theological or otherwise ornamental aspects of other occult
traditions and distill magic down to a set of basic techniques.[153]
These
modern Western concepts of magic rely on a belief in correspondences
connected to an unknown occult force that permeates the universe.[154]
As noted by Hanegraaff, this operated according to "a new meaning of
magic, which could not possibly have existed in earlier periods,
precisely because it is elaborated in reaction to the "disenchantment of
the world"."[154] For many, and perhaps most, modern Western magicians,
the goal of magic is deemed to be personal spiritual development.[155]
The perception of magic as a form of self-development is central to the
way that magical practices have been adopted into forms of modern
Paganism and the New Age phenomenon.[155] One significant development
within modern Western magical practices has been sex magic.[155] This
was a practice promoted in the writings of Paschal Beverly Randolph and
subsequently exerted a strong interest on occultist magicians like
Crowley and Theodor Reuss.[155]
The adoption of the term magic by
modern occultists can in some instances be a deliberate attempt to
champion those areas of Western society which have traditionally been
marginalised as a means of subverting dominant systems of power.[156]
The influential American Wiccan and author Starhawk for instance stated
that "Magic is another word that makes people uneasy, so I use it
deliberately, because the words we are comfortable with, the words that
sound acceptable, rational, scientific, and intellectually correct, are
comfortable precisely because they are the language of
estrangement."[157] In the present day, "among some countercultural
subgroups the label is considered 'cool'"[158]
Sorcery is a legal
concept in Papua New Guinea law, which differentiates between legal
good magic, such as healing and fertility, and illegal black magic, held
responsible for unexplained deaths.[159]
Conceptual development
According
to anthropologist Edward Evan Evans-Pritchard, magic formed a rational
framework of beliefs and knowledge in some cultures, like the Azande
people of Africa.[160] The historian Owen Davies stated that the word
magic was "beyond simple definition",[161] and had "a range of
meanings".[162] Similarly, the historian Michael D. Bailey characterised
magic as "a deeply contested category and a very fraught label";[163]
as a category, he noted, it was "profoundly unstable" given that
definitions of the term have "varied dramatically across time and
between cultures".[164] Scholars have engaged in extensive debates as to
how to define magic,[165] with such debates resulting in intense
dispute.[166] Throughout such debates, the scholarly community has
failed to agree on a definition of magic, in a similar manner to how
they have failed to agree on a definition of religion.[166] According
with scholar of religion Michael Stausberg the phenomenon of people
applying the concept of magic to refer to themselves and their own
practices and beliefs goes as far back as late antiquity. However, even
among those throughout history who have described themselves as
magicians, there has been no common ground of what magic is.
Randall Styers noted that attempting to define
magic represents "an act of demarcation" by which it is juxtaposed
against "other social practices and modes of knowledge" such as religion
and science.[174] The historian Karen Louise Jolly described magic as
"a category of exclusion, used to define an unacceptable way of thinking
as either the opposite of religion or of science".[175]
Modern
scholarship has produced various definitions and theories of magic.[176]
According to Bailey, "these have typically framed magic in relation to,
or more frequently in distinction from, religion and science."[176]
Since the emergence of the study of religion and the social sciences,
magic has been a "central theme in the theoretical literature" produced
by scholars operating in these academic disciplines.[165] Magic is one
of the most heavily theorized concepts in the study of religion,[177]
and also played a key role in early theorising within anthropology.[178]
Styers believed that it held such a strong appeal for social theorists
because it provides "such a rich site for articulating and contesting
the nature and boundaries of modernity".[179] Scholars have commonly
used it as a foil for the concept of religion, regarding magic as the
"illegitimate (and effeminized) sibling" of religion.[180] Alternately,
others have used it as a middle-ground category located between religion
and science.[180]
The context in which scholars framed their
discussions of magic was informed by the spread of European colonial
power across the world in the modern period.[143] These repeated
attempts to define magic resonated with broader social concerns,[9] and
the pliability of the concept has allowed it to be "readily adaptable as
a polemical and ideological tool".[130] The links that intellectuals
made between magic and those they characterized as primitives helped to
legitimise European and Euro-American imperialism and colonialism, as
these Western colonialists expressed the view that those who believed in
and practiced magic were unfit to govern themselves and should be
governed by those who, rather than believing in magic, believed in
science and/or (Christian) religion.[8] In Bailey's words, "the
association of certain peoples [whether non-Europeans or poor, rural
Europeans] with magic served to distance and differentiate them from
those who ruled over them, and in large part to justify that rule."[6]
Many
different definitions of magic have been offered by scholars,
although—according to Hanegraaff—these can be understood as variations
of a small number of heavily influential theories.[177]
Intellectualist approach
Edward
Tylor, an anthropologist who used the term magic in reference to
sympathetic magic, an idea that he associated with his concept of
animism
The intellectualist approach to defining magic is
associated with two prominent British anthropologists, Edward Tylor and
James G. Frazer.[181] This approach viewed magic as the theoretical
opposite of science,[182] and came to preoccupy much anthropological
thought on the subject.[183] This approach was situated within the
evolutionary models which underpinned thinking in the social sciences
during the early 19th century.[184] The first social scientist to
present magic as something that predated religion in an evolutionary
development was Herbert Spencer;[185] in his A System of Synthetic
Philosophy, he used the term magic in reference to sympathetic
magic.[186] Spencer regarded both magic and religion as being rooted in
false speculation about the nature of objects and their relationship to
other things.[187]
Tylor's understanding of magic was linked to
his concept of animism.[188] In his 1871 book Primitive Culture, Tylor
characterized magic as beliefs based on "the error of mistaking ideal
analogy for real analogy". [189] In Tylor's view, "primitive man, having
come to associate in thought those things which he found by experience
to be connected in fact, proceeded erroneously to invert this action,
and to conclude that association in thought must involve similar
connection in reality. He thus attempted to discover, to foretell, and
to cause events by means of processes which we can now see to have only
an ideal significance".[190] Tylor was dismissive of magic, describing
it as "one of the most pernicious delusions that ever vexed
mankind".[191] Tylor's views proved highly influential,[192] and helped
to establish magic as a major topic of anthropological research.[185]
James Frazer regarded magic as the first stage in human development, to be followed by religion and then science.
Tylor's
ideas were adopted and simplified by James Frazer.[193] He used the
term magic to mean sympathetic magic,[194] describing it as a practice
relying on the magician's belief "that things act on each other at a
distance through a secret sympathy", something which he described as "an
invisible ether".[190] He further divided this magic into two forms,
the "homeopathic (imitative, mimetic)" and the "contagious".[190] The
former was the idea that "like produces like", or that the similarity
between two objects could result in one influencing the other. The
latter was based on the idea that contact between two objects allowed
the two to continue to influence one another at a distance.[195] Like
Taylor, Frazer viewed magic negatively, describing it as "the bastard
sister of science", arising from "one great disastrous fallacy".[196]
Where
Frazer differed from Tylor was in characterizing a belief in magic as a
major stage in humanity's cultural development, describing it as part
of a tripartite division in which magic came first, religion came
second, and eventually science came third.[197] For Frazer, all early
societies started as believers in magic, with some of them moving away
from this and into religion.[198] He believed that both magic and
religion involved a belief in spirits but that they differed in the way
that they responded to these spirits. For Frazer, magic "constrains or
coerces" these spirits while religion focuses on "conciliating or
propitiating them".[198] He acknowledged that their common ground
resulted in a cross-over of magical and religious elements in various
instances; for instance he claimed that the sacred marriage was a
fertility ritual which combined elements from both world-views.[199]
Some
scholars retained the evolutionary framework used by Frazer but changed
the order of its stages; the German ethnologist Wilhelm Schmidt argued
that religion—by which he meant monotheism—was the first stage of human
belief, which later degenerated into both magic and polytheism.[200]
Others rejected the evolutionary framework entirely. Frazer's notion
that magic had given way to religion as part of an evolutionary
framework was later deconstructed by the folklorist and anthropologist
Andrew Lang in his essay "Magic and Religion"; Lang did so by
highlighting how Frazer's framework relied upon misrepresenting
ethnographic accounts of beliefs and practiced among indigenous
Australians to fit his concept of magic.[201]
Functionalist approach
The
functionalist approach to defining magic is associated with the French
sociologists Marcel Mauss and Emile Durkheim.[202] In this approach,
magic is understood as being the theoretical opposite of religion.[203]
Mauss
set forth his conception of magic in a 1902 essay, "A General Theory of
Magic".[204] Mauss used the term magic in reference to "any rite that
is not part of an organized cult: a rite that is private, secret,
mysterious, and ultimately tending towards one that is forbidden".[202]
Conversely, he associated religion with organised cult.[205] By saying
that magic was inherently non-social, Mauss had been influenced by the
traditional Christian understandings of the concept.[206] Mauss
deliberately rejected the intellectualist approach promoted by Frazer,
believing that it was inappropriate to restrict the term magic to
sympathetic magic, as Frazer had done.[207] He expressed the view that
"there are not only magical rites which are not sympathetic, but neither
is sympathy a prerogative of magic, since there are sympathetic
practices in religion".[205]
Mauss' ideas were adopted by
Durkheim in his 1912 book The Elementary Forms of the Religious
Life.[208] Durkheim was of the view that both magic and religion
pertained to "sacred things, that is to say, things set apart and
forbidden".[209] Where he saw them as being different was in their
social organisation. Durkheim used the term magic to describe things
that were inherently anti-social, existing in contrast to what he
referred to as a Church, the religious beliefs shared by a social group;
in his words, "There is no Church of magic."[210] Durkheim expressed
the view that "there is something inherently anti-religious about the
maneuvers of the magician",[203] and that a belief in magic "does not
result in binding together those who adhere to it, nor in uniting them
into a group leading a common life."[209] Durkheim's definition
encounters problems in situations—such as the rites performed by
Wiccans—in which acts carried out communally have been regarded, either
by practitioners or observers, as being magical.[211]
Scholars
have criticized the idea that magic and religion can be differentiated
into two distinct, separate categories.[212] The social anthropologist
Alfred Radcliffe-Brown suggested that "a simple dichotomy between magic
and religion" was unhelpful and thus both should be subsumed under the
broader category of ritual.[213] Many later anthropologists followed his
example.[213] Nevertheless, this distinction is still often made by
scholars discussing this topic.[212]
Emotionalist approach
Further information: Magical thinking and Psychological theories of magic
The
emotionalist approach to magic is associated with the English
anthropologist Robert Ranulph Marett, the Austrian Sigmund Freud, and
the Polish anthropologist Bronisław Malinowski.[214]
Marett
viewed magic as a response to stress.[215] In a 1904 article, he argued
that magic was a cathartic or stimulating practice designed to relieve
feelings of tension.[215] As his thought developed, he increasingly
rejected the idea of a division between magic and religion and began to
use the term "magico-religious" to describe the early development of
both.[215] Malinowski similarly understood magic to Marett, tackling the
issue in a 1925 article.[216] He rejected Frazer's evolutionary
hypothesis that magic was followed by religion and then science as a
series of distinct stages in societal development, arguing that all
three were present in each society.[217] In his view, both magic and
religion "arise and function in situations of emotional stress" although
whereas religion is primarily expressive, magic is primarily
practical.[217] He therefore defined magic as "a practical art
consisting of acts which are only means to a definite end expected to
follow later on".[217] For Malinowski, magical acts were to be carried
out for a specific end, whereas religious ones were ends in
themselves.[211] He for instance believed that fertility rituals were
magical because they were carried out with the intention of meeting a
specific need.[217] As part of his functionalist approach, Malinowski
saw magic not as irrational but as something that served a useful
function, being sensible within the given social and environmental
context.[218]
Ideas about magic were also promoted by Sigmund Freud.
The
term magic was used liberally by Freud.[219] He also saw magic as
emerging from human emotion but interpreted it very differently to
Marett.[220] Freud explains that "the associated theory of magic merely
explains the paths along which magic proceeds; it does not explain its
true essence, namely the misunderstanding which leads it to replace the
laws of nature by psychological ones".[221] Freud emphasizes that what
led primitive men to come up with magic is the power of wishes: "His
wishes are accompanied by a motor impulse, the will, which is later
destined to alter the whole face of the earth to satisfy his wishes.
This motor impulse is at first employed to give a representation of the
satisfying situation in such a way that it becomes possible to
experience the satisfaction by means of what might be described as motor
hallucinations. This kind of representation of a satisfied wish is
quite comparable to children's play, which succeeds their earlier purely
sensory technique of satisfaction. [...] As time goes on, the
psychological accent shifts from the motives for the magical act on to
the measures by which it is carried out—that is, on to the act itself.
[...] It thus comes to appear as though it is the magical act itself
which, owing to its similarity with the desired result, alone determines
the occurrence of that result."[222]
In the early 1960s, the
anthropologists Murray and Rosalie Wax put forward the argument that
scholars should look at the magical worldview of a given society on its
own terms rather than trying to rationalize it in terms of Western ideas
about scientific knowledge.[223] Their ideas were heavily criticised by
other anthropologists, who argued that they had set up a false
dichotomy between non-magical Western worldview and magical non-Western
worldviews.[224] The concept of the magical worldview nevertheless
gained widespread use in history, folkloristics, philosophy, cultural
theory, and psychology.[225] The notion of magical thinking has also
been utilised by various psychologists.[226] In the 1920s, the
psychologist Jean Piaget used the concept as part of his argument that
children were unable to clearly differentiate between the mental and the
physical.[226] According to this perspective, children begin to abandon
their magical thinking between the ages of six and nine.[226]
According
to Stanley Tambiah, magic, science, and religion all have their own
"quality of rationality", and have been influenced by politics and
ideology.[227] As opposed to religion, Tambiah suggests that mankind has
a much more personal control over events. Science, according to
Tambiah, is "a system of behavior by which man acquires mastery of the
environment."[228]
Ethnocentrism
The magic-religion-science
triangle developed in European society based on evolutionary ideas i.e.
that magic evolved into religion, which in turn evolved into
science.[203] However using a Western analytical tool when discussing
non-Western cultures, or pre-modern forms of Western society, raises
problems as it may impose alien Western categories on them.[229] While
magic remains an emic (insider) term in the history of Western
societies, it remains an etic (outsider) term when applied to
non-Western societies and even within specific Western societies. For
this reason, academics like Michael D. Bailey suggest abandon the term
altogether as an academic category.[230] During the twentieth century,
many scholars focusing on Asian and African societies rejected the term
magic, as well as related concepts like witchcraft, in favour of the
more precise terms and concepts that existed within these specific
societies like Juju.[231] A similar approach has been taken by many
scholars studying pre-modern societies in Europe, such as Classical
antiquity, who find the modern concept of magic inappropriate and favour
more specific terms originating within the framework of the ancient
cultures which they are studying.[232] Alternately, this term implies
that all categories of magic are ethnocentric and that such Western
preconceptions are an unavoidable component of scholarly research.[229]
This century has seen a trend towards emic ethnographic studies by
scholar practitioners that explicitly explore the emic/etic divide.[233]
Many
scholars have argued that the use of the term as an analytical tool
within academic scholarship should be rejected altogether.[234] The
scholar of religion Jonathan Z. Smith for example argued that it had no
utility as an etic term that scholars should use.[235] The historian of
religion Wouter Hanegraaff agreed, on the grounds that its use is
founded in conceptions of Western superiority and has "...served as a
'scientific' justification for converting non-European peoples from
benighted superstitions..." stating that "the term magic is an important
object of historical research, but not intended for doing
research."[236]
Bailey noted that, as of the early 21st century,
few scholars sought grand definitions of magic but instead focused with
"careful attention to particular contexts", examining what a term like
magic meant to a given society; this approach, he noted, "call[ed] into
question the legitimacy of magic as a universal category".[237] The
scholars of religion Berndt-Christian Otto and Michael Stausberg
suggested that it would be perfectly possible for scholars to talk about
amulets, curses, healing procedures, and other cultural practices often
regarded as magical in Western culture without any recourse to the
concept of magic itself.[238] The idea that magic should be rejected as
an analytic term developed in anthropology, before moving into Classical
studies and Biblical studies in the 1980s.[239] Since the 1990s, the
term's usage among scholars of religion has declined.[235]
Witchcraft
Main articles: Witchcraft and Sorcery (goetia)
The
historian Ronald Hutton notes the presence of four distinct meanings of
the term witchcraft in the English language. Historically, the term
primarily referred to the practice of causing harm to others through
supernatural or magical means. This remains, according to Hutton, "the
most widespread and frequent" understanding of the term.[240] Moreover,
Hutton also notes three other definitions in current usage; to refer to
anyone who conducts magical acts, for benevolent or malevolent intent;
for practitioners of the modern Pagan religion of Wicca; or as a symbol
of women resisting male authority and asserting an independent female
authority.[241] Belief in witchcraft is often present within societies
and groups whose cultural framework includes a magical world view.[242]
Those
regarded as being magicians have often faced suspicion from other
members of their society.[243] This is particularly the case if these
perceived magicians have been associated with social groups already
considered morally suspect in a particular society, such as foreigners,
women, or the lower classes.[244] In contrast to these negative
associations, many practitioners of activities that have been labelled
magical have emphasised that their actions are benevolent and
beneficial.[245] This conflicted with the common Christian view that all
activities categorised as being forms of magic were intrinsically bad
regardless of the intent of the magician, because all magical actions
relied on the aid of demons.[101] There could be conflicting attitudes
regarding the practices of a magician; in European history, authorities
often believed that cunning folk and traditional healers were harmful
because their practices were regarded as magical and thus stemming from
contact with demons, whereas a local community might value and respect
these individuals because their skills and services were deemed
beneficial.[246]
In Western societies, the practice of magic,
especially when harmful, was usually associated with women.[247] For
instance, during the witch trials of the early modern period, around
three quarters of those executed as witches were female, to only a
quarter who were men.[248] That women were more likely to be accused and
convicted of witchcraft in this period might have been because their
position was more legally vulnerable, with women having little or no
legal standing that was independent of their male relatives.[248] The
conceptual link between women and magic in Western culture may be
because many of the activities regarded as magical—from rites to
encourage fertility to potions to induce abortions—were associated with
the female sphere.[249] It might also be connected to the fact that many
cultures portrayed women as being inferior to men on an intellectual,
moral, spiritual, and physical level.[250]
Magicians
The Magician card from a 15th-century tarot deck
Many
of the practices which have been labelled magic can be performed by
anyone.[251] For instance, some charms can be recited by individuals
with no specialist knowledge nor any claim to having a specific
power.[252] Others require specialised training in order to perform
them.[251] Some of the individuals who performed magical acts on a more
than occasional basis came to be identified as magicians, or with
related concepts like sorcerers/sorceresses, witches, or cunning
folk.[252] Identities as a magician can stem from an individual's own
claims about themselves, or it can be a label placed upon them by
others.[252] In the latter case, an individual could embrace such a
label, or they could reject it, sometimes vehemently.[252]
Economic
incentives can encourage individuals to identify as magicians.[142] In
the cases of various forms of traditional healer, as well as the later
stage magicians or illusionists, the label of magician could become a
job description.[252] Others claim such an identity out of a genuinely
held belief that they have specific unusual powers or talents.[253]
Different societies have different social regulations regarding who can
take on such a role; for instance, it may be a question of familial
heredity, or there may be gender restrictions on who is allowed to
engage in such practices.[254] A variety of personal traits may be
credited with giving magical power, and frequently they are associated
with an unusual birth into the world.[255] For instance, in Hungary it
was believed that a táltos would be born with teeth or an additional
finger.[256] In various parts of Europe, it was believed that being born
with a caul would associate the child with supernatural abilities.[256]
In some cases, a ritual initiation is required before taking on a role
as a specialist in such practices, and in others it is expected that an
individual will receive a mentorship from another specialist.[257]
Davies
noted that it was possible to "crudely divide magic specialists into
religious and lay categories".[258] He noted for instance that Roman
Catholic priests, with their rites of exorcism, and access to holy water
and blessed herbs, could be conceived as being magical
practitioners.[259] Traditionally, the most common method of
identifying, differentiating, and establishing magical practitioners
from common people is by initiation. By means of rites the magician's
relationship to the supernatural and his entry into a closed
professional class is established (often through rituals that simulate
death and rebirth into a new life).[260] However, Berger and Ezzy
explain that since the rise of Neopaganism, "As there is no central
bureaucracy or dogma to determine authenticity, an individual's
self-determination as a Witch, Wiccan, Pagan or Neopagan is usually
taken at face value".[261] Ezzy argues that practitioners' worldviews
have been neglected in many sociological and anthropological studies and
that this is because of "a culturally narrow understanding of science
that devalues magical beliefs".[262]
Mauss argues that the powers
of both specialist and common magicians are determined by culturally
accepted standards of the sources and the breadth of magic: a magician
cannot simply invent or claim new magic. In practice, the magician is
only as powerful as his peers believe him to be.[263]
Throughout
recorded history, magicians have often faced skepticism regarding their
purported powers and abilities.[264] For instance, in sixteenth-century
England, the writer Reginald Scot wrote The Discoverie of Witchcraft, in
which he argued that many of those accused of witchcraft or otherwise
claiming magical capabilities were fooling people using illusionism."
(wikipedia.org)
"The
dog or domestic dog (Canis familiaris[4][5] or Canis lupus
familiaris[5]) is a domesticated descendant of the wolf. The dog is
derived from an ancient, extinct wolf,[6][7] and the modern wolf is the
dog's nearest living relative.[8] The dog was the first species to be
domesticated,[9][8] by hunter–gatherers over 15,000 years ago,[7] before
the development of agriculture.[1] Due to their long association with
humans, dogs have expanded to a large number of domestic individuals[10]
and gained the ability to thrive on a starch-rich diet that would be
inadequate for other canids.[11]
The dog has been selectively
bred over millennia for various behaviors, sensory capabilities, and
physical attributes.[12] Dog breeds vary widely in shape, size, and
color. They perform many roles for humans, such as hunting, herding,
pulling loads, protection, assisting police and the military,
companionship, therapy, and aiding disabled people. Over the millennia,
dogs became uniquely adapted to human behavior, and the human-canine
bond has been a topic of frequent study.[13] This influence on human
society has given them the sobriquet of "man's best friend"....
Domestication
Main article: Domestication of the dog
The
earliest remains generally accepted to be those of a domesticated dog
were discovered in Bonn-Oberkassel, Germany. Contextual, isotopic,
genetic, and morphological evidence shows that this dog was not a local
wolf.[22] The dog was dated to 14,223 years ago and was found buried
along with a man and a woman, all three having been sprayed with red
hematite powder and buried under large, thick basalt blocks. The dog had
died of canine distemper.[23] Earlier remains dating back to 30,000
years ago have been described as Paleolithic dogs, but their status as
dogs or wolves remains debated[24] because considerable morphological
diversity existed among wolves during the Late Pleistocene.[1]
This
timing indicates that the dog was the first species to be
domesticated[9][8] in the time of hunter–gatherers,[7] which predates
agriculture.[1] DNA sequences show that all ancient and modern dogs
share a common ancestry and descended from an ancient, extinct wolf
population which was distinct from the modern wolf lineage.[6][7] Most
dogs form a sister group to the remains of a Late Pleistocene wolf found
in the Kessleroch cave near Thayngen in the canton of Schaffhausen,
Switzerland, which dates to 14,500 years ago. The most recent common
ancestor of both is estimated to be from 32,100 years ago.[25] This
indicates that an extinct Late Pleistocene wolf may have been the
ancestor of the dog,[8][1][26] with the modern wolf being the dog's
nearest living relative.[8]
The dog is a classic example of a
domestic animal that likely travelled a commensal pathway into
domestication.[24][27] The questions of when and where dogs were first
domesticated have taxed geneticists and archaeologists for decades.[9]
Genetic studies suggest a domestication process commencing over 25,000
years ago, in one or several wolf populations in either Europe, the high
Arctic, or eastern Asia.[10] In 2021, a literature review of the
current evidence infers that the dog was domesticated in Siberia 23,000
years ago by ancient North Siberians, then later dispersed eastward into
the Americas and westward across Eurasia.[22]
Breeds
Dogs
are the most variable mammal on earth with around 450 globally
recognized dog breeds.[10] In the Victorian era, directed human
selection developed the modern dog breeds, which resulted in a vast
range of phenotypes.[8] Most breeds were derived from small numbers of
founders within the last 200 years,[8][10] and since then dogs have
undergone rapid phenotypic change and were formed into today's modern
breeds due to artificial selection imposed by humans. The skull, body,
and limb proportions vary significantly between breeds, with dogs
displaying more phenotypic diversity than can be found within the entire
order of carnivores. These breeds possess distinct traits related to
morphology, which include body size, skull shape, tail phenotype, fur
type and colour.[8] Their behavioural traits include guarding, herding,
and hunting,[8] retrieving, and scent detection. Their personality
traits include hypersocial behavior, boldness, and aggression,[10] which
demonstrates the functional and behavioral diversity of dogs.[8] As a
result, present day dogs are the most abundant carnivore species and are
dispersed around the world.[10] The most striking example of this
dispersal is that of the numerous modern breeds of European lineage
during the Victorian era.[7]
Biology
Anatomy
Main article: Dog anatomy
Skeleton
All
healthy dogs, regardless of their size and type, have an identical
skeletal structure with the exception of the number of bones in the
tail, although there is significant skeletal variation between dogs of
different types.[28][29] The dog's skeleton is well adapted for running;
the vertebrae on the neck and back have extensions for powerful back
muscles to connect to, the long ribs provide plenty of room for the
heart and lungs, and the shoulders are unattached to the skeleton
allowing great flexibility.[28][29]
Compared to the dog's
wolf-like ancestors, selective breeding since domestication has seen the
dog's skeleton greatly enhanced in size for larger types as mastiffs
and miniaturised for smaller types such as terriers; dwarfism has been
selectively utilised for some types where short legs are advantageous
such as dachshunds and corgis.[29] Most dogs naturally have 26 vertebrae
in their tails, but some with naturally short tails have as few as
three.[28]
The dog's skull has identical components regardless of
breed type, but there is significant divergence in terms of skull shape
between types.[29][30] The three basic skull shapes are the elongated
dolichocephalic type as seen in sighthounds, the intermediate
mesocephalic or mesaticephalic type, and the very short and broad
brachycephalic type exemplified by mastiff type skulls.[29][30]
Senses
Further information: Dog anatomy § Senses
A
dog's senses include vision, hearing, smell, taste, touch, and
sensitivity to Earth's magnetic field. Another study has suggested that
dogs can see Earth's magnetic field.[31]
Coat
Main article: Dog coat
Dogs display wide variation in coat type, density, length, color, and composition
The
coats of domestic dogs are of two varieties: "double" being familiar
with dogs (as well as wolves) originating from colder climates, made up
of a coarse guard hair and a soft down hair, or "single", with the
topcoat only. Breeds may have an occasional "blaze", stripe, or "star"
of white fur on their chest or underside.[32] Premature graying can
occur in dogs from as early as one year of age; this is associated with
impulsive behaviors, anxiety behaviors, fear of noise, and fear of
unfamiliar people or animals.[33]
Tail
There are many
different shapes for dog tails: straight, straight up, sickle, curled,
or corkscrew. As with many canids, one of the primary functions of a
dog's tail is to communicate their emotional state, which can be crucial
in getting along with others. In some hunting dogs the tail is
traditionally docked to avoid injuries.
Health
Main article: Dog health
Some
breeds of dogs are prone to specific genetic ailments such as elbow and
hip dysplasia, blindness, deafness, pulmonic stenosis, cleft palate,
and trick knees. Two severe medical conditions significantly affecting
dogs are pyometra, affecting unspayed females of all breeds and ages,
and Gastric dilatation volvulus (bloat), which affects larger breeds or
deep-chested dogs. Both of these are acute conditions and can kill
rapidly. Dogs are also susceptible to parasites such as fleas, ticks,
mites, hookworms, tapeworms, roundworms, and heartworms, which is a
roundworm species that lives in the hearts of dogs.
Several human
foods and household ingestibles are toxic to dogs, including chocolate
solids, causing theobromine poisoning, onions and garlic, causing
thiosulphate, sulfoxide or disulfide poisoning, grapes and raisins,
macadamia nuts, and xylitol.[34] The nicotine in tobacco can also be
dangerous to dogs. Signs of ingestion can include copious vomiting
(e.g., from eating cigar butts) or diarrhea. Some other symptoms are
abdominal pain, loss of coordination, collapse, or death.[35][page
needed]
Dogs are also vulnerable to some of the same health
conditions as humans, including diabetes, dental and heart disease,
epilepsy, cancer, hypothyroidism, and arthritis.
Lifespan
Further information: Aging in dogs
The
typical lifespan of dogs varies widely among breeds, but for most, the
median longevity (the age at which half the dogs in a population have
died and half are still alive) ranges from 10 to 13 years.[36][37] The
median longevity of mixed-breed dogs, taken as an average of all sizes,
is one or more years longer than that of purebred dogs when all breeds
are averaged.[36][37][38] For dogs in England, increased body weight has
been found to be negatively correlated with longevity (i.e., the
heavier the dog, the shorter its lifespan), and mixed-breed dogs live on
average 1.2 years longer than purebred dogs....
Behavior
Main article: Dog behavior
See also: Dog behavior § Behavior compared with other canids
Dog
behavior is the internally coordinated responses (actions or inactions)
of the domestic dog (individuals or groups) to internal and external
stimuli.[58] As the oldest domesticated species, dogs' minds inevitably
have been shaped by millennia of contact with humans. As a result of
this physical and social evolution, dogs have acquired the ability to
understand and communicate with humans more than any other species and
they are uniquely attuned to human behaviors.[13] Behavioral scientists
have uncovered a surprising set of social-cognitive abilities in
domestic dogs. These abilities are not possessed by the dog's closest
canine relatives or other highly intelligent mammals, such as great
apes, but rather parallel to children's social-cognitive skills.[59]
Unlike
other domestic species selected for production-related traits, dogs
were initially selected for their behaviors.[60][61] In 2016, a study
found that only 11 fixed genes showed variation between wolves and dogs.
These gene variations were unlikely to have been the result of natural
evolution and indicate selection on both morphology and behavior during
dog domestication. These genes have been shown to affect the
catecholamine synthesis pathway, with the majority of the genes
affecting the fight-or-flight response[61][62] (i.e., selection for
tameness) and emotional processing.[61] Dogs generally show reduced fear
and aggression compared with wolves.[61][63] Some of these genes have
been associated with aggression in some dog breeds, indicating their
importance in both the initial domestication and later in breed
formation.[61] Traits of high sociability and lack of fear in dogs may
include genetic modifications related to Williams-Beuren syndrome in
humans, which cause hypersociability at the expense of problem-solving
ability.[64]
Intelligence
Main article: Dog intelligence
Dog
intelligence is the dog's ability to perceive information and retain it
as knowledge for applying to solve problems. Studies of two dogs
suggest that dogs can learn by inference and have advanced memory
skills. A study with Rico, a Border Collie, showed that he knew the
labels of over 200 different items. He inferred the names of novel
things by exclusion learning and correctly retrieved those new items
immediately and four weeks after the initial exposure. A study of
another Border Collie, Chaser, documented his learning and memory
capabilities. He had learned the names and could associate by verbal
command over 1,000 words.[65] Dogs can read and react appropriately to
human body language such as gesturing and pointing and human voice
commands.
One study of canine cognitive abilities found that
dogs' capabilities are no more exceptional than those of other animals,
such as horses, chimpanzees, or cats.[66] One limited study of 18
household dogs found that they lacked spatial memory, and were more
focussed on the "what" of a task rather than the "where".[67]
Dogs
demonstrate a theory of mind by engaging in deception.[68] An
experimental study showed compelling evidence that Australian dingos can
outperform domestic dogs in non-social problem-solving, indicating that
domestic dogs may have lost much of their original problem-solving
abilities once they joined humans.[69] Another study revealed that after
undergoing training to solve a simple manipulation task, dogs faced
with an unsolvable version of the same problem look at the human, while
socialized wolves do not.[70]
Communication
Main article: Dog communication
Dog sounds
0:15
A dog making noises and barking
Problems playing this file? See media help.
Dog
communication is how dogs convey information to other dogs, understand
messages from humans and translate the information that dogs are
transmitting.[71]: xii Communication behaviors of dogs include eye
gaze, facial expression, vocalization, body posture (including movements
of bodies and limbs), and gustatory communication (scents, pheromones,
and taste). Humans communicate to dogs by using vocalization, hand
signals, and body posture.
Ecology
Population
The dog is
probably the most widely abundant large carnivoran living in the human
environment.[72][73] In 2013, the estimated global dog population was
between 700 million[74] and 987 million.[75] About 20% of dogs live as
pets in developed countries.[76] In the developing world, dogs are more
commonly feral or communally owned, with pet dogs uncommon. Most of
these dogs live their lives as scavengers and have never been owned by
humans, with one study showing their most common response when
approached by strangers is to run away (52%) or respond aggressively
(11%).[77] Little is known about these dogs, or the dogs in developed
countries that are feral, strays, or are in shelters because the great
majority of modern research on dog cognition has focused on pet dogs
living in human homes.[78]
Competitors and predators
Although
dogs are the most abundant and widely distributed terrestrial
carnivores, feral and free-ranging dogs' potential to compete with other
large carnivores is limited by their strong association with
humans.[72] For example, a review of the studies in dogs' competitive
effects on sympatric carnivores did not mention any research on
competition between dogs and wolves.[79][80] Although wolves are known
to kill dogs, they tend to live in pairs or in small packs in areas
where they are highly persecuted, giving them a disadvantage facing
large dog groups.[79][81]
Wolves kill dogs wherever they are
found together.[82] In some instances, wolves have displayed an
uncharacteristic fearlessness of humans and buildings when attacking
dogs to the extent that they have to be beaten off or killed.[83]
Although the numbers of dogs killed each year are relatively low, it
induces a fear of wolves entering villages and farmyards to take dogs
and losses of dogs to wolves have led to demands for more liberal wolf
hunting regulations.[79]
Coyotes and big cats have also been
known to attack dogs. In particular, leopards are known to have a
preference for dogs and have been recorded to kill and consume them, no
matter what their size.[84] Siberian tigers in the Amur River region
have killed dogs in the middle of villages. This indicates that the dogs
were targeted. Amur tigers will not tolerate wolves as competitors
within their territories, and the tigers could be considering dogs in
the same way.[85] Striped hyenas are known to kill dogs in their
range.[86]
Diet
See also: Dog food
A Golden Retriever gnawing on a pig's foot
Dogs
have been described as omnivores.[12][87][88] Compared to wolves, dogs
from agricultural societies have extra copies of amylase and other genes
involved in starch digestion that contribute to an increased ability to
thrive on a starch-rich diet.[11] Similar to humans, some dog breeds
produce amylase in their saliva and are classified as having a high
starch diet.[89] However, more like cats and less like other omnivores,
dogs can only produce bile acid with taurine and they cannot produce
vitamin D, which they obtain from animal flesh. Also more like cats,
dogs require arginine to maintain its nitrogen balance. These
nutritional requirements place dogs halfway between carnivores and
omnivores.[90]
Range
Dogs were introduced to
Antarctica as sled dogs, but were later outlawed by international
agreement due to the possible risk of spreading infections.[99]
Roles with humans
Domestic
dogs inherited complex behaviors, such as bite inhibition, from their
wolf ancestors, which would have been pack hunters with a complex body
language. These sophisticated forms of social cognition and
communication may account for their trainability, playfulness and
ability to fit into human households and social situations. These
attributes have given dogs a relationship with humans that has enabled
them to become one of the most successful animals today.[100]
The
dogs' value to early human hunter-gatherers led to them quickly
becoming ubiquitous across world cultures. Dogs perform many roles for
people, such as hunting, herding, pulling loads, protection, assisting
police and the military, companionship and aiding disabled individuals.
This influence on human society has given them the nickname "man's best
friend" in the Western world. In some cultures, however, dogs are also a
source of meat.[101][102]
Pets
Siberian Huskies are pack animals that still enjoy some human companionship
It
is estimated that three-quarters of the world's dog population lives in
the developing world as feral, village, or community dogs, with pet
dogs uncommon.[103][page needed]
"The most widespread form of
interspecies bonding occurs between humans and dogs"[104] and the
keeping of dogs as companions, particularly by elites, has a long
history.[14] Pet dog populations grew significantly after World War II
as suburbanization increased.[14] In the 1950s and 1960s, dogs were kept
outside more often than they tend to be today[105](the expression "in
the doghouse" - recorded since 1932[106] - to describe exclusion from
the group implies a distance between the doghouse and the home) and were
still primarily functional, acting as a guard, children's playmate, or
walking companion. From the 1980s, there have been changes in the pet
dog's role, such as the increased role of dogs in the emotional support
of their human guardians.[107][page needed] People and their dogs have
become increasingly integrated and implicated in each other's
lives[108][page needed] to the point where pet dogs actively shape how a
family and home are experienced.[109]
There have been two
significant trends occurring within the second half of the 20th century
in pet dogs' changing status. The first has been "commodification",
shaping it to conform to social expectations of personality and
behavior.[109] The second has been the broadening of the family's
concept and the home to include dogs-as-dogs within everyday routines
and practices.[109]
A vast range of commodity forms aims to
transform a pet dog into an ideal companion.[110] The list of goods,
services, and places available is enormous: from dog perfumes, couture,
furniture and housing to dog groomers, therapists, trainers and
caretakers, dog cafes, spas, parks and beaches and dog hotels, airlines
and cemeteries.[110] Dog training books, classes, and television
programs proliferated as the process of commodifying the pet dog
continued.[111]
The majority of contemporary dog owners describe
their pet as part of the family, although some ambivalence about the
relationship is evident in the popular reconceptualization of the
dog-human family as a pack.[109] Some dog trainers, such as on the
television program Dog Whisperer, have promoted a dominance model of
dog-human relationships. However, it has been disputed that "trying to
achieve status" is characteristic of dog-human interactions.[112] The
idea of the "alpha dog" trying to be dominant is based on a disproved
theory about wolf packs.[113][114] Pet dogs play an active role in
family life; for example, a study of conversations in dog-human families
showed how family members use the dog as a resource, talking to the
dog, or talking through the dog; to mediate their interactions with each
other.[115]
Increasingly, human family-members engage in
activities centered on the dog's perceived needs and interests, or in
which the dog is an integral partner, such as dog dancing and dog
yoga.[110]
According to statistics published by the American Pet
Products Manufacturers Association in the National Pet Owner Survey in
2009–2010, an estimated 77.5 million people in the United States have
pet dogs.[116] The same source shows that nearly 40% of American
households own at least one dog, of which 67% own just one dog, 25% two
dogs and nearly 9% more than two dogs. There does not seem to be any
gender preference among dogs as pets, as the statistical data reveal an
equal number of male and female pet dogs. Although several programs
promote pet adoption, less than one-fifth of the owned dogs come from
shelters.[116]
A study using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to
compare humans and dogs showed that dogs have the same response to
voices and use the same parts of the brain as humans do. This gives dogs
the ability to recognize human emotional sounds, making them friendly
social pets to humans.[117]
Workers
Dogs have lived and worked
with humans in many roles. In addition to dogs' role as companion
animals, dogs have been bred for herding livestock (collies,
sheepdogs),[118][page needed][12] hunting (hounds, pointers)[119][page
needed] and rodent control (terriers).[12] Other types of working dogs
include search and rescue dogs,[120] detection dogs trained to detect
illicit drugs[121] or chemical weapons;[122] guard dogs; dogs who assist
fishermen with the use of nets; and dogs that pull loads.[12] In 1957,
the dog Laika became the first animal to be launched into Earth orbit,
aboard the Soviets' Sputnik 2; she died during the flight.[123][124]
Various
kinds of service dogs and assistance dogs, including guide dogs,
hearing dogs, mobility assistance dogs and psychiatric service dogs,
assist individuals with disabilities.[125][126] Some dogs owned by
people with epilepsy have been shown to alert their handler when the
handler shows signs of an impending seizure, sometimes well in advance
of onset, allowing the guardian to seek safety, medication, or medical
care.[127]
Athletes and models
See also: Conformation show
People
often enter their dogs in competitions, such as breed-conformation
shows or sports, including racing, sledding and agility competitions. In
conformation shows, also referred to as breed shows, a judge familiar
with the specific dog breed evaluates individual purebred dogs for
conformity with their established breed type as described in the breed
standard. As the breed standard only deals with the dog's externally
observable qualities (such as appearance, movement and temperament),
separately tested qualities (such as ability or health) are not part of
the judging in conformation shows.
Food
Main article: Dog meat
Dog
meat is consumed in some East Asian countries, including
Korea,[128][page needed] China,[101] Vietnam[102] and the
Philippines,[129] which dates back to antiquity.[130] Based on limited
data, it is estimated that 13–16 million dogs are killed and consumed in
Asia every year.[131] In China, debates have ensued over banning the
consumption of dog meat.[132] Following the Sui and Tang dynasties of
the first millennium, however, people living on northern China's plains
began to eschew eating dogs, which is likely due to Buddhism and Islam's
spread, two religions that forbade the consumption of certain animals,
including the dog. As members of the upper classes shunned dog meat, it
gradually became a social taboo to eat it, even though the general
population continued to consume it for centuries afterward.[133] Dog
meat is also consumed in some parts of Switzerland.[134] Other cultures,
such as Polynesia and pre-Columbian Mexico, also consumed dog meat in
their history. Dog fat is also reportedly believed to be beneficial for
the lungs in some parts of Poland[135][136] and Central Asia.[137][138]
Proponents of eating dog meat have argued that placing a distinction
between livestock and dogs is Western hypocrisy and that there is no
difference in eating different animals' meat.[139][140][141][142]
Dogs
were depicted to symbolize guidance, protection, loyalty, fidelity,
faithfulness, alertness, and love.[168] In ancient Mesopotamia, from the
Old Babylonian period until the Neo-Babylonian, dogs were the symbol of
Ninisina, the goddess of healing and medicine,[169] and her worshippers
frequently dedicated small models of seated dogs to her.[169] In the
Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian periods, dogs were used as emblems of
magical protection.[169] In China, Korea and Japan, dogs are viewed as
kind protectors.[170]
In mythology, dogs often serve as pets or
as watchdogs.[170] Stories of dogs guarding the gates of the underworld
recur throughout Indo-European mythologies[171][172] and may originate
from Proto-Indo-European religion.[171][172] In Greek mythology,
Cerberus is a three-headed, dragon-tailed watchdog who guards the gates
of Hades.[170] Dogs are also associated with the Greek goddess
Hecate.[173] In Norse mythology, a bloody, four-eyed dog called Garmr
guards Helheim.[170] In Persian mythology, two four-eyed dogs guard the
Chinvat Bridge.[170] In Welsh mythology, Annwn is guarded by Cŵn
Annwn.[170] In Hindu mythology, Yama, the god of death, owns two
watchdogs who have four eyes. They are said to watch over the gates of
Naraka.[174] A black dog is also considered to be the vahana (vehicle)
of Bhairava (an incarnation of Shiva).[175]
In Christianity, dogs
represent faithfulness.[170] Within the Roman Catholic denomination
specifically, the iconography of Saint Dominic includes a dog, after the
hallow's mother dreamt of a dog springing from her womb and becoming
pregnant shortly after that.[176] As such, the Dominican Order
(Ecclesiastical Latin: Domini canis) means "dog of the Lord" or "hound
of the Lord" (Ecclesiastical Latin: Domini canis).[176] In Christian
folklore, a church grim often takes the form of a black dog to guard
Christian churches and their churchyards from sacrilege.[177] Jewish law
does not prohibit keeping dogs and other pets.[178] Jewish law requires
Jews to feed dogs (and other animals that they own) before themselves
and make arrangements for feeding them before obtaining them.[178] The
view on dogs in Islam is mixed, with some schools of thought viewing it
as unclean,[170] although Khaled Abou El Fadl states that this view is
based on "pre-Islamic Arab mythology" and "a tradition to be falsely
attributed to the Prophet."[179] Therefore, Sunni Malaki and Hanafi
jurists permit the trade of and keeping of dogs as pets.[180]
Terminology
Dog – the species (or subspecies) as a whole, also any male member of the same.[181]
Bitch – any female member of the species (or subspecies).[182]
Puppy or pup – a young member of the species (or subspecies) under 12 months old.[183]
Sire – the male parent of a litter.[183]
Dam – the female parent of a litter.[183]
Litter – all of the puppies resulting from a single whelping.[183]
Whelping – the act of a bitch giving birth.[183]
Whelps – puppies still dependent upon their dam." (wikipedia.org)