Elizabeth II
Head of the Commonwealth
Formal photograph of Elizabeth facing right
Formal photograph, 1958
Queen of the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth realms (list)
Reign 6 February 1952 – 8 September 2022
Coronation 2 June 1953
Predecessor George VI
Successor Charles III
Born Princess Elizabeth of York
21 April 1926
Mayfair, London, England
Died 8 September 2022 (aged 96)
Balmoral Castle, Aberdeenshire, Scotland
Burial 19 September 2022
King George VI Memorial Chapel, St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle
Spouse Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh
(m. 1947; died 2021)
Issue
Detail
Charles III
Anne, Princess Royal
Prince Andrew, Duke of York
Prince Edward, Earl of Wessex and Forfar
Names
Elizabeth Alexandra Mary
House Windsor
Father George VI
Mother Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon
Signature Elizabeth's signature in black ink
Elizabeth
II (Elizabeth Alexandra Mary; 21 April 1926 – 8 September 2022) was
Queen of the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth realms from 6
February 1952 until her death in 2022. She was queen regnant of 32
sovereign states during her lifetime and 15 at the time of her death.
Her reign of 70 years and 214 days was the longest of any British
monarch and the longest verified reign of any female monarch in history.
Elizabeth
was born in Mayfair, London, as the first child of the Duke and Duchess
of York (later King George VI and Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother).
Her father acceded to the throne in 1936 upon the abdication of his
brother Edward VIII, making then-Princess Elizabeth the heir
presumptive. She was educated privately at home and began to undertake
public duties during the Second World War, serving in the Auxiliary
Territorial Service. In November 1947, she married Philip Mountbatten, a
former prince of Greece and Denmark, and their marriage lasted 73 years
until his death in 2021. They had four children: Charles, Anne, Andrew,
and Edward.
When
her father died in February 1952, Elizabeth—then 25 years old—became
queen of seven independent Commonwealth countries: the United Kingdom,
Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Pakistan, and Ceylon
(known today as Sri Lanka), as well as Head of the Commonwealth.
Elizabeth reigned as a constitutional monarch through major political
changes such as the Troubles in Northern Ireland, devolution in the
United Kingdom, the decolonisation of Africa, and the United Kingdom's
accession to the European Communities and withdrawal from the European
Union. The number of her realms varied over time as territories gained
independence and some realms became republics. As queen, Elizabeth was
served by more than 170 prime ministers across her realms. Her many
historic visits and meetings included state visits to China in 1986, to
Russia in 1994, and to the Republic of Ireland in 2011, and meetings
with five popes.
Significant
events included Elizabeth's coronation in 1953 and the celebrations of
her Silver, Golden, Diamond, and Platinum jubilees in 1977, 2002, 2012,
and 2022, respectively. Although she faced occasional republican
sentiment and media criticism of her family—particularly after the
breakdowns of her children's marriages, her annus horribilis in 1992,
and the death in 1997 of her former daughter-in-law Diana, Princess of
Wales—support for the monarchy in the United Kingdom remained
consistently high throughout her lifetime, as did her personal
popularity.[1] Elizabeth died in September 2022 at Balmoral Castle in
Aberdeenshire, at the age of 96, and was succeeded by her eldest child,
King Charles III. Her state funeral was the first to be held in the
United Kingdom since that of Winston Churchill in 1965.
Early life
Elizabeth as a thoughtful-looking toddler with curly, fair hair
On the cover of Time, April 1929
Elizabeth as a rosy-cheeked young girl with blue eyes and fair hair
Portrait by Philip de László, 1933
Princess
Elizabeth was born at 02:40 (GMT) on 21 April 1926,[2] during the reign
of her paternal grandfather, King George V. Her father, Prince Albert,
Duke of York (later King George VI), was the second son of the King. Her
mother, Elizabeth, Duchess of York (later Queen Elizabeth The Queen
Mother), was the youngest daughter of Scottish aristocrat Claude
Bowes-Lyon, 14th Earl of Strathmore and Kinghorne. Princess Elizabeth
was delivered by Caesarean section at 17 Bruton Street in Mayfair, which
was her grandfather Lord Strathmore's London home.[3] She was baptised
by the Anglican Archbishop of York, Cosmo Gordon Lang, in the private
chapel of Buckingham Palace on 29 May,[4][a] and named Elizabeth after
her mother; Alexandra after her paternal great-grandmother, who had died
six months earlier; and Mary after her paternal grandmother.[6] Called
"Lilibet" by her close family,[7] based on what she called herself at
first,[8] she was cherished by her grandfather George V, whom she
affectionately called "Grandpa England",[9] and her regular visits
during his serious illness in 1929 were credited in the popular press
and by later biographers with raising his spirits and aiding his
recovery.[10]
Elizabeth's
only sibling, Princess Margaret, was born in 1930. The two princesses
were educated at home under the supervision of their mother and their
governess, Marion Crawford.[11] Lessons concentrated on history,
language, literature, and music.[12] Crawford published a biography of
Elizabeth and Margaret's childhood years entitled The Little Princesses
in 1950, much to the dismay of the royal family.[13] The book describes
Elizabeth's love of horses and dogs, her orderliness, and her attitude
of responsibility.[14] Others echoed such observations: Winston
Churchill described Elizabeth when she was two as "a character. She has
an air of authority and reflectiveness astonishing in an infant."[15]
Her cousin Margaret Rhodes described her as "a jolly little girl, but
fundamentally sensible and well-behaved".[16]
Heir presumptive
During
her grandfather's reign, Elizabeth was third in the line of succession
to the British throne, behind her uncle Edward and her father. Although
her birth generated public interest, she was not expected to become
queen, as Edward was still young and likely to marry and have children
of his own, who would precede Elizabeth in the line of succession.[17]
When her grandfather died in 1936 and her uncle succeeded as Edward
VIII, she became second in line to the throne, after her father. Later
that year, Edward abdicated, after his proposed marriage to divorced
socialite Wallis Simpson provoked a constitutional crisis.[18]
Consequently, Elizabeth's father became king, taking the regnal name
George VI. Since Elizabeth had no brothers, she became heir presumptive.
If her parents had subsequently borne a son, he would have been heir
apparent and above her in the line of succession, which was determined
by the male-preference primogeniture in effect at the time.[19]
Elizabeth
received private tuition in constitutional history from Henry Marten,
Vice-Provost of Eton College,[20] and learned French from a succession
of native-speaking governesses.[21] A Girl Guides company, the 1st
Buckingham Palace Company, was formed specifically so she could
socialise with girls her own age.[22] Later, she was enrolled as a Sea
Ranger.[21]
In
1939, Elizabeth's parents toured Canada and the United States. As in
1927, when they had toured Australia and New Zealand, Elizabeth remained
in Britain, since her father thought she was too young to undertake
public tours.[23] She "looked tearful" as her parents departed.[24] They
corresponded regularly,[24] and she and her parents made the first
royal transatlantic telephone call on 18 May.[23]
Second World War
In Auxiliary Territorial Service uniform, April 1945
In
September 1939, Britain entered the Second World War. Lord Hailsham
suggested that Princesses Elizabeth and Margaret should be evacuated to
Canada to avoid the frequent aerial bombings of London by the
Luftwaffe.[25] This was rejected by their mother, who declared, "The
children won't go without me. I won't leave without the King. And the
King will never leave."[26] The princesses stayed at Balmoral Castle,
Scotland, until Christmas 1939, when they moved to Sandringham House,
Norfolk.[27] From February to May 1940, they lived at Royal Lodge,
Windsor, until moving to Windsor Castle, where they lived for most of
the next five years.[28] At Windsor, the princesses staged pantomimes at
Christmas in aid of the Queen's Wool Fund, which bought yarn to knit
into military garments.[29] In 1940, the 14-year-old Elizabeth made her
first radio broadcast during the BBC's Children's Hour, addressing other
children who had been evacuated from the cities.[30] She stated: "We
are trying to do all we can to help our gallant sailors, soldiers, and
airmen, and we are trying, too, to bear our own share of the danger and
sadness of war. We know, every one of us, that in the end all will be
well."[30]
In
1943, Elizabeth undertook her first solo public appearance on a visit
to the Grenadier Guards, of which she had been appointed colonel the
previous year.[31] As she approached her 18th birthday, Parliament
changed the law so she could act as one of five counsellors of state in
the event of her father's incapacity or absence abroad, such as his
visit to Italy in July 1944.[32] In February 1945, she was appointed an
honorary second subaltern in the Auxiliary Territorial Service with the
service number of 230873.[33] She trained and worked as a driver and
mechanic and was given the rank of honorary junior commander (female
equivalent of captain at the time) five months later.[34]
Elizabeth (far left) on the balcony of Buckingham Palace with her family and Winston Churchill, 8 May 1945
At
the end of the war in Europe, on Victory in Europe Day, Elizabeth and
Margaret mingled incognito with the celebrating crowds in the streets of
London. Elizabeth later said in a rare interview, "We asked my parents
if we could go out and see for ourselves. I remember we were terrified
of being recognised ... I remember lines of unknown people linking arms
and walking down Whitehall, all of us just swept along on a tide of
happiness and relief."[35]
During
the war, plans were drawn up to quell Welsh nationalism by affiliating
Elizabeth more closely with Wales. Proposals, such as appointing her
Constable of Caernarfon Castle or a patron of Urdd Gobaith Cymru (the
Welsh League of Youth), were abandoned for several reasons, including
fear of associating Elizabeth with conscientious objectors in the Urdd
at a time when Britain was at war.[36] Welsh politicians suggested she
be made Princess of Wales on her 18th birthday. Home Secretary Herbert
Morrison supported the idea, but the King rejected it because he felt
such a title belonged solely to the wife of a Prince of Wales and the
Prince of Wales had always been the heir apparent.[37] In 1946, she was
inducted into the Gorsedd of Bards at the National Eisteddfod of
Wales.[38]
Princess
Elizabeth went on her first overseas tour in 1947, accompanying her
parents through southern Africa. During the tour, in a broadcast to the
British Commonwealth on her 21st birthday, she made the following
pledge: "I declare before you all that my whole life, whether it be long
or short, shall be devoted to your service and the service of our great
imperial family to which we all belong."[39] The speech was written by
Dermot Morrah, a journalist for The Times.[40]
Marriage
Main article: Wedding of Princess Elizabeth and Philip Mountbatten
Elizabeth
met her future husband, Prince Philip of Greece and Denmark, in 1934
and again in 1937.[41] They were second cousins once removed through
King Christian IX of Denmark and third cousins through Queen Victoria.
After meeting for the third time at the Royal Naval College in Dartmouth
in July 1939, Elizabeth—though only 13 years old—said she fell in love
with Philip, who was 18, and they began to exchange letters.[42] She was
21 when their engagement was officially announced on 9 July 1947.[43]
The
engagement attracted some controversy. Philip had no financial
standing, was foreign-born (though a British subject who had served in
the Royal Navy throughout the Second World War), and had sisters who had
married German noblemen with Nazi links.[44] Marion Crawford wrote,
"Some of the King's advisors did not think him good enough for her. He
was a prince without a home or kingdom. Some of the papers played long
and loud tunes on the string of Philip's foreign origin."[45] Later
biographies reported that Elizabeth's mother had reservations about the
union initially, and teased Philip as "the Hun".[46] In later life,
however, she told the biographer Tim Heald that Philip was "an English
gentleman".[47]
At Buckingham Palace with new husband Philip after their wedding, 1947
Before
the marriage, Philip renounced his Greek and Danish titles, officially
converted from Greek Orthodoxy to Anglicanism, and adopted the style
Lieutenant Philip Mountbatten, taking the surname of his mother's
British family.[48] Shortly before the wedding, he was created Duke of
Edinburgh and granted the style His Royal Highness.[49] Elizabeth and
Philip were married on 20 November 1947 at Westminster Abbey. They
received 2,500 wedding gifts from around the world.[50] Elizabeth
required ration coupons to buy the material for her gown (which was
designed by Norman Hartnell) because Britain had not yet completely
recovered from the devastation of the war.[51] In post-war Britain, it
was not acceptable for Philip's German relations, including his three
surviving sisters, to be invited to the wedding.[52] Neither was an
invitation extended to the Duke of Windsor, formerly King Edward
VIII.[53]
Elizabeth
gave birth to her first child, Charles, on 14 November 1948. One month
earlier, the King had issued letters patent allowing her children to use
the style and title of a royal prince or princess, to which they
otherwise would not have been entitled as their father was no longer a
royal prince.[54] A second child, Princess Anne, was born on 15 August
1950.[55]
Following
their wedding, the couple leased Windlesham Moor, near Windsor Castle,
until July 1949,[50] when they took up residence at Clarence House in
London. At various times between 1949 and 1951, the Duke of Edinburgh
was stationed in the British Crown Colony of Malta as a serving Royal
Navy officer. He and Elizabeth lived intermittently in Malta for several
months at a time in the hamlet of Gwardamanġa, at Villa Guardamangia,
the rented home of Philip's uncle, Lord Mountbatten. Their two children
remained in Britain.[56]
Reign
Accession and coronation
Main article: Coronation of Elizabeth II
Coronation portrait by Cecil Beaton, 1953
George
VI's health declined during 1951, and Elizabeth frequently stood in for
him at public events. When she toured Canada and visited President
Harry S. Truman in Washington, D.C., in October 1951, her private
secretary, Martin Charteris, carried a draft accession declaration in
case of the King's death while she was on tour.[57] In early 1952,
Elizabeth and Philip set out for a tour of Australia and New Zealand by
way of the British colony of Kenya. On 6 February 1952, they had just
returned to their Kenyan home, Sagana Lodge, after a night spent at
Treetops Hotel, when word arrived of the death of George VI and
Elizabeth's consequent accession to the throne with immediate effect.
Philip broke the news to the new queen.[58] She chose to retain
Elizabeth as her regnal name;[59] thus she was called Elizabeth II,
which offended many Scots, as she was the first Elizabeth to rule in
Scotland.[60] She was proclaimed queen throughout her realms and the
royal party hastily returned to the United Kingdom.[61] Elizabeth and
Philip moved into Buckingham Palace.[62]
With
Elizabeth's accession, it seemed probable that the royal house would
bear the Duke of Edinburgh's name, in line with the custom of a wife
taking her husband's surname on marriage. Lord Mountbatten advocated the
name House of Mountbatten. Philip suggested House of Edinburgh, after
his ducal title.[63] The British prime minister, Winston Churchill, and
Elizabeth's grandmother Queen Mary favoured the retention of the House
of Windsor, so Elizabeth issued a declaration on 9 April 1952 that
Windsor would continue to be the name of the royal house. Philip
complained, "I am the only man in the country not allowed to give his
name to his own children."[64] In 1960, the surname Mountbatten-Windsor
was adopted for Philip and Elizabeth's male-line descendants who do not
carry royal titles.[65]
Amid
preparations for the coronation, Princess Margaret told her sister she
wished to marry Peter Townsend, a divorcé 16 years Margaret's senior
with two sons from his previous marriage. Elizabeth asked them to wait
for a year; in the words of her private secretary, "the Queen was
naturally sympathetic towards the Princess, but I think she thought—she
hoped—given time, the affair would peter out."[66] Senior politicians
were against the match and the Church of England did not permit
remarriage after divorce. If Margaret had contracted a civil marriage,
she would have been expected to renounce her right of succession.[67]
Margaret decided to abandon her plans with Townsend.[68]
Despite
the death of Queen Mary on 24 March 1953, the coronation went ahead as
planned on 2 June, as Mary had requested before she died.[69] The
coronation ceremony in Westminster Abbey, with the exception of the
anointing and communion, was televised for the first time.[70][b] On
Elizabeth's instruction, her coronation gown was embroidered with the
floral emblems of Commonwealth countries.[74]
Continuing evolution of the Commonwealth
Further information: Commonwealth realm § From the accession of Elizabeth II
Elizabeth's realms (light red and pink) and their territories and protectorates (dark red) at the beginning of her reign in 1952
From
Elizabeth's birth onwards, the British Empire continued its
transformation into the Commonwealth of Nations.[75] By the time of her
accession in 1952, her role as head of multiple independent states was
already established.[76] In 1953, Elizabeth and her husband embarked on a
seven-month round-the-world tour, visiting 13 countries and covering
more than 40,000 miles (64,000 km) by land, sea and air.[77] She became
the first reigning monarch of Australia and New Zealand to visit those
nations.[78] During the tour, crowds were immense; three-quarters of the
population of Australia were estimated to have seen her.[79] Throughout
her reign, Elizabeth made hundreds of state visits to other countries
and tours of the Commonwealth; she was the most widely travelled head of
state.[80]
In
1956, the British and French prime ministers, Sir Anthony Eden and Guy
Mollet, discussed the possibility of France joining the Commonwealth.
The proposal was never accepted and the following year France signed the
Treaty of Rome, which established the European Economic Community, the
precursor to the European Union.[81] In November 1956, Britain and
France invaded Egypt in an ultimately unsuccessful attempt to capture
the Suez Canal. Lord Mountbatten said Elizabeth was opposed to the
invasion, though Eden denied it. Eden resigned two months later.[82]
A formal group of Elizabeth in tiara and evening dress with eleven politicians in evening dress or national costume.
With Commonwealth leaders at the 1960 Commonwealth Conference
The
absence of a formal mechanism within the Conservative Party for
choosing a leader meant that, following Eden's resignation, it fell to
Elizabeth to decide whom to commission to form a government. Eden
recommended she consult Lord Salisbury, the Lord President of the
Council. Lord Salisbury and Lord Kilmuir, the Lord Chancellor, consulted
the British Cabinet, Churchill, and the chairman of the backbench 1922
Committee, resulting in Elizabeth appointing their recommended
candidate: Harold Macmillan.[83]
The
Suez crisis and the choice of Eden's successor led, in 1957, to the
first major personal criticism of Elizabeth. In a magazine, which he
owned and edited,[84] Lord Altrincham accused her of being "out of
touch".[85] Altrincham was denounced by public figures and slapped by a
member of the public appalled by his comments.[86] Six years later, in
1963, Macmillan resigned and advised Elizabeth to appoint the Earl of
Home as the prime minister, advice she followed.[87] Elizabeth again
came under criticism for appointing the prime minister on the advice of a
small number of ministers or a single minister.[87] In 1965, the
Conservatives adopted a formal mechanism for electing a leader, thus
relieving the Queen of her involvement.[88]
Seated with Philip on thrones at the Canadian parliament, 1957
In
1957, Elizabeth made a state visit to the United States, where she
addressed the United Nations General Assembly on behalf of the
Commonwealth. On the same tour, she opened the 23rd Canadian Parliament,
becoming the first monarch of Canada to open a parliamentary
session.[89] Two years later, solely in her capacity as Queen of Canada,
she revisited the United States and toured Canada.[89][90] In 1961, she
toured Cyprus, India, Pakistan, Nepal, and Iran.[91] On a visit to
Ghana the same year, she dismissed fears for her safety, even though her
host, President Kwame Nkrumah, who had replaced her as head of state,
was a target for assassins.[92] Harold Macmillan wrote, "The Queen has
been absolutely determined all through ... She is impatient of the
attitude towards her to treat her as ... a film star ... She has indeed
'the heart and stomach of a man' ... She loves her duty and means to be a
Queen."[92] Before her tour through parts of Quebec in 1964, the press
reported extremists within the Quebec separatist movement were plotting
Elizabeth's assassination.[93] No attempt was made, but a riot did break
out while she was in Montreal; Elizabeth's "calmness and courage in the
face of the violence" was noted.[94]
Elizabeth
gave birth to her third child, Prince Andrew, on 19 February 1960,
which was the first birth to a reigning British monarch since 1857.[95]
Her fourth child, Prince Edward, was born on 10 March 1964.[96]
In
addition to performing traditional ceremonies, Elizabeth also
instituted new practices. Her first royal walkabout, meeting ordinary
members of the public, took place during a tour of Australia and New
Zealand in 1970.[97]
Acceleration of decolonisation
In Queensland, Australia, 1970
With President Tito of Yugoslavia in Belgrade, 1972
The
1960s and 1970s saw an acceleration in the decolonisation of Africa and
the Caribbean. More than 20 countries gained independence from Britain
as part of a planned transition to self-government. In 1965, however,
the Rhodesian prime minister, Ian Smith, in opposition to moves towards
majority rule, unilaterally declared independence while expressing
"loyalty and devotion" to Elizabeth, declaring her "Queen of
Rhodesia".[98] Although Elizabeth formally dismissed him, and the
international community applied sanctions against Rhodesia, his regime
survived for over a decade.[99] As Britain's ties to its former empire
weakened, the British government sought entry to the European Community,
a goal it achieved in 1973.[100]
Elizabeth
toured Yugoslavia in October 1972, becoming the first British monarch
to visit a communist country.[101] She was received at the airport by
President Josip Broz Tito, and a crowd of thousands greeted her in
Belgrade.[102]
In
February 1974, the British prime minister, Edward Heath, advised
Elizabeth to call a general election in the middle of her tour of the
Austronesian Pacific Rim, requiring her to fly back to Britain.[103] The
election resulted in a hung parliament; Heath's Conservatives were not
the largest party, but could stay in office if they formed a coalition
with the Liberals. When discussions on forming a coalition foundered,
Heath resigned as prime minister and Elizabeth asked the Leader of the
Opposition, Labour's Harold Wilson, to form a government.[104]
A
year later, at the height of the 1975 Australian constitutional crisis,
the Australian prime minister, Gough Whitlam, was dismissed from his
post by Governor-General Sir John Kerr, after the Opposition-controlled
Senate rejected Whitlam's budget proposals.[105] As Whitlam had a
majority in the House of Representatives, Speaker Gordon Scholes
appealed to Elizabeth to reverse Kerr's decision. She declined, saying
she would not interfere in decisions reserved by the Constitution of
Australia for the Governor-General.[106] The crisis fuelled Australian
republicanism.[105]
Silver Jubilee
Leaders of the G7 states, members of the royal family and Elizabeth (centre), London, 1977
In
1977, Elizabeth marked the Silver Jubilee of her accession. Parties and
events took place throughout the Commonwealth, many coinciding with her
associated national and Commonwealth tours. The celebrations
re-affirmed Elizabeth's popularity, despite virtually coincident
negative press coverage of Princess Margaret's separation from her
husband, Lord Snowdon.[107] In 1978, Elizabeth endured a state visit to
the United Kingdom by Romania's communist leader, Nicolae Ceaușescu, and
his wife, Elena,[108] though privately she thought they had "blood on
their hands".[109] The following year brought two blows: one was the
unmasking of Anthony Blunt, former Surveyor of the Queen's Pictures, as a
communist spy; the other was the assassination of her relative and
in-law Lord Mountbatten by the Provisional Irish Republican Army.[110]
According
to Paul Martin Sr., by the end of the 1970s Elizabeth was worried the
Crown "had little meaning for" Pierre Trudeau, the Canadian prime
minister.[111] Tony Benn said Elizabeth found Trudeau "rather
disappointing".[111] Trudeau's supposed republicanism seemed to be
confirmed by his antics, such as sliding down banisters at Buckingham
Palace and pirouetting behind Elizabeth's back in 1977, and the removal
of various Canadian royal symbols during his term of office.[111] In
1980, Canadian politicians sent to London to discuss the patriation of
the Canadian constitution found Elizabeth "better informed ... than any
of the British politicians or bureaucrats".[111] She was particularly
interested after the failure of Bill C-60, which would have affected her
role as head of state.[111]
Press scrutiny and Thatcher premiership
Elizabeth in red uniform on a black horse
Riding Burmese at the 1986 Trooping the Colour ceremony
During
the 1981 Trooping the Colour ceremony, six weeks before the wedding of
Prince Charles and Lady Diana Spencer, six shots were fired at Elizabeth
from close range as she rode down The Mall, London, on her horse,
Burmese. Police later discovered the shots were blanks. The 17-year-old
assailant, Marcus Sarjeant, was sentenced to five years in prison and
released after three.[112] Elizabeth's composure and skill in
controlling her mount were widely praised.[113] That October Elizabeth
was the subject of another attack while on a visit to Dunedin, New
Zealand. Christopher John Lewis, who was 17 years old, fired a shot with
a .22 rifle from the fifth floor of a building overlooking the parade,
but missed.[114] Lewis was arrested, but never charged with attempted
murder or treason, and sentenced to three years in jail for unlawful
possession and discharge of a firearm. Two years into his sentence, he
attempted to escape a psychiatric hospital with the intention of
assassinating Charles, who was visiting the country with Diana and their
son Prince William.[115]
Elizabeth and Ronald Reagan on black horses. He bare-headed; she in a headscarf; both in tweeds, jodhpurs and riding boots.
Riding at Windsor with President Reagan, June 1982
From
April to September 1982, Elizabeth's son, Prince Andrew, served with
British forces in the Falklands War, for which she reportedly felt
anxiety[116] and pride.[117] On 9 July, she awoke in her bedroom at
Buckingham Palace to find an intruder, Michael Fagan, in the room with
her. In a serious lapse of security, assistance only arrived after two
calls to the Palace police switchboard.[118] After hosting US president
Ronald Reagan at Windsor Castle in 1982 and visiting his California
ranch in 1983, Elizabeth was angered when his administration ordered the
invasion of Grenada, one of her Caribbean realms, without informing
her.[119]
Intense
media interest in the opinions and private lives of the royal family
during the 1980s led to a series of sensational stories in the press,
pioneered by The Sun tabloid.[120] As Kelvin MacKenzie, editor of The
Sun, told his staff: "Give me a Sunday for Monday splash on the Royals.
Don't worry if it's not true—so long as there's not too much of a fuss
about it afterwards."[121] Newspaper editor Donald Trelford wrote in The
Observer of 21 September 1986: "The royal soap opera has now reached
such a pitch of public interest that the boundary between fact and
fiction has been lost sight of ... it is not just that some papers don't
check their facts or accept denials: they don't care if the stories are
true or not." It was reported, most notably in The Sunday Times of 20
July 1986, that Elizabeth was worried that Margaret Thatcher's economic
policies fostered social divisions and was alarmed by high unemployment,
a series of riots, the violence of a miners' strike, and Thatcher's
refusal to apply sanctions against the apartheid regime in South Africa.
The sources of the rumours included royal aide Michael Shea and
Commonwealth secretary-general Shridath Ramphal, but Shea claimed his
remarks were taken out of context and embellished by speculation.[122]
Thatcher reputedly said Elizabeth would vote for the Social Democratic
Party—Thatcher's political opponents.[123] Thatcher's biographer, John
Campbell, claimed "the report was a piece of journalistic
mischief-making".[124] Reports of acrimony between them were
exaggerated,[125] and Elizabeth gave two honours in her personal
gift—membership in the Order of Merit and the Order of the Garter—to
Thatcher after her replacement as prime minister by John Major.[126]
Brian Mulroney, Canadian prime minister between 1984 and 1993, said
Elizabeth was a "behind the scenes force" in ending apartheid.[127][128]
In
1986, Elizabeth paid a six-day state visit to the People's Republic of
China, becoming the first British monarch to visit the country.[129] The
tour included the Forbidden City, the Great Wall of China, and the
Terracotta Warriors.[130] At a state banquet, Elizabeth joked about the
first British emissary to China being lost at sea with Queen Elizabeth
I's letter to the Wanli Emperor, and remarked, "fortunately postal
services have improved since 1602".[131] Elizabeth's visit also
signified the acceptance of both countries that sovereignty over Hong
Kong would be transferred from the United Kingdom to China in 1997.[132]
By
the end of the 1980s, Elizabeth had become the target of satire.[133]
The involvement of younger members of the royal family in the charity
game show It's a Royal Knockout in 1987 was ridiculed.[134] In Canada,
Elizabeth publicly supported politically divisive constitutional
amendments, prompting criticism from opponents of the proposed changes,
including Pierre Trudeau.[127] The same year, the elected Fijian
government was deposed in a military coup. As monarch of Fiji, Elizabeth
supported the attempts of Governor-General Ratu Sir Penaia Ganilau to
assert executive power and negotiate a settlement. Coup leader Sitiveni
Rabuka deposed Ganilau and declared Fiji a republic.[135]
Turbulent 1990s and annus horribilis
In
the wake of coalition victory in the Gulf War, Elizabeth became the
first British monarch to address a joint meeting of the United States
Congress in May 1991.[136]
Elizabeth, in formal dress, holds a pair of spectacles to her mouth in a thoughtful pose
Philip and Elizabeth in Germany, October 1992
On
24 November 1992, in a speech to mark the Ruby Jubilee of her accession
to the throne, Elizabeth called 1992 her annus horribilis (a Latin
phrase, meaning "horrible year").[137] Republican feeling in Britain had
risen because of press estimates of Elizabeth's private
wealth—contradicted by the Palace—and reports of affairs and strained
marriages among her extended family.[138] In March, her second son,
Prince Andrew, separated from his wife, Sarah, and Mauritius removed
Elizabeth as head of state; her daughter, Princess Anne, divorced
Captain Mark Phillips in April;[139] angry demonstrators in Dresden
threw eggs at Elizabeth during a state visit to Germany in October;[140]
and a large fire broke out at Windsor Castle, one of her official
residences, in November. The monarchy came under increased criticism and
public scrutiny.[141] In an unusually personal speech, Elizabeth said
that any institution must expect criticism, but suggested it might be
done with "a touch of humour, gentleness and understanding".[142] Two
days later, British prime minister John Major announced plans to reform
the royal finances, drawn up the previous year, including Elizabeth
paying income tax from 1993 onwards, and a reduction in the civil
list.[143] In December, Prince Charles and his wife, Diana, formally
separated.[144] At the end of the year, Elizabeth sued The Sun newspaper
for breach of copyright when it published the text of her annual
Christmas message two days before it was broadcast. The newspaper was
forced to pay her legal fees and donated £200,000 to charity.[145]
Elizabeth's solicitors had taken action against The Sun five years
earlier for breach of copyright after it published a photograph of her
daughter-in-law the Duchess of York and her granddaughter Princess
Beatrice. The case was solved with an out-of-court settlement that
ordered the newspaper to pay $180,000.[clarification needed][146]
In
January 1994, Elizabeth broke the scaphoid bone in her left wrist as
the horse she was riding at Sandringham House tripped and fell.[147] In
October 1994, she became the first reigning British monarch to set foot
on Russian soil.[c] In October 1995, Elizabeth was tricked into a hoax
call by Montreal radio host Pierre Brassard impersonating Canadian prime
minister Jean Chrétien. Elizabeth, who believed that she was speaking
to Chrétien, said she supported Canadian unity and would try to
influence Quebec's referendum on proposals to break away from
Canada.[152]
In
the year that followed, public revelations on the state of Charles and
Diana's marriage continued.[153] In consultation with her husband and
John Major, as well as the Archbishop of Canterbury, George Carey, and
her private secretary, Robert Fellowes, Elizabeth wrote to Charles and
Diana at the end of December 1995, suggesting that a divorce would be
advisable.[154]
In
August 1997, a year after the divorce, Diana was killed in a car crash
in Paris. Elizabeth was on holiday with her extended family at Balmoral.
Diana's two sons, Princes William and Harry, wanted to attend church,
so Elizabeth and Philip took them that morning.[155] Afterwards, for
five days the royal couple shielded their grandsons from the intense
press interest by keeping them at Balmoral where they could grieve in
private,[156] but the royal family's silence and seclusion, and the
failure to fly a flag at half-mast over Buckingham Palace, caused public
dismay.[128][157] Pressured by the hostile reaction, Elizabeth agreed
to return to London and address the nation in a live television
broadcast on 5 September, the day before Diana's funeral.[158] In the
broadcast, she expressed admiration for Diana and her feelings "as a
grandmother" for the two princes.[159] As a result, much of the public
hostility evaporated.[159]
In
October 1997, Elizabeth and Philip made a state visit to India, which
included a controversial visit to the site of the Jallianwala Bagh
massacre to pay her respects. Protesters chanted "Killer Queen, go
back",[160] and there were demands for her to apologise for the action
of British troops 78 years earlier.[161] At the memorial in the park,
she and Philip paid their respects by laying a wreath and stood for a
30‑second moment of silence.[161] As a result, much of the fury among
the public softened and the protests were called off.[160] That
November, Elizabeth and her husband held a reception at Banqueting House
to mark their golden wedding anniversary.[162] Elizabeth made a speech
and praised Philip for his role as a consort, referring to him as "my
strength and stay".[162]
In
1999, as part of the process of devolution within the UK, Elizabeth
formally opened newly established legislatures for Wales and Scotland:
the National Assembly for Wales at Cardiff in May,[163] and the Scottish
Parliament at Edinburgh in July.[164]
Golden Jubilee
At
a Golden Jubilee dinner with British prime minister Tony Blair and
former prime ministers, 2002. From left to right: Blair, Margaret
Thatcher, Edward Heath, Elizabeth, James Callaghan and John Major
On
the eve of the new millennium, Elizabeth and Philip boarded a vessel
from Southwark, bound for the Millennium Dome. Before passing under
Tower Bridge, Elizabeth lit the National Millennium Beacon in the Pool
of London using a laser torch.[165] Shortly before midnight, she
officially opened the Dome.[166] During the singing of Auld Lang Syne,
Elizabeth held hands with Philip and British prime minister Tony
Blair.[167]
In
2002, Elizabeth marked her Golden Jubilee, the 50th anniversary of her
accession. Her sister and mother died in February and March
respectively, and the media speculated on whether the Jubilee would be a
success or a failure.[168] She again undertook an extensive tour of her
realms, beginning in Jamaica in February, where she called the farewell
banquet "memorable" after a power cut plunged the King's House, the
official residence of the governor-general, into darkness.[169] As in
1977, there were street parties and commemorative events, and monuments
were named to honour the occasion. One million people attended each day
of the three-day main Jubilee celebration in London,[170] and the
enthusiasm shown for Elizabeth by the public was greater than many
journalists had anticipated.[171]
Greeting NASA employees at the Goddard Space Flight Center, Maryland, May 2007
In
2003, Elizabeth sued Daily Mirror for breach of confidence and obtained
an injunction which prevented the outlet from publishing information
gathered by a reporter who posed as a footman at Buckingham Palace.[172]
The newspaper also paid £25,000 towards her legal costs.[173] Though
generally healthy throughout her life, in 2003 Elizabeth had keyhole
surgery on both knees. In October 2006, she missed the opening of the
new Emirates Stadium because of a strained back muscle that had been
troubling her since the summer.[174]
In
May 2007, citing unnamed sources, The Daily Telegraph reported that
Elizabeth was "exasperated and frustrated" by the policies of Tony
Blair, that she was concerned the British Armed Forces were
overstretched in Iraq and Afghanistan, and that she had raised concerns
over rural and countryside issues with Blair.[175] She was, however,
said to admire Blair's efforts to achieve peace in Northern
Ireland.[176] She became the first British monarch to celebrate a
diamond wedding anniversary in November 2007.[177] On 20 March 2008, at
the Church of Ireland St Patrick's Cathedral, Armagh, Elizabeth attended
the first Maundy service held outside England and Wales.[178]
Elizabeth
addressed the UN General Assembly for a second time in 2010, again in
her capacity as Queen of all Commonwealth realms and Head of the
Commonwealth.[179] The UN secretary-general, Ban Ki-moon, introduced her
as "an anchor for our age".[180] During her visit to New York, which
followed a tour of Canada, she officially opened a memorial garden for
British victims of the September 11 attacks.[180] Elizabeth's 11-day
visit to Australia in October 2011 was her 16th visit to the country
since 1954.[181] By invitation of the Irish president, Mary McAleese,
she made the first state visit to the Republic of Ireland by a British
monarch in May 2011.[182]
Diamond Jubilee and longevity
Visiting Birmingham in July 2012 as part of the Diamond Jubilee tour
Elizabeth's
2012 Diamond Jubilee marked 60 years on the throne, and celebrations
were held throughout her realms, the wider Commonwealth, and beyond. She
and her husband undertook an extensive tour of the United Kingdom,
while her children and grandchildren embarked on royal tours of other
Commonwealth states on her behalf.[183] On 4 June, Jubilee beacons were
lit around the world.[184] In November, Elizabeth and her husband
celebrated their blue sapphire wedding anniversary (65th).[185] On 18
December, she became the first British sovereign to attend a peacetime
Cabinet meeting since George III in 1781.[186]
Elizabeth,
who opened the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal, also opened the 2012
Summer Olympics and Paralympics in London, making her the first head of
state to open two Olympic Games in two countries.[187] For the London
Olympics, she played herself in a short film as part of the opening
ceremony, alongside Daniel Craig as James Bond.[188] On 4 April 2013,
she received an honorary BAFTA for her patronage of the film industry
and was called "the most memorable Bond girl yet" at the award
ceremony.[189]
Opening
the Borders Railway on the day she became the longest-reigning British
monarch, 2015. In her speech, she said she had never aspired to achieve
that milestone.[190]
On 3
March 2013, Elizabeth stayed overnight at King Edward VII's Hospital as a
precaution after developing symptoms of gastroenteritis.[191] A week
later, she signed the new Charter of the Commonwealth.[192] Because of
her age and the need for her to limit travelling, in 2013 she chose not
to attend the biennial Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting for the
first time in 40 years. She was represented at the summit in Sri Lanka
by Prince Charles.[193] On 20 April 2018, the Commonwealth heads of
government announced that she would be succeeded by Charles as Head of
the Commonwealth, which she stated was her "sincere wish".[194] She
underwent cataract surgery in May 2018.[195] In March 2019, she gave up
driving on public roads, largely as a consequence of a car crash
involving her husband two months earlier.[196]
Elizabeth
surpassed her great-great-grandmother, Queen Victoria, to become the
longest-lived British monarch on 21 December 2007, and the
longest-reigning British monarch and longest-reigning queen regnant and
female head of state in the world on 9 September 2015.[197] She became
the oldest current monarch after King Abdullah of Saudi Arabia died on
23 January 2015.[198] She later became the longest-reigning current
monarch and the longest-serving current head of state following the
death of King Bhumibol of Thailand on 13 October 2016,[199] and the
oldest current head of state on the resignation of Robert Mugabe of
Zimbabwe on 21 November 2017.[200] On 6 February 2017, she became the
first British monarch to commemorate a sapphire jubilee,[201] and on 20
November, she was the first British monarch to celebrate a platinum
wedding anniversary.[202] Philip had retired from his official duties as
the Queen's consort in August 2017.[203]
cvd-19 pandemic
On
19 March 2020, as the cvd-19 pandemic hit the United Kingdom, Elizabeth
moved to Windsor Castle and sequestered there as a precaution.[204]
Public engagements were cancelled and Windsor Castle followed a strict
sanitary protocol nicknamed "HMS Bubble".[205]
In a virtual meeting with Dame Cindy Kiro during the cvd-19 pandemic, October 2021
On
5 April, in a televised broadcast watched by an estimated 24 million
viewers in the UK,[206] she asked people to "take comfort that while we
may have more still to endure, better days will return: we will be with
our friends again; we will be with our families again; we will meet
again."[207] On 8 May, the 75th anniversary of VE Day, in a television
broadcast at 9 pm—the exact time at which her father George VI had
broadcast to the nation on the same day in 1945—she asked people to
"never give up, never despair".[208] In October, she visited the UK's
Defence Science and Technology Laboratory in Wiltshire, her first public
engagement since the start of the pandemic.[209] On 4 November, she
appeared masked for the first time in public, during a private
pilgrimage to the Tomb of the Unknown Warrior at Westminster Abbey, to
mark the centenary of his burial.[210] In 2021, she received her first
and second cvd-19 vaccinations in January and April respectively.[211]
Prince
Philip died on 9 April 2021, after 73 years of marriage, making
Elizabeth the first British monarch to reign as a widow or widower since
Queen Victoria.[212] She was reportedly at her husband's bedside when
he died,[213] and remarked in private that his death had "left a huge
void".[214] Due to the cvd-19 restrictions in place in England at the
time, Elizabeth sat alone at Philip's funeral service, which evoked
sympathy from people around the world.[215] In her Christmas broadcast
that year, she paid a personal tribute to her "beloved Philip", saying,
"That mischievous, inquiring twinkle was as bright at the end as when I
first set eyes on him".[216]
Despite
the pandemic, Elizabeth attended the 2021 State Opening of Parliament
in May,[217] and the 47th G7 summit in June.[218] On 5 July, the 73rd
anniversary of the founding of the UK's National Health Service, she
announced that the NHS will be awarded the George Cross to "recognise
all NHS staff, past and present, across all disciplines and all four
nations".[219] In October 2021, she began using a walking stick during
public engagements for the first time since her operation in 2004.[220]
Following an overnight stay in hospital on 20 October, her previously
scheduled visits to Northern Ireland,[221] the COP26 summit in
Glasgow,[222] and the 2021 National Service of Remembrance were
cancelled on health grounds.[223]
Platinum Jubilee
Drones forming a corgi above Buckingham Palace at the Platinum Party at the Palace on 4 June 2022
Elizabeth's
Platinum Jubilee began on 6 February 2022, marking 70 years since she
acceded to the throne on her father's death. On the eve of the date, she
held a reception at Sandringham House for pensioners, local Women's
Institute members and charity volunteers.[224] In her accession day
message, Elizabeth renewed her commitment to a lifetime of public
service, which she had originally made in 1947.[225]
Later
that month, Elizabeth had "mild cold-like symptoms" and tested positive
for cvd-19, along with some staff and family members.[226] She
cancelled two virtual audiences on 22 February,[227] but held a phone
conversation with British prime minister Boris Johnson the following day
amid a crisis on the Russo-Ukrainian border,[d][228] following which
she made a donation to the Disasters Emergency Committee (DEC) Ukraine
Humanitarian Appeal.[229] On 28 February, she was reported to have
recovered and spent time with her family at Frogmore.[230] On 7 March,
Elizabeth met Canadian prime minister Justin Trudeau at Windsor Castle,
in her first in-person engagement since her cvd diagnosis.[231] She
later remarked that cvd infection "leave[s] one very tired and exhausted
... It's not a nice result".[232]
Elizabeth
was present at the service of thanksgiving for Prince Philip at
Westminster Abbey on 29 March,[233] but was unable to attend the annual
Commonwealth Day service that month[234] or the Royal Maundy service in
April.[235] She missed the State Opening of Parliament in May for the
first time in 59 years. (She did not attend in 1959 and 1963 as she was
pregnant with Prince Andrew and Prince Edward, respectively.)[236] In
her absence, Parliament was opened by the Prince of Wales and the Duke
of Cambridge as counsellors of state.[237]
During
the Platinum Jubilee celebrations, Elizabeth was largely confined to
balcony appearances, and missed the National Service of
Thanksgiving.[238] For the Jubilee concert, she took part in a sketch
with Paddington Bear, that opened the event outside Buckingham
Palace.[239] On 13 June 2022, she became the second-longest reigning
monarch in history among those whose exact dates of reign are known,
with 70 years, 127 days reigned—surpassing King Bhumibol Adulyadej of
Thailand.[240] On 6 September 2022, she appointed her 15th British prime
minister, Liz Truss, at Balmoral Castle in Scotland. This marked the
only time she did not receive a new prime minister at Buckingham Palace
during her reign.[241] No other British reign had seen so many prime
ministers.[242]
Elizabeth
never planned to abdicate,[243] though she took on fewer public
engagements as she grew older and Prince Charles took on more of her
duties.[244] The Queen told Canadian governor general Adrienne Clarkson
in a meeting in 2002 that she would never abdicate, saying "It is not
our tradition. Although, I suppose if I became completely gaga, one
would have to do something".[245] In June 2022, Elizabeth met the
Archbishop of Canterbury, Justin Welby, who "came away thinking there is
someone who has no fear of death, has hope in the future, knows the
rock on which she stands and that gives her strength."[246]
Death
Main article: Death and state funeral of Elizabeth II
Tributes left by people in The Mall, London
On
8 September 2022, Buckingham Palace released a statement which read:
"Following further evaluation this morning, the Queen's doctors are
concerned for Her Majesty's health and have recommended she remain under
medical supervision. The Queen remains comfortable and at
Balmoral."[247] Elizabeth's immediate family rushed to Balmoral to be by
her side.[248] She died "peacefully" at 15:10 BST at the age of 96,
with her death being announced to the public at 18:30,[249] setting in
motion Operation London Bridge and, because she died in Scotland,
Operation Unicorn.[250] Elizabeth was the first monarch to die in
Scotland since James V in 1542.[251] Her cause of death was recorded as
"old age".[252]
On
12 September, Elizabeth's coffin was carried up the Royal Mile in a
procession to St Giles' Cathedral, where the Crown of Scotland was
placed on it.[253] Her coffin lay at rest at the cathedral for 24 hours,
guarded by the Royal Company of Archers, during which around 33,000
people filed past the coffin.[254] It was taken by air to London on 13
September. On 14 September, her coffin was taken in a military
procession from Buckingham Palace to Westminster Hall, where Elizabeth
lay in state for four days. The coffin was guarded by members of both
the Sovereign's Bodyguard and the Household Division. An estimated
250,000 members of the public filed past the coffin, as did politicians
and other public figures.[255][256] On 16 September, Elizabeth's
children held a vigil around her coffin, and the next day her eight
grandchildren did the same.[257][258]
Queen Elizabeth II's coffin on the State Gun Carriage of the Royal Navy, during the procession to Wellington Arch
Elizabeth's
state funeral was held at Westminster Abbey on 19 September, which
marked the first time that a monarch's funeral service had been held at
the Abbey since George II in 1760.[259] More than a million people lined
the streets of central London,[260] and the day was declared a holiday
in several Commonwealth countries. In Windsor, a final procession
involving 1,000 military personnel took place which was witnessed by
97,000 people.[261][260] Elizabeth's fell pony, and two royal corgis,
stood at the side of the procession.[262] After a Committal Service at
St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle, Elizabeth was interred with her
husband Philip in the King George VI Memorial Chapel later the same day
in a private ceremony attended by her closest family members.[263]
Legacy
Main article: Personality and image of Elizabeth II
Beliefs, activities and interests
Petting a dog in New Zealand, 1974
Elizabeth
rarely gave interviews and little was known of her personal feelings.
She did not explicitly express her own political opinions in a public
forum, and it is against convention to ask or reveal the monarch's
views. When Times journalist Paul Routledge asked Elizabeth for her
opinions on the miners' strike of 1984–85, she replied that it was "all
about one man" (a reference to Arthur Scargill), with which Routledge
disagreed.[264] Widely criticised in the media for asking the question,
Routledge said he was not initially due to be present for the royal
visit and was unaware of the protocols.[264] After the 2014 Scottish
independence referendum, Prime Minister David Cameron stated that
Elizabeth was pleased with the outcome.[265] She had arguably issued a
public coded statement about the referendum by telling one woman outside
Balmoral Kirk that she hoped people would think "very carefully" about
the outcome. It emerged later that Cameron had specifically requested
that she register her concern.[266]
Elizabeth
had a deep sense of religious and civic duty, and took her Coronation
Oath seriously.[267] Aside from her official religious role as Supreme
Governor of the established Church of England, she worshipped with that
church and also the national Church of Scotland.[268] She demonstrated
support for inter-faith relations and met with leaders of other churches
and religions, including five popes: Pius XII, John XXIII, John Paul
II, Benedict XVI and Francis.[269] A personal note about her faith often
featured in her annual Christmas Message broadcast to the Commonwealth.
In 2000, she said:[270]
To
many of us, our beliefs are of fundamental importance. For me the
teachings of Christ and my own personal accountability before God
provide a framework in which I try to lead my life. I, like so many of
you, have drawn great comfort in difficult times from Christ's words and
example.
Elizabeth
was patron of more than 600 organisations and charities.[271] The
Charities Aid Foundation estimated that Elizabeth helped raise over £1.4
billion for her patronages during her reign.[272] Her main leisure
interests included equestrianism and dogs, especially her Pembroke Welsh
Corgis.[273] Her lifelong love of corgis began in 1933 with Dookie, the
first corgi owned by her family.[274] Scenes of a relaxed, informal
home life were occasionally witnessed; she and her family, from time to
time, prepared a meal together and washed the dishes afterwards.[275]
Media depiction and public opinion
Magazines from the 1950s with Elizabeth II on their cover
In
the 1950s, as a young woman at the start of her reign, Elizabeth was
depicted as a glamorous "fairytale Queen".[276] After the trauma of the
Second World War, it was a time of hope, a period of progress and
achievement heralding a "new Elizabethan age".[277] Lord Altrincham's
accusation in 1957 that her speeches sounded like those of a "priggish
schoolgirl" was an extremely rare criticism.[278] In the late 1960s,
attempts to portray a more modern image of the monarchy were made in the
television documentary Royal Family and by televising Prince Charles's
investiture as Prince of Wales.[279] Her wardrobe developed a
recognisable, signature style driven more by function than fashion.[280]
She dressed with an eye toward what was appropriate, rather than what
was in vogue.[281][page needed] In public, she took to wearing mostly
solid-colour overcoats and decorative hats, allowing her to be seen
easily in a crowd.[282] Her wardrobe was handled by a team that included
five dressers, a dressmaker, and a milliner.[283][page needed]
At
Elizabeth's Silver Jubilee in 1977, the crowds and celebrations were
genuinely enthusiastic;[284] but, in the 1980s, public criticism of the
royal family increased, as the personal and working lives of Elizabeth's
children came under media scrutiny.[285] Her popularity sank to a low
point in the 1990s. Under pressure from public opinion, she began to pay
income tax for the first time, and Buckingham Palace was opened to the
public.[286] Although support for republicanism in Britain seemed higher
than at any time in living memory, republican ideology was still a
minority viewpoint and Elizabeth herself had high approval ratings.[287]
Criticism was focused on the institution of the monarchy itself, and
the conduct of Elizabeth's wider family, rather than her own behaviour
and actions.[288] Discontent with the monarchy reached its peak on the
death of Diana, Princess of Wales, although Elizabeth's personal
popularity—as well as general support for the monarchy—rebounded after
her live television broadcast to the world five days after Diana's
death.[289]
Meeting children in Brisbane, Australia, October 1982
In
November 1999, a referendum in Australia on the future of the
Australian monarchy favoured its retention in preference to an
indirectly elected head of state.[290] Many republicans credited
Elizabeth's personal popularity with the survival of the monarchy in
Australia. In 2010, Prime Minister Julia Gillard noted that there was a
"deep affection" for Elizabeth in Australia and another referendum on
the monarchy should wait until after her reign.[291] Gillard's
successor, Malcolm Turnbull, who led the republican campaign in 1999,
similarly believed that Australians would not vote to become a republic
in her lifetime.[292] "She's been an extraordinary head of state",
Turnbull said in 2021, "and I think frankly, in Australia, there are
more Elizabethans than there are monarchists".[293] Similarly,
referendums in both Tuvalu in 2008 and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
in 2009 saw voters reject proposals to become republics.[294]
Polls
in Britain in 2006 and 2007 revealed strong support for the
monarchy,[295] and in 2012, Elizabeth's Diamond Jubilee year, her
approval ratings hit 90 per cent.[296] Her family came under scrutiny
again in the last few years of her life due to her son Andrew's
association with convicted sex offenders Jeffrey Epstein and Ghislaine
Maxwell, his lawsuit with Virginia Giuffre amidst accusations of sexual
impropriety, and her grandson Harry and his wife Meghan's exit from the
monarchy and subsequent move to the United States.[297] Polling in Great
Britain during the Platinum Jubilee, however, showed Elizabeth's
personal popularity remained strong.[298] As of 2021 she remained the
third most admired woman in the world according to the annual Gallup
poll, her 52 appearances on the list meaning she had been in the top ten
more than any other woman in the poll's history.[299]
Elizabeth
was portrayed in a variety of media by many notable artists, including
painters Pietro Annigoni, Peter Blake, Chinwe Chukwuogo-Roy, Terence
Cuneo, Lucian Freud, Rolf Harris, Damien Hirst, Juliet Pannett and
Tai-Shan Schierenberg.[300][301] Notable photographers of Elizabeth
included Cecil Beaton, Yousuf Karsh, Anwar Hussein, Annie Leibovitz,
Lord Lichfield, Terry O'Neill, John Swannell and Dorothy Wilding. The
first official portrait photograph of Elizabeth was taken by Marcus
Adams in 1926.[302]
Finances
Further information: Finances of the British royal family
View of Sandringham House from the south bank of the Upper Lake
Sandringham House, Elizabeth's residence in Norfolk, which she personally owned
Elizabeth's
personal wealth was the subject of speculation for many years. In 1971,
Jock Colville, her former private secretary and a director of her bank,
Coutts, estimated her wealth at £2 million (equivalent to about £30
million in 2021[303]).[304] In 1993, Buckingham Palace called estimates
of £100 million "grossly overstated".[305] In 2002, she inherited an
estate worth an estimated £70 million from her mother.[306] The Sunday
Times Rich List 2020 estimated her personal wealth at £350 million,
making her the 372nd richest person in the UK.[307] She was number one
on the list when it began in the Sunday Times Rich List 1989, with a
reported wealth of £5.2 billion (approximately £13.8 billion in today's
value),[303] which included state assets that were not hers
personally.[308]
The
Royal Collection, which includes thousands of historic works of art and
the Crown Jewels, was not owned personally but was described as being
held in trust by Elizabeth for her successors and the nation,[309] as
were her official residences, such as Buckingham Palace and Windsor
Castle,[310] and the Duchy of Lancaster, a property portfolio valued at
£472 million in 2015.[311] The Paradise Papers, leaked in 2017, show
that the Duchy of Lancaster held investments in the British tax havens
of the Cayman Islands and Bermuda.[312] Sandringham House in Norfolk and
Balmoral Castle in Aberdeenshire were personally owned by
Elizabeth.[310] The Crown Estate—with holdings of £14.3 billion in
2019[313]—is held in trust and could not be sold or owned by her in a
personal capacity.[314]
Titles, styles, honours, and arms
Main article: List of titles and honours of Elizabeth II
Titles and styles
Royal cypher of Elizabeth II, surmounted by St Edward's Crown.
Personal flag of Elizabeth II
21 April 1926 – 11 December 1936: Her Royal Highness Princess Elizabeth of York[315]
11 December 1936 – 20 November 1947: Her Royal Highness The Princess Elizabeth
20 November 1947 – 6 February 1952: Her Royal Highness The Princess Elizabeth, Duchess of Edinburgh[316]
6 February 1952 – 8 September 2022: Her Majesty The Queen
Elizabeth
held many titles and honorary military positions throughout the
Commonwealth, was sovereign of many orders in her own countries, and
received honours and awards from around the world. In each of her
realms, she had a distinct title that follows a similar formula: Queen
of Saint Lucia and of Her other Realms and Territories in Saint Lucia,
Queen of Australia and Her other Realms and Territories in Australia,
etc. In the Channel Islands and Isle of Man, which are Crown
Dependencies rather than separate realms, she was known as Duke of
Normandy and Lord of Mann, respectively. Additional styles include
Defender of the Faith and Duke of Lancaster.
When
conversing with Elizabeth, the correct etiquette was to address her
initially as Your Majesty and thereafter as Ma'am (pronounced /mæm/),
with a short 'a' as in jam.[317]
Arms
See also: Flags of Elizabeth II
From
21 April 1944 until her accession, Elizabeth's arms consisted of a
lozenge bearing the royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom differenced
with a label of three points argent, the centre point bearing a Tudor
rose and the first and third a cross of St George.[318] Upon her
accession, she inherited the various arms her father held as sovereign.
Elizabeth also possessed royal standards and personal flags for use in
the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Jamaica, and
elsewhere.[319]
Issue
Name Birth Marriage Children Grandchildren
Date Spouse
Charles III 14 November 1948 (age 73) 29 July 1981
Divorced 28 August 1996 Lady Diana Spencer William, Prince of Wales
Prince George of Wales
Princess Charlotte of Wales
Prince Louis of Wales
Prince Harry, Duke of Sussex
Archie Mountbatten-Windsor
Lilibet Mountbatten-Windsor
9 April 2005 Camilla Parker Bowles None
Anne, Princess Royal 15 August 1950 (age 72) 14 November 1973
Divorced 28 April 1992 Mark Phillips Peter Phillips
Savannah Phillips
Isla Phillips
Zara Tindall
Mia Tindall
Lena Tindall
Lucas Tindall
12 December 1992 Timothy Laurence None
Prince Andrew, Duke of York 19 February 1960 (age 62) 23 July 1986
Divorced 30 May 1996 Sarah Ferguson Princess Beatrice, Mrs Edoardo Mapelli Mozzi Sienna Mapelli Mozzi
Princess Eugenie, Mrs Jack Brooksbank August Brooksbank
Prince Edward, Earl of Wessex and Forfar 10 March 1964 (age 58) 19 June 1999 Sophie Rhys-Jones Lady Louise Mountbatten-Windsor None
James Mountbatten-Windsor, Viscount Severn None
Ancestry
Ancestors of Elizabeth II[320]
See also
Household of Elizabeth II
List of things named after Elizabeth II
List of jubilees of Elizabeth II
List of special addresses made by Elizabeth II
Royal eponyms in Canada
Royal descendants of Queen Victoria and of King Christian IX
Notes
Her
godparents were: King George V and Queen Mary; Lord Strathmore; Prince
Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn (her paternal
great-granduncle); Princess Mary, Viscountess Lascelles (her paternal
aunt); and Lady Elphinstone (her maternal aunt).[5]
Television
coverage of the coronation was instrumental in boosting the medium's
popularity; the number of television licences in the United Kingdom
doubled to 3 million,[71] and many of the more than 20 million British
viewers watched television for the first time in the homes of their
friends or neighbours.[72] In North America, almost 100 million viewers
watched recorded broadcasts.[73]
The
only previous state visit by a British monarch to Russia was made by
King Edward VII in 1908. The King never stepped ashore, and met Nicholas
II on royal yachts off the Baltic port of what is now Tallinn,
Estonia.[148][149] During the four-day visit, which was considered to be
one of the most important foreign trips of Elizabeth's reign,[150] she
and Philip attended events in Moscow and Saint Petersburg.[151]
Russia invaded Ukraine one day later.
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Titles and succession
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Elizabeth II
Queen of the United Kingdom and the other Commonwealth realms (1952–2022)
Monarchies
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and
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Sapphire Jubilee
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ThanksgivingPlatinum PuddingThe Queen's Green CanopyPlatinum Jubilee
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Ships used
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State visits
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of EnglandHead of the British Armed ForcesCommander-in-Chief of the
Canadian Armed ForcesLord of MannList of things named after Elizabeth
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Depictions
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Royal address to the nationRoyal Christmas Message
Documentaries
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Journey (1951)A Queen Is Crowned (1953)The Queen in Australia (1954)The
Royal Tour of the Caribbean (1966)Royal Family (1969)Elizabeth R: A
Year in the Life of the Queen (1992)Monarchy: The Royal Family at Work
(2007)The Diamond Queen (2012)Elizabeth at 90: A Family Tribute
(2016)The Coronation (2018)Elizabeth: The Unseen Queen (2022)
Film and
television
A
Question of Attribution (1992 TV)Willi und die Windzors (1996)Her
Majesty (2001)The Queen (2006)The Queen (2009 TV serial)Happy and
Glorious (2012)A Royal Night Out (2015)Minions (2015)The Crown
(2016–)The Queen's Corgi (2019)2020 Alternative Christmas message
(2020)The Prince (2021)
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Links to related articles
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English, Scottish and British monarchs
Monarchs of England until 1603 Monarchs of Scotland until 1603
Alfred
the GreatEdward the ElderÆlfweardÆthelstanEdmund IEadredEadwigEdgar the
PeacefulEdward the MartyrÆthelred the UnreadySweynEdmund
IronsideCnutHarold IHarthacnutEdward the ConfessorHarold GodwinsonEdgar
ÆthelingWilliam IWilliam IIHenry IStephenMatildaHenry IIHenry the Young
KingRichard IJohnHenry IIIEdward IEdward IIEdward IIIRichard IIHenry
IVHenry VHenry VIEdward IVEdward VRichard IIIHenry VIIHenry VIIIEdward
VIJaneMary I and PhilipElizabeth I
Kenneth
I MacAlpinDonald IConstantine IÁedGiricEochaidDonald IIConstantine
IIMalcolm IIndulfDubCuilénAmlaíbKenneth IIConstantine IIIKenneth
IIIMalcolm IIDuncan IMacbethLulachMalcolm IIIDonald IIIDuncan
IIEdgarAlexander IDavid IMalcolm IVWilliam IAlexander IIAlexander
IIIMargaretJohnRobert IDavid IIEdward BalliolRobert IIRobert IIIJames
IJames IIJames IIIJames IVJames VMary IJames VI
Monarchs of England and Scotland after the Union of the Crowns from 1603
James I and VICharles ICharles IIJames II and VIIWilliam III and II and Mary IIAnne
British monarchs after the Acts of Union 1707
AnneGeorge IGeorge IIGeorge IIIGeorge IVWilliam IVVictoriaEdward VIIGeorge VEdward VIIIGeorge VIElizabeth IICharles III
Debatable or disputed rulers are in italics.
vte
British princesses
The
generations indicate descent from George I, who formalised the use of
the titles prince and princess for members of the British royal family.
Where a princess may have been or is descended from George I more than
once, her most senior descent, by which she bore or bears her title, is
used.
1st generation
Sophia Dorothea, Queen in Prussia
2nd generation
Anne,
Princess Royal and Princess of OrangePrincess AmeliaPrincess
CarolineMary, Landgravine of Hesse-KasselLouise, Queen of Denmark and
Norway
3rd generation
Augusta, Duchess of BrunswickPrincess ElizabethPrincess LouisaCaroline Matilda, Queen of Denmark and Norway
4th generation
Charlotte,
Princess Royal and Queen of WürttembergPrincess Augusta
SophiaElizabeth, Landgravine of Hesse-HomburgPrincess Mary, Duchess of
Gloucester and EdinburghPrincess SophiaPrincess AmeliaPrincess Sophia of
GloucesterPrincess Caroline of Gloucester
5th generation
Princess
Charlotte, Princess Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-SaalfeldPrincess Elizabeth
of ClarenceQueen VictoriaAugusta, Grand Duchess of
Mecklenburg-StrelitzPrincess Mary Adelaide, Duchess of Teck
6th generation
Victoria,
Princess Royal and German EmpressAlice, Grand Duchess of Hesse and by
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Falkland Islands
"Falklands" and "Malvinas" redirect here. For other uses, see Falklands (disambiguation) and Malvinas (disambiguation).
Coordinates: 51.73°S 59.22°W
Falkland Islands
British Overseas Territory
Flag of Falkland Islands
Flag Official seal of Falkland Islands
Coat of arms
Motto: "Desire the Right"
Anthem: "God Save the King"
0:50
Unofficial anthem: "Song of the Falklands"
Location of the Falkland Islands
Location of the Falkland Islands
Sovereign state United Kingdom
First settlement 1764
British rule reasserted 3 January 1833
Falklands War 2 April to
14 June 1982
Current constitution 1 January 2009
Capital
and largest settlement
Stanley
51°41′43″S 57°50′58″W
Official languages English
Demonym(s) Falkland Islander, Falklander
Government Devolved parliamentary dependency under a constitutional monarchy
• Monarch
Charles III
• Governor
Alison Blake
• Chief Executive
Andy Keeling
Legislature Legislative Assembly
Government of the United Kingdom
• Minister
Amanda Milling
Area
• Total
12,173 km2 (4,700 sq mi)
• Water (%)
0
Highest elevation 705 m (2,313 ft)
Population
• 2016 census
3,398[1] (not ranked)
• Density
0.28/km2 (0.7/sq mi) (not ranked)
GDP (PPP) 2013 estimate
• Total
$228.5 million[2]
• Per capita
$96,962 (4th)
Gini (2015) Negative increase 36.0[3]
medium
HDI (2010) 0.874[4]
very high · 20th
Currency Falkland Islands pound (£) (FKP)
Time zone UTC-03:00 (FKST)
Date format dd/mm/yyyy
Driving side left
Calling code +500
UK postcode
FIQQ 1ZZ
ISO 3166 code FK
Internet TLD .fk
Website https://www.falklands.gov.fk/
The
Falkland Islands (/ˈfɔːklənd, ˈfɔːl-, ˈfɒl-/;[5] Spanish: Islas
Malvinas[A]) is an archipelago in the South Atlantic Ocean on the
Patagonian Shelf. The principal islands are about 300 mi (480 km) east
of South America's southern Patagonian coast and about 752 mi (1,210 km)
from Cape Dubouzet at the northern tip of the Antarctic Peninsula, at a
latitude of about 52°S. The archipelago, with an area of 4,700 sq mi
(12,000 km2), comprises East Falkland, West Falkland, and 776 smaller
islands. As a British overseas territory, the Falklands have internal
self-governance, but the United Kingdom takes responsibility for their
defence and foreign affairs. The capital and largest settlement is
Stanley on East Falkland.
Controversy exists
over the Falklands' discovery and subsequent colonisation by Europeans.
At various times, the islands have had French, British, Spanish, and
Argentine settlements. Britain reasserted its rule in 1833, but
Argentina maintains its claim to the islands. In April 1982, Argentine
military forces invaded the islands. British administration was restored
two months later at the end of the Falklands War. In a 2013 sovereignty
referendum, almost all Falklanders voted in favour of the archipelago
remaining a UK overseas territory. The territory's sovereignty status is
part of an ongoing dispute between Argentina and the United Kingdom.
The
population (3,398 inhabitants in 2016)[1] consists primarily of
native-born Falkland Islanders, the majority of British descent. Other
ethnicities include French, Gibraltarian, and Scandinavian. Immigration
from the United Kingdom, the South Atlantic island of Saint Helena, and
Chile has reversed a population decline. The predominant (and official)
language is English. Under the British Nationality (Falkland Islands)
Act 1983, Falkland Islanders are British citizens.
The
islands lie on the boundary of the subantarctic oceanic and tundra
climate zones, and both major islands have mountain ranges reaching
2,300 ft (700 m). They are home to large bird populations, although many
no longer breed on the main islands due to predation by introduced
species. Major economic activities include fishing, tourism and sheep
farming, with an emphasis on high-quality wool exports. Oil exploration,
licensed by the Falkland Islands Government, remains controversial as a
result of maritime disputes with Argentina.
See also: List of Falkland Islands placenames
The
name "Falkland Islands" comes from Falkland Sound, the strait that
separates the two main islands.[6] The name "Falkland" was applied to
the channel by John Strong, captain of an English expedition that landed
on the islands in 1690. Strong named the strait in honour of Anthony
Cary, 5th Viscount Falkland, the Treasurer of the Navy who sponsored his
journey.[7] The Viscount's title originates from the town of Falkland,
Scotland—the town's name probably comes from a Gaelic term referring to
an "enclosure" (lann),[B] but it could less plausibly be from the
Anglo-Saxon term "folkland" (land held by folk-right).[9] The name
"Falklands" was not applied to the islands until 1765, when British
captain John Byron of the Royal Navy claimed them for King George III as
"Falkland's Islands".[10] The term "Falklands" is a standard
abbreviation used to refer to the islands.
The
common Spanish name for the archipelago, Islas Malvinas, derives from
the French Îles Malouines—the name given to the islands by French
explorer Louis-Antoine de Bougainville in 1764.[11] Bougainville, who
founded the islands' first settlement, named the area after the port of
Saint-Malo (the point of departure for his ships and colonists).[12] The
port, located in the Brittany region of western France, was named after
St. Malo (or Maclou), the Christian evangelist who founded the
city.[13]
At the twentieth session of the
United Nations General Assembly, the Fourth Committee determined that,
in all languages other than Spanish, all UN documentation would
designate the territory as Falkland Islands (Malvinas). In Spanish, the
territory was designated as Islas Malvinas (Falkland Islands).[14] The
nomenclature used by the United Nations for statistical processing
purposes is Falkland Islands (Malvinas).[15]
History
Main articles: History of the Falkland Islands and Timeline of the history of the Falkland Islands
Although
Fuegians from Patagonia may have visited the Falkland Islands in
prehistoric times,[16][17] the islands were uninhabited when Europeans
first explored them.[18] European claims of discovery date back to the
16th century, but no consensus exists on whether early explorers sighted
the Falklands or other islands in the South Atlantic.[19][20][C] The
first undisputed landing on the islands is attributed to English captain
John Strong, who, en route to Peru and Chile's littoral in 1690,
explored the Falkland Sound and noted the islands' water and game.[22]
The
Falklands remained uninhabited until the 1764 establishment of Port
Louis on East Falkland by French captain Louis Antoine de Bougainville
and the 1766 foundation of Port Egmont on Saunders Island by British
captain John MacBride.[D] Whether or not the settlements were aware of
each other's existence is debated by historians.[25] In 1766, France
surrendered its claim on the Falklands to Spain, which renamed the
French colony Puerto Soledad the following year.[26] Problems began when
Spain detected and captured Port Egmont in 1770. War was narrowly
avoided by its restitution to Britain in 1771.[27]
The
British and Spanish settlements coexisted in the archipelago until
1774, when Britain's new economic and strategic considerations led it to
voluntarily withdraw from the islands, leaving a plaque claiming the
Falklands for King George III.[28] Spain's Viceroyalty of the Río de la
Plata became the only governmental presence in the territory. West
Falkland was left abandoned, and Puerto Soledad became mostly a prison
camp.[29] Amid the British invasions of the Río de la Plata during the
Napoleonic Wars in Europe, the islands' governor evacuated the
archipelago in 1806; Spain's remaining colonial garrison followed suit
in 1811, except for gauchos and fishermen who remained voluntarily.[29]
Thereafter,
the archipelago was visited only by fishing ships; its political status
was undisputed until 1820, when Colonel David Jewett, an American
privateer working for the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata,
informed anchored ships about Buenos Aires' 1816 claim to Spain's
territories in the South Atlantic.[30][E] Since the islands had no
permanent inhabitants, in 1823 Buenos Aires granted German-born merchant
Luis Vernet permission to conduct fishing activities and exploit feral
cattle in the archipelago.[F] Vernet settled at the ruins of Puerto
Soledad in 1826, and accumulated resources on the islands until the
venture was secure enough to bring settlers and form a permanent
colony.[34] Buenos Aires named Vernet military and civil commander of
the islands in 1829,[35] and he attempted to regulate sealing to stop
the activities of foreign whalers and sealers.[29] Vernet's venture
lasted until a dispute over fishing and hunting rights led to a raid by
the American warship USS Lexington in 1831,[36][G] when United States
Navy commander Silas Duncan declared the dissolution of the island's
government.[37]
Three men in horseback examine a pastoral settlement
Depiction of a Falklands corral, shepherds and sheep in 1849 (painting by Royal Navy Admiral Edward Fanshawe)
Buenos
Aires attempted to retain influence over the settlement by installing a
garrison, but a mutiny in 1832 was followed the next year by the
arrival of British forces who reasserted Britain's rule.[38] The
Argentine Confederation (headed by Buenos Aires Governor Juan Manuel de
Rosas) protested against Britain's actions,[39][H] and Argentine
governments have continued since then to register official protests
against Britain.[42][I] The British troops departed after completing
their mission, leaving the area without formal government.[44] Vernet's
deputy, the Scotsman Matthew Brisbane, returned to the islands that year
to restore the business, but his efforts ended after, amid unrest at
Port Louis, gaucho Antonio Rivero led a group of dissatisfied
individuals to murder Brisbane and the settlement's senior leaders;
survivors hid in a cave on a nearby island until the British returned
and restored order.[44] In 1840, the Falklands became a Crown colony and
Scottish settlers subsequently established an official pastoral
community.[45] Four years later, nearly everyone relocated to Port
Jackson, considered a better location for government, and merchant
Samuel Lafone began a venture to encourage British colonisation.[46]
Stanley,
as Port Jackson was soon renamed, officially became the seat of
government in 1845.[47] Early in its history, Stanley had a negative
reputation due to cargo-shipping losses; only in emergencies would ships
rounding Cape Horn stop at the port.[48] Nevertheless, the Falklands'
geographic location proved ideal for ship repairs and the "Wrecking
Trade", the business of selling and buying shipwrecks and their
cargoes.[49] Aside from this trade, commercial interest in the
archipelago was minimal due to the low-value hides of the feral cattle
roaming the pastures. Economic growth began only after the Falkland
Islands Company, which bought out Lafone's failing enterprise in
1851,[J] successfully introduced Cheviot sheep for wool farming,
spurring other farms to follow suit.[51] The high cost of importing
materials, combined with the shortage of labour and consequent high
wages, meant the ship repair trade became uncompetitive. After 1870, it
declined as the replacement of sail ships by steamships was accelerated
by the low cost of coal in South America; by 1914, with the opening of
the Panama Canal, the trade effectively ended.[52] In 1881, the Falkland
Islands became financially independent of Britain.[47] For more than a
century, the Falkland Islands Company dominated the trade and employment
of the archipelago; in addition, it owned most housing in Stanley,
which greatly benefited from the wool trade with the UK.[51]
Two battling ships, with one sinking
Naval confrontation during the 1914 Battle of the Falkland Islands (painting by William Lionel Wyllie)
In
the first half of the 20th century, the Falklands served an important
role in Britain's territorial claims to subantarctic islands and a
section of Antarctica. The Falklands governed these territories as the
Falkland Islands Dependencies starting in 1908, and retained them until
their dissolution in 1985.[53] The Falklands also played a minor role in
the two world wars as a military base aiding control of the South
Atlantic. In the First World War Battle of the Falkland Islands in
December 1914, a Royal Navy fleet defeated an Imperial German squadron.
In the Second World War, following the December 1939 Battle of the River
Plate, the battle-damaged HMS Exeter steamed to the Falklands for
repairs.[18] In 1942, a battalion en route to India was redeployed to
the Falklands as a garrison amid fears of a Japanese seizure of the
archipelago.[54] After the war ended, the Falklands economy was affected
by declining wool prices and the political uncertainty resulting from
the revived sovereignty dispute between the United Kingdom and
Argentina.[48]
Simmering tensions between the
UK and Argentina increased during the second half of the century, when
Argentine President Juan Perón asserted sovereignty over the
archipelago.[55] The sovereignty dispute intensified during the 1960s,
shortly after the United Nations passed a resolution on decolonisation
which Argentina interpreted as favourable to its position.[56] In 1965,
the UN General Assembly passed Resolution 2065, calling for both states
to conduct bilateral negotiations to reach a peaceful settlement of the
dispute.[56] From 1966 until 1968, the UK confidentially discussed with
Argentina the transfer of the Falklands, assuming its judgement would be
accepted by the islanders.[57] An agreement on trade ties between the
archipelago and the mainland was reached in 1971 and, consequently,
Argentina built a temporary airfield at Stanley in 1972.[47]
Nonetheless, Falklander dissent, as expressed by their strong lobby in
the UK Parliament, and tensions between the UK and Argentina effectively
limited sovereignty negotiations until 1977.[58]
Concerned
at the expense of maintaining the Falkland Islands in an era of budget
cuts, the UK again considered transferring sovereignty to Argentina in
the early Thatcher government.[59] Substantive sovereignty talks again
ended by 1981, and the dispute escalated with passing time.[60] In April
1982, the Falklands War began when Argentine military forces invaded
the Falklands and other British territories in the South Atlantic,
briefly occupying them until a UK expeditionary force retook the
territories in June.[61] After the war, the United Kingdom expanded its
military presence, building RAF Mount Pleasant and increasing the size
of its garrison.[62] The war also left some 117 minefields containing
nearly 20,000 mines of various types, including anti-vehicle and
anti-personnel mines.[63] Due to the large number of deminer casualties,
initial attempts to clear the mines ceased in 1983.[63][K] Demining
operations recommenced in 2009 and were completed in October 2020.[65]
Based
on Lord Shackleton's recommendations, the Falklands diversified from a
sheep-based monoculture into an economy of tourism and, with the
establishment of the Falklands Exclusive Economic Zone,
fisheries.[66][L] The road network was also made more extensive, and the
construction of RAF Mount Pleasant allowed access to long haul
flights.[66] Oil exploration also began in the 2010s, with indications
of possible commercially exploitable deposits in the Falklands
basin.[67] Landmine clearance work restarted in 2009, in accordance with
the UK's obligations under the Ottawa Treaty, and Sapper Hill Corral
was cleared of mines in 2012, allowing access to an important historical
landmark for the first time in 30 years.[68][69] Argentina and the UK
re-established diplomatic relations in 1990, but neither has agreed on
the terms of future sovereignty discussions.[70]
Government
Main article: Politics of the Falkland Islands
Large, rambling house with greenhouse and white fence
Government House in Stanley is the Governor's official residence.
The
Falkland Islands are a self-governing British Overseas Territory.[71]
Under the 2009 Constitution, the islands have full internal
self-government; the UK is responsible for foreign affairs, retaining
the power "to protect UK interests and to ensure the overall good
governance of the territory".[72] The Monarch of the United Kingdom is
the head of state, and executive authority is exercised on the monarch's
behalf by the governor, who appoints the islands' chief executive on
the advice of members of the Legislative Assembly.[73] Both the governor
and the chief executive serve as the head of government.[74]
Governor
Alison Blake was appointed in July 2022[75] and Chief Executive Barry
Rowland was appointed in October 2016.[76] The UK minister responsible
for the Falkland Islands since 2019, Christopher Pincher, administers
British foreign policy regarding the islands.[77]
The
governor acts on the advice of the islands' Executive Council, composed
of the chief executive, the Director of Finance and three elected
members of the Legislative Assembly (with the governor as chairman).[73]
The Legislative Assembly, a unicameral legislature, consists of the
chief executive, the director of finance and eight members (five from
Stanley and three from Camp) elected to four-year terms by universal
suffrage.[73] All politicians in the Falkland Islands are independent;
no political parties exist on the islands.[78] Since the 2013 general
election, members of the Legislative Assembly have received a salary and
are expected to work full-time and give up all previously held jobs or
business interests.[79]
As a territory of the
United Kingdom, the Falklands were part of the overseas countries and
territories of the European Union until 2020.[80] The islands' judicial
system, overseen by the Foreign and Commonwealth Office, is largely
based on English law,[81] and the constitution binds the territory to
the principles of the European Convention on Human Rights.[72] Residents
have the right of appeal to the European Court of Human Rights and the
Privy Council.[82][83] Law enforcement is the responsibility of the
Royal Falkland Islands Police (RFIP).[81]
Defence
of the islands is provided by the United Kingdom.[84] A British
military garrison is stationed on the islands, and the Falkland Islands
government funds an additional company-sized light infantry Falkland
Islands Defence Force.[85] The Falklands claim an exclusive economic
zone (EEZ) extending 200 nmi (370 km) from its coastal baselines, based
on the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea; this zone
overlaps with the EEZ of Argentina.[86]
Main article: Military of the Falkland Islands
Sovereignty dispute
Main article: Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute
The
United Kingdom and Argentina both assert sovereignty over the Falkland
Islands. The UK bases its position on its continuous administration of
the islands since 1833 and the islanders' "right to self-determination
as set out in the UN Charter".[87][88][89] Argentina claims that, when
it achieved independence in 1816, it acquired the Falklands from
Spain.[90][91][92] The incident of 1833 is particularly contentious;
Argentina considers it proof of "Britain's usurpation" whereas the UK
discounts it as a mere reassertion of its claim.[93][M]
In
2009, the British prime minister, Gordon Brown, had a meeting with the
Argentine president, Cristina Fernández de Kirchner, and said that there
would be no further talks over the sovereignty of the Falklands.[96] In
March 2013, the Falkland Islands held a referendum on its political
status: 99.8% of votes cast favoured remaining a British overseas
territory.[97][98] Argentina does not recognise the Falkland Islanders
as a partner in negotiations.[90][99][100]
Geography
Main article: Geography of the Falkland Islands
Topographic image
Map of the Falkland Islands
The
Falkland Islands have a land area of 4,700 sq mi (12,000 km2) and a
coastline estimated at 800 mi (1,300 km).[101] The archipelago consists
of two main islands, West Falkland and East Falkland, and 776 smaller
islands.[102] The islands are predominantly mountainous and hilly,[103]
with the major exception being the depressed plains of Lafonia (a
peninsula forming the southern part of East Falkland).[104] The
Falklands consists of continental crust fragments resulting from the
break-up of Gondwana and the opening of the South Atlantic that began
130 million years ago. The islands are located in the South Atlantic
Ocean, on the Patagonian Shelf, about 300 mi (480 km) east of Patagonia
in southern Argentina.[105]
The Falklands'
approximate location is latitude 51°40′ – 53°00′ S and longitude 57°40′ –
62°00′ W.[106] The archipelago's two main islands are separated by the
Falkland Sound,[107] and its deep coastal indentations form natural
harbours.[108] East Falkland houses Stanley (the capital and largest
settlement),[106] the UK military base at RAF Mount Pleasant, and the
archipelago's highest point: Mount Usborne, at 2,313 ft (705 m).[107]
Outside of these significant settlements is the area colloquially known
as "Camp", which is derived from the Spanish term for countryside
(Campo).[109]
The climate of the islands is
cold, windy and humid maritime.[105] Variability of daily weather is
typical throughout the archipelago.[110] Rainfall is common over half of
the year, averaging 610 mm (24 in) in Stanley, and sporadic light
snowfall occurs nearly all year.[103] The temperature has historically
stayed between 21.1 and −11.1 °C (70.0 and 12.0 °F) in Stanley, with
mean monthly temperatures varying from 9 °C (48 °F) early in the year to
−1 °C (30 °F) in July.[110] Strong westerly winds and cloudy skies are
common.[103] Although numerous storms are recorded each month,
conditions are normally calm.[110]
Biodiversity
Main article: Wildlife of the Falkland Islands
Large group of short, squat penguins on barren shore
Colony of southern rockhopper penguins on Saunders Island
The
Falkland Islands are biogeographically part of the Antarctic zone,[111]
with strong connections to the flora and fauna of Patagonia in mainland
South America.[112] Land birds make up most of the Falklands' avifauna;
63 species breed on the islands, including 16 endemic species.[113]
There is also abundant arthropod diversity on the islands.[114] The
Falklands' flora consists of 163 native vascular species.[115] More than
400 species of lichens and lichen-dwelling fungi have been
recorded.[116] The islands' only native terrestrial mammal, the warrah,
was hunted to extinction by European settlers.[117]
The
islands are frequented by marine mammals, such as the southern elephant
seal and the South American fur seal, and various types of cetaceans;
offshore islands house the rare striated caracara. There are also five
different penguin species and a few of the largest albatross colonies on
the planet.[118] Endemic fish around the islands are primarily from the
genus Galaxias.[114] The Falklands are treeless and have a
wind-resistant vegetation predominantly composed of a variety of dwarf
shrubs.[119]
Virtually the entire land area of
the islands is used as pasture for sheep.[120] Introduced species
include reindeer, hares, rabbits, Patagonian foxes, brown rats and
cats.[121] Several of these species have harmed native flora and fauna,
so the government has tried to contain, remove or exterminate foxes,
rabbits and rats. Endemic land animals have been the most affected by
introduced species, and several bird species have been extirpated from
the larger islands.[122] The extent of human impact on the Falklands is
unclear, since there is little long-term data on habitat change.[112]
Economy
Main article: Economy of the Falkland Islands
Aerial photograph of small seaside city
Stanley is the financial centre of the Falkland Islands' economy.[123]
The
economy of the Falkland Islands is ranked the 222nd largest out of 229
in the world by GDP (PPP), but ranks 5th worldwide by GDP (PPP) per
capita.[124] The unemployment rate was 1% in 2016, and inflation was
calculated at 1.4% in 2014.[120] Based on 2010 data, the islands have a
high Human Development Index of 0.874[4] and a moderate Gini coefficient
for income inequality of 34.17.[125] The local currency is the Falkland
Islands pound, which is pegged to the British pound sterling.[126]
Economic
development was advanced by ship resupplying and sheep farming for
high-quality wool.[127] The main sheep breeds in the Falkland Islands
are Polwarth and Corriedale.[128] During the 1980s, although ranch
under-investment and the use of synthetic fibres damaged the
sheep-farming sector, the government secured a major revenue stream by
the establishment of an exclusive economic zone and the sale of fishing
licences to "anybody wishing to fish within this zone".[129] Since the
end of the Falklands War in 1982, the islands' economic activity
increasingly focused on oil field exploration and tourism.[130] All
large settlements are now connected by road and, since 2008, a ferry
links West and East Falkland. [131] The islands' major exports include
wool, hides, venison, fish and squid; its main imports include fuel,
building materials and clothing.[120]
The port
settlement of Stanley has regained the islands' economic focus, with an
increase in population as workers migrate from Camp.[132] Fear of
dependence on fishing licences and threats from overfishing, illegal
fishing and fish market price fluctuations led to increased interest in
oil drilling as an alternative source of revenue; as of 2001 exploration
efforts had yet to find "exploitable reserves".[123] Development
projects in education and sports have been funded by the Falklands
government, without aid from the United Kingdom.[129]
The
primary sector of the economy accounts for most of the Falkland
Islands' gross domestic product, with the fishing industry alone
contributing between 50% and 60% of annual GDP; agriculture also
contributes significantly to GDP and employs about a tenth of the
population.[133] A little over a quarter of the workforce serves the
Falkland Islands government, making it the archipelago's largest
employer.[134] Tourism, part of the service economy, has been spurred by
increased interest in Antarctic exploration and the creation of direct
air links with the United Kingdom and South America.[135] Tourists,
mostly cruise ship passengers, are attracted by the archipelago's
wildlife and environment, as well as activities such as fishing and
wreck diving; the majority find accommodation in Stanley.[136] The main
international airport, located at RAF Mount Pleasant on East Falkland,
provides flights to RAF Brize Norton in the UK and mainland South
America.[131] Port Stanley Airport provides internal flights.[137]
Despite CVID-19 pandemic restrictions caused suspensions of flights from
Santiago and São Paulo and prohibited cruise ship tourism, the economy
of the islands remains stable and healthy.[138]
Demographics
See also: Origins of Falkland Islanders and Religion in the Falkland Islands
Photograph of a building
Christ Church Cathedral, the local parish church of the Anglican Communion. Most Falklanders identify themselves as Christian.
The
Falkland Islands population is homogeneous, mostly descended from
Scottish and Welsh immigrants who settled in the territory after
1833.[139] The Falkland-born population are also descended from English
and French people, Gibraltarians, Scandinavians and South Americans. The
2016 census indicated that 43% of residents were born on the
archipelago, with foreign-born residents assimilated into local culture.
The legal term for the right of residence is "belonging to the
islands".[140][141] In 1983, full British citizenship was given to
Falkland Islanders under the British Nationality (Falkland Islands)
Act.[139]
A significant population decline
affected the archipelago in the 20th century, with many young islanders
moving overseas in search of education, a modern lifestyle, and better
job opportunities,[142] particularly to the British city of Southampton,
which came to be known in the islands as "Stanley North".[143] In
recent years, the islands' population decline has reduced, thanks to
immigrants from the United Kingdom, Saint Helena, and Chile.[144] In the
2012 census, a majority of residents listed their nationality as
Falkland Islander (59 per cent), followed by British (29 per cent),
Saint Helenian (9.8 per cent), and Chilean (5.4 per cent).[145] A small
number of Argentines also live on the islands.[146]
The
Falkland Islands have a low population density.[147] According to the
2012 census, the average daily population of the Falklands was 2,932,
excluding military personnel serving in the archipelago and their
dependents.[N] A 2012 report counted 1,300 uniformed personnel and 50
British Ministry of Defence civil servants present in the
Falklands.[134] Stanley (with 2,121 residents) is the most-populous
location on the archipelago, followed by Mount Pleasant (369 residents,
primarily air-base contractors) and Camp (351 residents).[145] The
islands' age distribution is skewed towards working age (20–60). Males
outnumber females (53 to 47 per cent), and this discrepancy is most
prominent in the 20–60 age group.[140]
In the
2012 census, most islanders identified themselves as Christian (66 per
cent), followed by those with no religious affiliation (32 per cent).
The remaining 2 per cent identified as adherents of other religions,
including the Baháʼí Faith,[148] Buddhism,[149] and Islam.[150][145] The
main Christian denominations are Anglicanism and other Protestantism,
and Roman Catholicism.[151]
Education in the
Falkland Islands, which follows England's system, is free and compulsory
for residents aged between 5 and 16 years.[152] Primary education is
available at Stanley, RAF Mount Pleasant (for children of service
personnel) and a number of rural settlements. Secondary education is
only available in Stanley, which offers boarding facilities and 12
subjects to General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) level.
Students aged 16 or older may study at colleges in England for their GCE
Advanced Level or vocational qualifications. The Falkland Islands
government pays for older students to attend institutions of higher
education, usually in the United Kingdom.[152]
Culture
Main article: Culture of the Falkland Islands
Two men in front of a fireplace about to exchange a drink
Gauchos
from mainland South America, such as these two men having mate at Hope
Place in East Falkland, influenced the local dialect.
Falklands
culture is based on the cultural traditions of its British settlers but
has also been influenced by Hispanic South America.[144] Falklanders
still use some terms and place names from the former Gaucho
inhabitants.[153] The Falklands' predominant and official language is
English, with the foremost dialect being British English; nonetheless,
some inhabitants also speak Spanish.[144] According to naturalist Will
Wagstaff, "the Falkland Islands are a very social place, and stopping
for a chat is a way of life".[153]
The islands
have one weekly newspaper The Penguin News,[154] and television and
radio broadcasts generally feature programming from the United
Kingdom.[144] Wagstaff describes local cuisine as "very British in
character with much use made of the homegrown vegetables, local lamb,
mutton, beef, and fish". Common between meals are "home made cakes and
biscuits with tea or coffee".[155] Social activities are, according to
Wagstaff, "typical of that of a small British town with a variety of
clubs and organisations covering many aspects of community life".[156]
See also
Index of Falkland Islands–related articles
List of islands of the Falkland Islands
List of settlements in the Falkland Islands
Outline of the Falkland Islands
Notes
Spanish pronunciation: [ˈizlaz malˈβinas]
According
to researcher Simon Taylor, the exact Gaelic etymology is unclear as
the "falk" in the name could have stood for "hidden" (falach), "wash"
(failc), or "heavy rain" (falc).[8]
Based on his analysis of
Falkland Islands discovery claims, historian John Dunmore concludes that
"[a] number of countries could therefore lay some claim to the
archipelago under the heading of first discoverers: Spain, Holland,
Britain, and even Italy and Portugal – although the last two claimants
might be stretching things a little."[21]
In 1764,
Bougainville claimed the islands in the name of Louis XV of France. In
1765, British captain John Byron claimed the islands in the name of
George III of Great Britain.[23][24]
According to Argentine
legal analyst Roberto Laver, the United Kingdom disregards Jewett's
actions because the government he represented "was not recognized either
by Britain or any other foreign power at the time" and "no act of
occupation followed the ceremony of claiming possession".[31]
Before
leaving for the Falklands Vernet stamped his grant at the British
Consulate, repeating this when Buenos Aires extended his grant in
1828.[32] The cordial relationship between the consulate and Vernet led
him to express "the wish that, in the event of the British returning to
the islands, HMG would take his settlement under their protection".[33]
The
log of the "Lexington" only reports the destruction of arms and a
powder store, but Vernet made a claim for compensation from the US
Government stating that the entire settlement was destroyed.[36]
As
discussed by Roberto Laver, not only did Rosas not break relations with
Britain because of the "essential" nature of "British economic
support", but he offered the Falklands "as a bargaining chip ... in
exchange for the cancellation of Argentina's million-pound debt with the
British bank of Baring Brothers".[40] In 1850, Rosas' government
ratified the Arana–Southern Treaty, which put "an end to the existing
differences, and of restoring perfect relations of friendship" between
the United Kingdom and Argentina.[41]
Argentina protested in
1841, 1849, 1884, 1888, 1908, 1927 and 1933, and has made annual
protests to the United Nations since 1946.[43]
There were
continual tensions with the colonial administration over Lafone's
failure to establish any permanent settlers, and over the price of beef
supplied to the settlement. Moreover, although his concession required
Lafone to bring settlers from the United Kingdom, most of the settlers
he brought were gauchos from Uruguay.[50]
The minefields were
fenced off and marked; there remain unexploded ordnance and improvised
explosive devices.[63] Detection and clearance of mines in the Falklands
has proven difficult as some were air-delivered and not in marked
fields; approximately 80% lie in sand or peat, where the position of
mines can shift, making removal procedures difficult.[64]
In
1976, Lord Shackleton produced a report into the economic future of the
islands; however, his recommendations were not implemented because
Britain sought to avoid confronting Argentina over sovereignty.[66] Lord
Shackleton was once again tasked, in 1982, to produce a report into the
economic development of the islands. His new report criticised the
large farming companies, and recommended transferring ownership of farms
from absentee landlords to local landowners. Shackleton also suggested
diversifying the economy into fishing, oil exploration, and tourism;
moreover, he recommended the establishment of a road network, and
conservation measures to preserve the islands' natural resources.[66]
Argentina
considers that, in 1833, the UK established an "illegal occupation" of
the Falklands after expelling Argentine authorities and settlers from
the islands with a threat of "greater force" and, afterwards, barring
Argentines from resettling the islands.[90][91][92] The Falkland
Islands' government considers that only Argentina's military personnel
was expelled in 1833, but its civilian settlers were "invited to stay"
and did so except for 2 and their wives.[94] International affairs
scholar Lowell Gustafson considers that "[t]he use of force by the
British on the Falkland Islands in 1833 was less dramatic than later
Argentine rhetoric has suggested".[95]
At the time of the 2012 census, 91 Falklands residents were overseas.[145]
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Guo 2007, p. 112,
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Sainato 2010, p. 157.
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Trewby 2002, p. 79.
Klügel 2009, p. 66.
Guo 2007, p. 112.
Hemmerle 2005, p. 318.
See:
Blouet & Blouet 2009, p. 100,
Central Intelligence Agency 2011, "Falkland Islands (Malvinas) – Geography"
Hince 2001, "Camp".
Gibran 1998, p. 16.
Jónsdóttir 2007, pp. 84–86.
Helen
Otley; Grant Munro; Andrea Clausen; Becky Ingham (May 2008). "Falkland
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original (PDF) on 20 July 2011. Retrieved 25 March 2011.
Clark & Dingwall 1985, p. 131.
Clark & Dingwall 1985, p. 132.
Clark & Dingwall 1985, p. 129.
Fryday,
lan M.; Orange, Alan; Ahti, Teuvo; Øvstedal, Dag O.; Crabtree, Dafydd
E. (2019). "An annotated checklist of lichen-forming and lichenicolous
fungi reported from the Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas)" (PDF).
Glalia. 8 (1): 1–100.
Hince 2001, p. 370.
Chura,
Lindsay R. (30 June 2015). "Pan-American Scientific Delegation Visit to
the Falkland Islands". Science and Diplomacy. Archived from the original
on 7 July 2015. Retrieved 6 July 2015. The ocean’s fecundity also draws
globally important seabird populations to the archipelago; the Falkland
Islands host some of the world’s largest albatross colonies and five
penguin species.
Jónsdóttir 2007, p. 85.
"Falkland
Islands (Islas Malvinas)". Central Intelligence Agency. Archived from
the original on 9 January 2021. Retrieved 10 July 2013.
Bell 2007, p. 544.
Bell 2007, pp. 542–545.
Royle 2001, p. 171.
The
World Factbook — Central Intelligence Agency Archived 25 June 2014 at
the Wayback Machine. Cia.gov. Retrieved on 20 September 2017.
Avakov 2013, p. 54.
"Regions
and territories: Falkland Islands". BBC News. 12 June 2012. Archived
from the original on 9 September 2018. Retrieved 26 June 2014.
See:
Calvert 2004, p. 134,
Royle 2001, p. 170.
"Agriculture". Falkland Islands Government. Archived from the original on 15 February 2016. Retrieved 13 February 2016.
Royle 2001, p. 170.
Hemmerle 2005, p. 319.
"Encyclopedia Britannica – Falkland Islands". Retrieved 18 September 2019.
Royle 2001, pp. 170–171.
"The Economy". Falkland Islands Government. Archived from the original on 7 April 2014. Retrieved 26 June 2014.
"The
Falkland Islands: Everything You Ever Wanted to Know in Data and
Charts". The Guardian. 3 January 2013. Archived from the original on 3
July 2018. Retrieved 12 June 2014.
See:
Bertram, Muir & Stonehouse 2007, p. 144,
Prideaux 2008, p. 171.
See:
Prideaux 2008, p. 171,
Royle 2006, p. 183.
"Internal Flights (FIGAS)". Getting Around the Falkland Islands. Falkland Islands Tourist Board. Retrieved 23 July 2010.
Hugo
Alconada Mon (28 March 2022). "Las Islas Malvinas, hoy: más diversas y
cosmopolitas, miran a Londres y apuntan a la autodeterminación como
país" [Falkland Islands, today: more diverse and cosmopolite, they look
to London and aim to self-determination] (in Spanish). La Nación.
Archived from the original on 28 March 2022. Retrieved 28 March 2022.
Laver 2001, p. 9.
"Falkland
Islands Census Statistics, 2006" (PDF). Falkland Islands Government.
Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 December 2010. Retrieved 4 June
2010.
Falkland Islands Government. "Falkland Islands Census
2016" (PDF). Falkland Islands Government. Archived from the original
(PDF) on 28 March 2018. Retrieved 6 May 2018.
See:
Gibran 1998, p. 18,
Laver 2001, p. 173.
Falklands
still home to optimists as invasion anniversary nears Archived 5 March
2017 at the Wayback Machine, The Guardian, Andy Beckett, 19 March 2012
Minahan 2013, p. 139.
"Falkland
Islands Census 2012: Headline results" (PDF). Falkland Islands
Government. 10 September 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20
May 2013. Retrieved 19 December 2012.
"Falklands Referendum:
Voters from many countries around the world voted Yes". MercoPress. 28
June 2013. Archived from the original on 17 October 2013. Retrieved 22
July 2013.
Royle 2006, p. 181.
"The Largest Baha'i
(sic) Communities (mid-2000)". Adherents.com. September 2001. Archived
from the original on 20 October 2001. Retrieved 11 October 2020.
"Falkland Islands Census Statistics 2006" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 December 2010.
"The
world in muslim populations, every country listed". The Guardian. 8
October 2009. Archived from the original on 7 December 2018. Retrieved 2
March 2019.
Religions of the World: A Comprehensive
Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices, 2nd Edition [6 volumes] by J.
Gordon Melton, Martin Baumann, ABC-CLIO, p. 1093.
"Education". Falkland Islands Government. Archived from the original on 26 October 2018. Retrieved 29 May 2014.
Wagstaff 2001, p. 21.
Wagstaff 2001, p. 66.
Wagstaff 2001, pp. 63–64.
Wagstaff 2001, p. 65.
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Further reading
Caviedes,
César (1994). "Conflict Over The Falkland Islands: A Never-Ending
Story?". Latin American Research Review. 29 (2): 172–187.
doi:10.1017/S0023879100024171. S2CID 252749716. Archived from the
original on 18 January 2012.
Darwin, Charles (1846). "On the
Geology of the Falkland Islands" (PDF). Quarterly Journal of the
Geological Society. 2 (1–2): 267–274.
doi:10.1144/GSL.JGS.1846.002.01-02.46. S2CID 129936121. Archived from
the original (PDF) on 11 July 2014. Retrieved 9 March 2013.
Escudé,
Carlos; Cisneros, Andrés, eds. (2000). Historia de las Relaciones
Exteriores Argentinas. Buenos Aires, Argentina: GEL/Nuevohacer. ISBN
978-950-694-546-6. Work developed and published under the auspices of
the Argentine Council for International Relations (CARI).
Freedman, Lawrence (2005). The Official History of the Falklands Campaign. Oxon, UK: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-7146-5207-8.
Michael
Frenchman (28 November 1980). "Britain puts forward four options on
Falklands (Nick Ridley visit & leaseback)". The Times. p. 7.
Archived from the original on 6 July 2020. Retrieved 5 July 2020.
Greig,
D. W. (1983). "Sovereignty and the Falkland Islands Crisis" (PDF).
Australian Year Book of International Law. 8: 20–70.
doi:10.1163/26660229-008-01-900000006. ISSN 0084-7658. Archived (PDF)
from the original on 9 July 2014. Retrieved 5 September 2011.
Ivanov,
L. L.; et al. (2003). The Future of the Falkland Islands and Its People
. Sofia, Bulgaria: Manfred Wörner Foundation. ISBN 978-954-91503-1-5.
Printed in Bulgaria by Double T Publishers.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Falkland Islands.
Wikimedia Atlas of Falkland Islands
Falkland Islands Government (official site)
Falkland Islands Development Corporation (official site)
Falkland Islands News Network (official site)
Falkland Islands Profile (BBC)
"Falkland Islands" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 10 (11th ed.). 1911.
Places adjacent to Falkland Islands
Argentina Atlantic Ocean Atlantic Ocean
Chile
Strait of Magellan
Falkland Islands Falkland Islands
Atlantic Ocean
South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands South Georgia
Tierra del Fuego
Drake Passage Drake Passage
South Shetland Islands
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Articles relating to the Falkland Islands
Gnome-globe.svg Geographic locale
Lat. and Long. 51°42′S 57°51′W (Stanley)
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Falkland Islands
Capital: Port Stanley
History
1770 Falklands crisis1833 British ReassertionHope PlacePort EgmontPuerto Soledad1982 invasionFalklands War
Geography
Islands
ArchBaldBarclayBarrenBeaverBecherBeaucheneBeefBirdBleakerBobsBoxBrandyBrokenBurdwood
BankBurntCarcassCochonCoffinDunbarDykeEarEast Falkland
LafoniaEastEddystone RockElephant CaysEddystone
RockFoxGeorgeGoldingGreatGreenHaltHighHogHummockJasonKelpKeppelKidneyLivelyLongNewNorth
EastNorth
PointPassagePebblePennPhillimorePleasantQuakerRabbitRugglesRumSamuelSandy
BaySaundersSea DogSea LionSeal
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PointWhisky
Locations
AirportAjax
BayBay of HarboursBertha's BeachBrenton LochBull PointByron
HeightsCampCape BougainvilleCape PembrokeChathamCircum PeakDarwinEagle
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PatchGullHill CoveHope HarbourHornby MountainsHorseJohnson's
HarbourLafoniaLoopMount AdamMount AliceMount MariaMount UsborneMount
WeddellNew HavenNew Year CoveNorth ArmPebble Island
SettlementPillarPleasant PeakPort AlbemarlePort HowardPort LouisPort
PattersonPort San CarlosPort StephensQuaker HarbourRaceSalvadorSan
CarlosSeal BaySmylie ChannelStanleyStanley HarbourSwanVolunteer
PointWeddell PointWeddell Settlement
Military
Falkland Islands Defence ForceMare HarbourRAF Mount PleasantRRH Mount KentRRH Byron HeightsRRH Mount Alice
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LondonSovereignty dispute
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Sport
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(*) Sixth-formers attend Peter Symonds College in England and national diploma/NVQ students attend Chichester College in England
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Countries, territories and dependencies of the British Crown
Constituent countries
of the United Kingdom
EnglandNorthern IrelandScotlandWales
Crown Dependencies
Bailiwick of Guernsey AlderneyGuernseySarkBailiwick of JerseyIsle of Man
Overseas territories
Akrotiri
and Dhekelia1AnguillaBermudaBritish Antarctic Territory2British Indian
Ocean TerritoryBritish Virgin IslandsCayman IslandsFalkland
IslandsGibraltarMontserratPitcairn, Henderson, Ducie and Oeno
IslandsSaint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha Ascension
IslandSaint HelenaTristan da Cunha Gough IslandSouth Georgia and the
South Sandwich IslandsTurks and Caicos Islands
Former colonies
List of countries that have gained independence from the United Kingdom
1 Sovereign Base Areas. 2 Partial suspension of sovereignty due to the Antarctic Treaty.
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British Empire
Legend Current territoryFormer territory* Now a Commonwealth realmNow a member of the Commonwealth of Nations
Culture:Anglosphere
Europe
1542–1800
Ireland (integrated into the UK)1708–1757, 1763–1782 and 1798–1802
MinorcaSince 1713 Gibraltar1800–1813 Malta (Protectorate)1813–1964 Malta
(Colony)1807–1890 Heligoland1809–1864 Ionian Islands1878–1960
Cyprus1921–1931 Irish Free StateSince 1960 Akrotiri and Dhekelia (before
as part of Cyprus)
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Africa
17th and 18th centuries 19th century 20th century
Since 1658 Saint Helena231792–1961 Sierra Leone1795–1803 Cape Colony
Since
1815 Ascension Island23Since 1816 Tristan da Cunha231806–1910 Cape of
Good Hope1807–1808 Madeira1810–1968 Mauritius1816–1965 The
Gambia1856–1910 Natal1862–1906 Lagos1868–1966 Basutoland61874–1957 Gold
Coast71882–1922 Egypt
1884–1900 Niger Coast1884–1966
Bechuanaland81884–1960 Somaliland1887–1897 Zululand1890–1962
Uganda1890–1963 Zanzibar91891–1964 Nyasaland101891–1907 Central
Africa1893–1968 Swaziland111895–1920 East Africa1899–1956 Sudan
1900–1914
Northern Nigeria1900–1914 Southern Nigeria1900–1910 Orange
River1900–1910 Transvaal1903–1976 Seychelles1910–1931 South
Africa1914–1960 Nigeria1915–1931 South-West Africa121919–1961
Cameroons131920–1963 Kenya1922–1961 Tanganyika131923–1965 and 1979–1980
Southern Rhodesia141924–1964 Northern Rhodesia15
6. Now
Lesotho.7. Now Ghana.8. Now Botswana.9. Now part of Tanzania.10. Now
Malawi.11. Now named Eswatini.12. Now Namibia.13. League of Nations
mandate. British Cameroons is now part of Cameroon, while Tanganyika is
part of Tanzania.14. Self-governing Southern Rhodesia unilaterally
declared independence in 1965 (as Rhodesia) and continued as an
unrecognised state until the 1979 Lancaster House Agreement. After
recognised independence in 1980, Zimbabwe was a member of the
Commonwealth until it withdrew in 2003.15. Now Zambia.
vte
Asia
17th and 18th centuries 19th century 20th century
1685–1824
Bencoolen1702–1705 Pulo Condore1757–1947 Bengal1762–1764 Manila and
Cavite1781–1784 and 1795–1819 Padang1786–1946 Penang1795–1948
Ceylon161796–1965 Maldives
1811–1816 Java1812–1824 Banka and
Billiton1819–1826 Malaya1824–1948 Burma1826–1946 Straits
Settlements1839–1967 Aden Colony1839–1842 Afghanistan1841–1997 Hong
Kong1841–1946 Sarawak171848–1946 Labuan1858–1947 India181874–1963 Borneo
1879–1919
Afghanistan (protectorate)1882–1963 North Borneo171885–1946 Unfederated
Malay States1888–1984 Brunei1891–1971 Muscat and Oman1892–1971 Trucial
States1895–1946 Federated Malay States1898–1930 Weihai1878–1960 Cyprus
1907–1949
Bhutan (protectorate)1918–1961 Kuwait1920–1932 Mesopotamia191921–1946
Transjordan81923–1948 Palestine191945–1946 South Vietnam1946–1963 North
Borneo1946–1963 Sarawak1946–1963 Singapore1946–1948 Malayan
Union1948–1957 Federation of Malaya17Since 1965 British Indian Ocean
Territory (before as part of Mauritius and Seychelles)
16. Now
Sri Lanka.17. Now part of Malaysia.18. Now India, Pakistan and
Bangladesh.19. League of Nations mandate. Iraq's mandate was not enacted
and replaced by the Anglo-Iraqi Treaty
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North America
17th century and before 18th century 19th and 20th centuries
1579
New Albion16th c.–1880 British Arctic Territories1583–1907
Newfoundland1605–1979 *Saint Lucia1607–1776 VirginiaSince 1619
Bermuda1620–1691 Plymouth1623–1883 Saint Kitts1624–1966
*Barbados1625–1650 Saint Croix1627–1979 *Saint Vincent and the
Grenadines1628–1883 Nevis1629–1691 Massachusetts-Bay1632–1776
Marylandsince 1632 Montserrat1632–1860 Antigua1635–1644
Saybrook1636–1776 Connecticut1636–1776 Rhode Island1637–1662 New Haven
1643–1860
Bay IslandsSince 1650 Anguilla1655–1860 Mosquito Coast1655–1962
*Jamaica1663–1712 Carolina1664–1776 New-York1665–1674 and 1702–1776
New-JerseySince 1666 Virgin IslandsSince 1670 Cayman Islands1670–1973
*Bahamas1670–1870 Rupert's Land1671–1816 Leeward Islands1674–1702 East
Jersey1674–1702 West Jersey1680–1776 New Hampshire1681–1776
Pennsylvania1686–1689 New England1691–1776 Massachusetts-Bay
1701–1776
Delaware1712–1776 North-Carolina1712–1776 South-Carolina1713–1867
Nova-Scotia1733–1776 Georgia1754–1820 Cape Breton Island1762–1974
*Grenada1763–1978 Dominica1763–1873 Prince Edward Island1763–1791
Quebec1763–1783 East Florida1763–1783 West Florida1784–1867 New
Brunswick1791–1841 Lower Canada1791–1841 Upper CanadaSince 1799 Turks
and Caicos Islands
1818–1846 Columbia District/Oregon
Country11833–1960 Windward Islands1833–1960 Leeward Islands1841–1867
Canada1843 Paulet affair1849–1866 Vancouver Island1853–1863 Queen
Charlotte Islands1858–1866 British Columbia1859–1870 North-Western
Territory1860–1981 *Antigua and Barbuda1862–1863 Stickeen1866–1871
British Columbia1867–1931 *Dominion of Canada21871–1981 *Belize1882–1983
*Saint Kitts and Nevis1889–1962 Trinidad and Tobago1907–1949
Newfoundland31958–1962 West Indies Federation1967–1983 West Indies
Associated States
1. Occupied jointly with the United
States.2. In 1931, Canada and other British dominions obtained
self-government through the Statute of Westminster. See Name of
Canada.3. Gave up self-rule in 1934, but remained a de jure Dominion
until it joined Canada in 1949.
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Oceania
18th and 19th centuries 20th century
1788–1901
New South Wales1803–1901 Van Diemen's Land/Tasmania1807–1863 Auckland
Islands201824–1980 New Hebrides211824–1901 Queensland1829–1901 Swan
River/Western Australia1836–1901 South Australiasince 1838 Pitcairn
Islands
1841–1907 New Zealand1846-1847 North
Australia1851–1901 Victoria1874–1970 Fiji1877–1976 Western Pacific
Territories1884–1902 Papua1888–1901 Rarotonga/Cook Islands201889–1948
Union Islands201892–1979 Gilbert and Ellice Islands221893–1978 *Solomon
Islands
1900–1970 Tonga1900–1974 Niue201901–1942 *Australia1907–1947 *New Zealand1914–1962 Samoa1919–1942 and 1945–1968 Nauru
20. Now part of the *Realm of New Zealand.21. Now Vanuatu.22. Now Kiribati and *Tuvalu.
South America
1631–1641
Providence Island1651–1667 Willoughbyland1670–1688 Saint Andrew and
Providence Islands41831–1966 GuianaSince 1833 Falkland Islands5Since
1908 South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands5
4. Now a department of Colombia.5. Occupied by Argentina during the Falklands War of April–June 1982.
Antarctica and the South Atlantic
Since
1658 Saint Helena23Since 1815 Ascension Island23Since 1816 Tristan da
Cunha23Since 1833 Falkland Islands1841–1933 Australian Antarctic
Territory (transferred to the Commonwealth of Australia)1841–1947 Ross
Dependency (transferred to the Realm of New Zealand)Since 1908 British
Antarctic Territory24Since 1908 South Georgia and the South Sandwich
Islands24
23. Since 2009 part of Saint Helena, Ascension and
Tristan da Cunha; Ascension Island (1922–) and Tristan da Cunha (1938–)
were previously dependencies of Saint Helena.24. Both claimed in 1908;
territories formed in 1962 (British Antarctic Territory) and 1985 (South
Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands).
Historical flags of the British Empire
Category Commons Portal
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Countries and dependencies of South America
Sovereign
states
Entire
ArgentinaBoliviaBrazilChileColombiaEcuadorGuyanaParaguayPeruSurinameUruguayVenezuela
In part
France French Guiana
South America (orthographic projection).svg
Dependencies
Falkland Islands / South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands UK
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Peri-Antarctic countries and overseas territories
ArgentinaAustralia
Heard Island and McDonald IslandsMacquarie IslandBouvet
IslandChileFalkland IslandsFrench Southern Territories Amsterdam
IslandCrozet IslandsKerguelen IslandsSaint Paul IslandNew Zealand NZ
Subantarctic IslandsSouth Africa Prince Edward IslandsSouth Georgia and
the South Sandwich Islands
"Peri-Antarctic" (meaning "close to the Antarctic") does not include territorial claims in Antarctica itself.
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Outlying territories of European countries
Territories
under European sovereignty but closer to or on continents other than
Europe (see inclusion criteria for further information).
Denmark
Greenland
France
Clipperton
IslandFrench GuianaFrench PolynesiaFrench Southern and Antarctic Lands
Adélie LandCrozet IslandsÎle AmsterdamÎle Saint-PaulKerguelen
IslandsScattered Islands in the Indian
OceanGuadeloupeMartiniqueMayotteNew CaledoniaRéunionSaint
BarthélemySaint MartinSaint Pierre and MiquelonWallis and Futuna
Italy
PantelleriaPelagie Islands LampedusaLampioneLinosa
Netherlands
ArubaCaribbean Netherlands BonaireSabaSint EustatiusCuraçaoSint Maarten
Norway
Bouvet IslandPeter I IslandQueen Maud Land
Portugal
AzoresMadeira
Spain
Canary IslandsCeutaMelillaPlazas de soberanía Chafarinas IslandsPeñón de AlhucemasPeñón de Vélez de la Gomera
United Kingdom
AnguillaBermudaBritish
Antarctic TerritoryBritish Indian Ocean TerritoryBritish Virgin
IslandsCayman IslandsFalkland IslandsMontserratPitcairn IslandsSaint
Helena, Ascension and Tristan da CunhaSouth Georgia and the South
Sandwich IslandsTurks and Caicos Islands
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Spanish Empire
Timeline–immersed
Catholic
MonarchsConquest of the Americas, Asia and the PacificTreaty of
TordesillasItalian WarsHabsburgsGolden AgeWar of the League of
CognacEncomiendasNew Laws in favour of the indigenousExpulsion of the
MoriscosOttoman–Habsburg warsFrench Wars of ReligionBruneian–Spanish
conflictAnglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)Piracy in the CaribbeanEighty
Years' WarSpanish–Moro conflictThirty Years' WarFranco-Spanish War
(1635–1659)Portuguese Restoration WarWar of the Spanish Succession Queen
Anne's WarBourbonsBourbon ReformsWar of Jenkins' EarTreaty of Madrid
(1750)Seven Years' WarNootka ConventionNapoleonic invasionThird Treaty
of San IldefonsoIndependence of Spanish continental AmericasAdams–Onís
TreatyLiberal constitutionCarlist WarsSpanish–American WarGerman–Spanish
Treaty (1899)Spanish Civil WarIndependence of MoroccoIndependence of
Equatorial GuineaWestern Sahara conflict
Territories
Europe
SpainGibraltarKingdoms
of Naples, Sicily and SardiniaMilanUnion with Holy Roman
EmpireNetherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, northernmost
FranceFranche-ComtéPyrénées-OrientalesUnion with Portugal
Asia
PhilippinesPacific Islands (Guam, Mariana, Caroline, Micronesia, Palau, Marshall)Northern TaiwanTidore
North America
FloridaNew
Spain (Western United States, Mexico, Central America, Spanish
Caribbean)Spanish Louisiana (Central United States)Coastal Alaska
Central America
TrinidadJamaicaHaitiArubaCurazaoBonaireBelize
South America
Venezuela,
part of GuyanaNew Granada (Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, Venezuela a
northernmost portion of Brazilian Amazon)Peru (Peru, Acre)Río de la
Plata (Argentina, Paraguay, Charcas (Bolivia), Banda Oriental (Uruguay),
Falkland Islands)Chile
Africa
Equatorial
GuineaNorthern Africa (Western Sahara, Spanish Morocco, Tripoli, Tunis,
Peñón of Algiers, Oran, Béjaïa, Ifni and Cape Juby)
Antarctica
Terra Australis
Administration
Archivo
de IndiasCouncil of the IndiesCabildoExequaturLaws of the IndiesPapal
bullRoyal Decree of GracesTrial of residenceSchool of Salamanca
Administrative subdivisions
Viceroyalties
ColumbianNew SpainNew GranadaPerúRío de la Plata
Captaincies General
ChileCubaGuatemalaPhilippinesProvincias InternasPuerto RicoSanto DomingoVenezuelaYucatán
Governorates
Castilla
de OroCubaLa FloridaLa LuisianaNew Andalusia (1501–1513)New
AndalusiaNew CastileNew NavarreNew ToledoParaguayRío de la PlataTerra
Australis
Audiencias
BogotáBuenos AiresCaracasCharcasConcepciónCuscoGuadalajaraGuatemalaLimaManilaMexicoPanamáQuitoSantiagoSanto Domingo
Economy
Currencies
Dollar (Peso)RealMaravedíEscudoColumnarioDoubloon
Trade
Manila
galleonSpanish treasure fleetCasa de ContrataciónSpanish RoadGuipuzcoan
Company of CaracasBarcelona Trading CompanyConsulate of the SeaCamino
Real de Tierra AdentroCommerce Consulate of Buenos Aires
Military
Armies
TercioArmy of FlandersFree Company of Volunteers of CataloniaIndian auxiliariesSpanish ArmadaShips of the lineRoyalistsLegión
Strategists
Duke
of AlbaAntonio de LeyvaMartín de GoitiAlfonso d'AvalosGarcía de Toledo
OsorioDuke of SavoyÁlvaro de Bazán the ElderJohn of AustriaCharles
Bonaventure de LonguevalPedro de ZubiaurAmbrosio SpinolaBlas de
LezoBernardo de Gálvez
Mariners
Christopher
ColumbusPinzón brothersFerdinand MagellanJuan Sebastián ElcanoJuan de
la CosaJuan Ponce de LeónMiguel López de LegazpiPedro Menéndez de
AvilésSebastián de OcampoÁlvar Núñez Cabeza de VacaAlonso de OjedaVasco
Núñez de BalboaAlonso de SalazarAndrés de UrdanetaAntonio de UlloaRuy
López de VillalobosDiego ColumbusAlonso de ErcillaNicolás de OvandoJuan
de AyalaSebastián VizcaínoJuan FernándezLuis FajardoFelipe González de
Ahedo
Conquistadors
Hernán
CortésFrancisco PizarroGonzalo Jiménez de QuesadaHernán Pérez de
QuesadaFrancisco Vázquez de CoronadoDiego Velázquez de CuéllarPedro de
ValdiviaGaspar de PortolàPere Fages i BeletaJoan OrpíPedro de
AlvaradoMartín de UrsúaDiego de AlmagroPánfilo de NarváezDiego de
MazariegosJerónimo Luis de CabreraPere d'Alberní i TeixidorGarcía López
de Cárdenas
Notable battles
Old World
Won
ComunerosBicoccaRome
(1527)LandrianoPaviaTunisMühlbergSt.
QuentinGravelinesMaltaLepantoAntwerpAzoresMonsGemblouxOstendEnglish
ArmadaCape CelidoniaWhite
MountainBredaNördlingenValenciennesCeutaBitontoBailénVitoriaTetouanAlhucemas
Lost
Capo
d'OrsoVienna (1529)PrevezaSiege of CastelnuovoAlgiersCeresoleBalearic
Islands (1558)DjerbaTunisSpanish ArmadaLeidenRocroiDownsMontes
ClarosPassaroManila BayTrafalgarSomosierraAnnualMactan
New World
Won
TenochtitlanCajamarcaCuscoBogotá
savannaPencoMataquitoGuadalupe IslandRecifeSan Juan (1595)BahiaColonia
del SacramentoComuneros (Paraguay)Cartagena de IndiasCuerno VerdeTúpac
Amaru IITúpac KatariPensacolaNewfoundlandSan Juan (1797)
Lost
La
Noche TristeIguapeTucapelGuianaCuralabaComuneros (New Granada)Trinidad
(1797)ChacabucoBoyacáCaraboboPichinchaAyacuchoGuamSantiago de
CubaAsomante
Spanish conquests
Canary IslandsThe
AmericasAztecMaya ChiapasYucatánGuatemalaPeténEl
SalvadorHondurasNicaraguaChibchan NationsColombiaChileIncaPhilippines
Other civil topics
Spanish
missions in the AmericasArchitectureMesoamerican codicesCusco painting
traditionIndochristian painting in New SpainQuito painting
traditionTapada limeñaAcademia AntárticaColonial universities in
Hispanic AmericaColonial universities in the PhilippinesGeneral Archive
of the IndiesColonial Spanish Horse MustangCastas Criollos in the
colonial societyOld inquisitionSlavery in Spanish EmpireAsientoLaw of
coartación (which allowed slaves to buy their freedom, and that of
others)Great Potosí Mint Fraud of 1649
Territorial disputes
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Territorial disputes involving the United Kingdom
GibraltarFalkland
IslandsRockallSouth Georgia and the South Sandwich IslandsBritish
Antarctic TerritoryBritish Indian Ocean Territory
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Territorial disputes involving Argentina
Latent disputes
Argentine AntarcticaFalkland IslandsSouth Georgia and the South Sandwich IslandsSouthern Patagonian Ice Field
Disputes settled in the 20th century
Beagle
conflict (1984)Patagonia west of the continental divide
(1902)Encuentro-Alto Palena (1966)Laguna del Desierto (1994)Martín
García Island (1973)
Incidents
Beagle
channel maps (1898–1984)Corbeta Uruguay base (1976–1982)Falklands War
(1982)Hope Bay incident (1952)Laguna del Desierto incident (1965)Snipe
incident (1958)Soberanía (1978)
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English-speaking world
English speaking countries
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Further links
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