Antonio Stradivari (/ˌstrædɪˈvɑːri/, also US: /-ˈvɛəri/,[2][3][4] Italian: [anˈtɔːnjo stradiˈvaːri]; c. 1644 – 18 December 1737) was an Italian luthier and a craftsman of string instruments such as violins, cellos, guitars, violas and harps.[5] The Latinized form of his surname, Stradivarius, as well as the colloquial Strad are terms often used to refer to his instruments. It is estimated that Stradivari produced 1,116 instruments, of which 960 were violins. Around 650 instruments survive, including 450 to 512 violins. His instruments are considered some of the finest ever made, and are extremely valuable collector's items.

Biography

Family and early life

Panorama of Cremona, with the Torrazzo di Cremona prominent

Antonio Stradivari's birthdate, presumably between 1644 and 1649, has been debated amongst historians due to the numerous inconsistencies in the evidence of the latter. The 1668 and 1678 censuses report him actually growing younger, a fact explained by the probable loss of statistics from 1647 to 1649, when renewed belligerency between France's Modenese and Spain's Milanese proxies led to a flow of refugees that included Stradivari's mother.

Stradivari's ancestry consisted of notable citizens of Cremona, dating back to at least the 12th or 13th century. The earliest mention of the family name, or a variation upon it, is in a land grant dating from 1188.[6] The origin of the name itself has several possible explanations; some sources say it is the plural of stradivare, essentially meaning "toll-man" in Lombard, while others say that the form de Strataverta derives from strada averta, which in Cremonese dialect means "open road".[7]

Antonio's parents were Alessandro Stradivari, son of Giulio Cesare Stradivari, and Anna Moroni, daughter of Leonardo Moroni.[8] They married on 30 August 1622, and had at least three children between 1623 and 1628: Giuseppe Giulia Cesare, Carlo Felice, and Giovanni Battista. The baptismal records of the parish of S. Prospero then stop, and it is unknown whether they had any children from 1628 to 1644.[9] This gap in the records may be due to the family leaving Cremona in response to war, famine, and plague in the city from 1628 to 1630,[10] or the records may have been lost due to clerical reforms imposed by Joseph II of Austria in 1788.[11] The latter explanation is supported by the word Cremonensis (of Cremona) on many of Stradivari's labels, which suggests that he was born in the city instead of merely moving back there to work.[12] Antonio was born in 1644, a fact deducible from later violins.[13] However, there are no records or information available on his early childhood, and the first evidence of his presence in Cremona is the label of his oldest surviving violin from 1666.[14]

Stradivari likely began an apprenticeship with Nicola Amati between the ages of 12 and 14,[15] although a minor debate surrounds this fact. One of the few pieces of evidence supporting this is the label of his 1666 violin, which reads, Alumnus Nicolai Amati, faciebat anno 1666.[16] However, Stradivari did not repeatedly put Amati's name on his labels, unlike many of Amati's other students.[17] Stradivari's early violins actually bear less resemblance to Amati's than his later instruments do.[13] M. Chanot-Chardon, a well-known French luthier, asserted that his father had a label of Stradivari's stating, "Made at the age of thirteen, in the workshop of Nicolò Amati". This label has never been found or confirmed.[16] Amati would also have been a logical choice for Antonio's parents, as he represented an old family of violin makers in Cremona, and was far superior to most other luthiers in Italy.[15]

Some researchers[who?] believe there is a closer educational association between Antonio Stradivari and Francesco Rugeri than has previously been recognized. Despite the long-held belief that Antonio Stradivari was the pupil of Nicolò Amati, there are important discrepancies between their work. Some researchers believe early instruments by Stradivari bear a stronger resemblance to Francesco Rugeri's work than Amati's. Additionally, the utilization of a small dorsal pin or small hole, invariably used not just by Nicolò Amati but all of his recognized pupils — but not used by Antonio Stradivari — adds further evidence that Stradivari may not have learnt his craft from Amati. This pin or hole was fundamental in the graduation of the thickness of the plates and was a technique passed on through generations of pupils of the Amati.[18] This dorsal pin is also not found in any of the instruments of the Rugeri family, suggesting Antonio Stradivari may have actually learnt his craft from Francesco Rugeri, both of them having been influenced by Amati.[19] W.E. Hill & Sons concede that they fail to find the hand of Stradivari in any of Nicola Amati's work, although the unmistakable hands of Andrea Guarneri and Francesco Rugeri are evident.[20]

An alternative theory is that Stradivari started out as a woodworker: the house he lived in from 1667 to 1680 was owned by Francesco Pescaroli, a woodcarver and inlayer. Stradivari may even have been employed to decorate some of Amati's instruments, without being a true apprentice. This theory is supported by some of Stradivari's later violins, which have elaborate decorations and purfling.[21]

Assuming that Stradivari was a student of Amati, he would have begun his apprenticeship in 1656–58 and produced his first decent instruments in 1660, at the age of 16. His first labels were printed from 1660 to 1665, which indicates that his work had sufficient quality to be offered directly to his patrons. However, he probably stayed in Amati's workshop until about 1684, using his master's reputation as a launching point for his career.[22]

First marriage

Antonio Stradivari's second house, at No. 2 Piazza San Domenico

Stradivari married his first wife, Francesca Ferraboschi, on 4 July 1667.[23] A clue to how they would have met lies in the 1659 Easter census, which lists the Ferraboschi family four houses away from the Amati residence. Francesca was the young widow of the burgher Giacomo Capra, with whom she had two children. Francesca's brother had shot Giacomo with a crossbow on the Piazza Garibaldi (formerly the Piazza Santa Agata) in 1664. He was later exiled, though allowed to return to Cremona many years later.[24] After their marriage, Stradivari moved into a house known as the Casa del Pescatore, or the Casa Nuziale, in his wife's parish. The couple had a daughter, Giulia Maria, three to four months later.[25] They remained in the house until 1680, during which time they had five more children, starting with an infant son who lived for only a week, and then Francesco, Catterina, Alessandro, and Omobono Stradivari.[26]

Stradivari purchased a house now known as No. 1 Piazza Roma (formerly No. 2 Piazza San Domenico) around 1680 for the sum of 7000 lire, 2000 of which he paid at the time of the purchase. The totality of the house was paid for by 1684.[25] The residence was just doors away from those of several other violin-making families of Cremona, including the Amatis and Guarneris.[12] Stradivari probably worked in the loft and attic, and he stayed in this house for the rest of his life.[27]

Stradivari's wife Francesca died on 20 May 1698, and received an elaborate funeral five days later.[28]

Second marriage

Stradivari married his second wife, Antonia Maria Zambelli, on 24 August 1699. She was 35 at the time of the marriage. They had five children from 1700 to 1708—Francesca Maria, Giovanni Battista Giuseppe, Giovanni Battista Martino, Giuseppe Antonio, and Paolo.[28]

vte

Immediate family of Antonio Stradivari

Giulio Cesare Stradivari Doralice Milani

m. 1600 Leonardo Moroni

Alessandro Stradivari

b. 1602 Anna Moroni

m. 1622

Giuseppe Giulio Cesare

b. 1623 Carlo Felice

b. 1626 Giovanni Battista

b. 1628

Antonio Stradivari

c. 1644–1737 Francesca Ferraboschi

1640–1698

m. 1667 Antonia Maria Zambelli

c. 1664–1737

m. 1699

Giulia Maria[dubious – discuss]

c. 1667– Francesco

1670–1670

Francesco

1671–1743 Catterina Annunciata

1674–1748 Alessandro Giuseppe

1677–1732

Omobono Stradivari

1679–1742 Francesca Maria

1700–1720 Giovanni Battista Giuseppe

1701–1702 Giovanni Battista Martino

1703–1727 Giuseppe Antonio

1704–1781 Paolo

1708–1776

Death

Stradivari died in Cremona on 18 December 1737, aged 93, after roughly 75 years of crafting instruments.[29] He is buried in the Church of San Domenico.[1] The tomb was acquired eight years prior to his death, having been bought from a Cremonese family, substituting his name for theirs in the tombstone.

Will

Stradivari generated substantial wealth in his lifetime. His will, dated 1729, counted eight living heirs, including his wife. Zambelli was left with her clothing, bed linens, household items, and half of her jewelry. Antonia would become the responsibility of his two eldest sons. Annunciata Caterina was left her jewelry, clothing, linens, and income on loans. Paolo, the youngest child, would get six finished violins—valued at 1,000 lire—as well as some household effects and cash. Three other children who had joined religious orders were left with their share of inheritance: Maria, a nun, would get an annuity; Alessandro, a priest, would get fixed income on a home mortgage loan; and Giuseppe, another priest, would get some income on half a share from a pastry shop. There were also annual payments to his two sons of 150 and 300 lire each and 170 lire for Annunciata and 100 for Francesca.[30]

His remaining two sons from his first marriage had both worked in the family shop. Omobono, who had left the dwelling aged eighteen in search of new employment possibilities in Naples, would inherit six violins, and Francesco, who was named his father's successor, would inherit the rest of the estate, including all of the tools, stencils, finished violins, patterns, and—ostensibly—his father's reputation.[30] In 1733, he had bought his youngest son a partnership in a local textile firm for the large amount of 25,000 lire.