A rocking horse is a child's toy, usually shaped like a horse and mounted on rockers similar to a rocking chair. There are two sorts, the one where the horse part sits rigidly attached to a pair of curved rockers that are in contact with the ground, and a second sort, where the horse hangs on a rigid frame by iron straps the horse moves only relative to the frame, which does not move.
Predecessors of the rocking horse may be seen in the rocking cradle, the tilting seats used during the Middle Ages for jousting practice as well as the wheeled hobby horse. The toy in its current form did not appear before the 17th century,[1] though some conflicting sources note medieval manuscripts including references to carved rocking horses, presumably of the toy kind.[2]
From the 19th century onward, rocking horses became more commonly considered as child's toy. Mostly built by hobby woodcrafters, and ranging from relatively crude to finely ornamented and the toys of future kings, it was not until the late 19th century that the production became industrialised.[2]
In 2006, the Guinness Book of World Records certified Katlinel and Les Hartness of California as having the largest hand-carved wooden rocking horse on record. This rocking horse was built in 2000 and is 7 feet 8 inches (234 cm) tall and weighs 1,200 pounds (680 kg). It can be seen at renaissance faires, faerie festivals, and at private parties and events where up to 3 adults or 4-5 children can ride it together at one time. According to Les and Katlinel, the youngest rider has been six weeks old and the oldest, 94 years.
Toy
A variety of traditional wooden Channapatna toys from India
A toy or plaything is an object that is used primarily to provide entertainment. Simple examples include toy blocks, board games, and dolls. Toys are often designed for use by children, although many are designed specifically for adults and pets. Toys can provide utilitarian benefits, including physical exercise, cultural awareness, or academic education. Additionally, utilitarian objects, especially those which are no longer needed for their original purpose, can be used as toys. Examples include children building a fort with empty cereal boxes and tissue paper spools, or a toddler playing with a broken TV remote control. The term "toy" can also be used to refer to utilitarian objects purchased for enjoyment rather than need, or for expensive necessities for which a large fraction of the cost represents its ability to provide enjoyment to the owner, such as luxury cars, high-end motorcycles, gaming computers, and flagship smartphones.
Playing with toys can be an enjoyable way of training young children for life experiences. Different materials like wood, clay, paper, and plastic are used to make toys. Newer forms of toys include interactive digital entertainment and smart toys. Some toys are produced primarily as collectors' items and are intended for display only.
The origin of toys is prehistoric; dolls representing infants, animals, and soldiers, as well as representations of tools used by adults, are readily found at archaeological sites. The origin of the word "toy" is unknown, but it is believed that it was first used in the 14th century. Toys are mainly made for children.[1] The oldest known doll toy is thought to be 4,000 years old.[2]
Playing with toys is an important part of aging. Younger children use toys to discover their identity, help with cognition, learn cause and effect, explore relationships, become stronger physically, and practice skills needed in adulthood. Adults on occasion use toys to form and strengthen social bonds, teach, help in therapy, and to remember and reinforce lessons from their youth.
History
Antiquity
Little horse on wheels, Ancient Greek children's toy. From a tomb dating 950–900 BCE, Kerameikos Archaeological Museum, Athens
Most children have been said[by whom?] to play with whatever they can find, such as sticks and rocks. Toys and games have been retrieved from the sites of ancient civilizations, and have been mentioned in ancient literature. Toys excavated from the Indus valley civilization (3010–1500 BCE) include small carts, whistles shaped like birds, and toy monkeys that could slide down a string.[3][unreliable source?]
The earliest toys were made from natural materials, such as rocks, sticks, and clay. Thousands of years ago, Egyptian children played with dolls that had wigs and movable limbs, which were made from stone, pottery, and wood.[4] However, evidence of toys in ancient Egypt is exceptionally difficult to identify with certainty in the archaeological record. Small figurines and models found in tombs are usually interpreted as ritual objects; those from settlement sites are more easily labelled as toys. These include spinning tops, balls of spring, and wooden models of animals with movable parts.[5]
In ancient Greece and ancient Rome, children played with dolls made of wax or terracotta: sticks, bows and arrows, and yo-yos. When Greek children, especially girls, came of age, it was customary for them to sacrifice the toys of their childhood to the gods. On the eve of their wedding, young girls around fourteen would offer their dolls in a temple as a rite of passage into adulthood.[6][7]
The oldest known mechanical puzzle also comes from ancient Greece and appeared in the 3rd century BCE. The game consisted of a square divided into 14 parts, and the aim was to create different shapes from the pieces. In Iran, "puzzle-locks" were made as early as the 17th century (CE).[citation needed]
Enlightenment Era
Toys became more widespread with changing Western attitudes towards children and childhood brought about by the Enlightenment. Previously, children had often been thought of as small adults, who were expected to work in order to produce the goods that the family needed to survive. As children's culture scholar Stephen Kline has argued, Medieval children were "more fully integrated into the daily flux of making and consuming, of getting along. They had no autonomy, separate statuses, privileges, special rights or forms of social comportment that were entirely their own.”[8]
A boy with a hoop. Hoops have long been a popular toy across a variety of cultures.
As these ideas began changing during the Enlightenment Era, blowing bubbles from leftover washing up soap became a popular pastime, as shown in the painting The Soap Bubble (1739) by Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin, and other popular toys included hoops, toy wagons, kites, spinning wheels and puppets. Many board games were produced by John Jefferys in the 1750s, including A Journey Through Europe.[9] The game was very similar to modern board games; players moved along a track with the throw of a die (a teetotum was actually used) and landing on different spaces would either help or hinder the player.[10]
In the nineteenth century, Western values prioritized toys with an educational purpose, such as puzzles, books, cards and board games. Religion-themed toys were also popular, including a model Noah's Ark with miniature animals and objects from other Bible scenes. With growing prosperity among the middle class, children had more leisure time on their hands, which led to the application of industrial methods to the manufacture of toys.[10]
More complex mechanical and optical-based toys were also invented during the nineteenth century. Carpenter and Westley began to mass-produce the kaleidoscope, invented by Sir David Brewster in 1817, and had sold over 200,000 items within three months in London and Paris. The company was also able to mass-produce magic lanterns for use in phantasmagoria and galanty shows, by developing a method of mass production using a copper plate printing process. Popular imagery on the lanterns included royalty, flora and fauna, and geographical/man-made structures from around the world.[11] The modern zoetrope was invented in 1833 by British mathematician William George Horner and was popularized in the 1860s.[12] Wood and porcelain dolls in miniature doll houses were popular with middle-class girls, while boys played with marbles and toy trains.[citation needed]
Industrial Era and mass-marketed toys
Frank Hornby's 1901 patent number GB190100587A for what later became known as Meccano
The golden age of toy development occurred during the Industrial Era. Real wages were rising steadily in the Western world, allowing even working-class families to afford toys for their children, and industrial techniques of precision engineering and mass production were able to provide the supply to meet this rising demand. Intellectual emphasis was also increasingly being placed on the importance of a wholesome and happy childhood for the future development of children. Franz Kolb, a German pharmacist, invented plasticine in 1880, and in 1900 commercial production of the material as a children's toy began. Frank Hornby was a visionary in toy development and manufacture and was responsible for the invention and production of three of the most popular lines of toys based on engineering principles in the twentieth century: Meccano, Hornby Model Railways and Dinky Toys.
Meccano was a model construction system that consisted of re-usable metal strips, plates, angle girders, wheels, axles and gears, with nuts and bolts to connect the pieces and enabled the building of working models and mechanical devices. Dinky Toys pioneered the manufacture of die-cast toys with the production of toy cars, trains and ships and model train sets became popular in the 1920s. The Britain's company revolutionized the production of toy soldiers with the invention of the process of hollow casting in lead in 1893[13] – the company's products remained the industry standard for many years.
Puzzles became popular as well. In 1893, the English lawyer Angelo John Lewis, writing under the pseudonym of Professor Hoffman, wrote a book called Puzzles Old and New.[14] It contained, among other things, more than 40 descriptions of puzzles with secret opening mechanisms. This book grew into a reference work for puzzle games and was very popular at the time. The Tangram puzzle, originally from China, spread to Europe and America in the 19th century.
1903 patent for a Peter Rabbit soft toy, the first licensed character, created by Beatrix Potter
In 1903, a year after publishing The Tale of Peter Rabbit, English author Beatrix Potter created the first Peter Rabbit soft toy and registered him at the Patent Office in London, making Peter the oldest licensed character.[15] It was followed by other "spin-off" merchandise over the years, including painting books and board games. The Smithsonian magazine stated, "Potter was also an entrepreneur and a pioneer in licensing and merchandising literary characters. Potter built a retail empire out of her “bunny book” that is worth $500 million today. In the process, she created a system that continues to benefit all licensed characters, from Mickey Mouse to Harry Potter."[16]
In tandem with the development of mass-produced toys, Enlightenment ideals about children's rights to education and leisure time came to fruition. During the late 18th and early 19th century, many families needed to send their children to work in factories and other sites to make ends meet—just as their predecessors had required their labor producing household goods in the medieval era.[17] Business owners' exploitation and abuse of child laborers during this period differed from how children had been treated as workers within a family unit, though. Thanks to advocacy including photographic documentation of children's exploitation and abuse by business owners, Western nations enacted a series of child labor laws, putting an end to child labor in nations such as the U.S. (1949).[18] This fully entrenched, through law, the Western idea that childhood is a time for leisure, not work—and with leisure time comes more space for consumer goods such as toys.[19]
During the Second World War, some new types of toys were created through accidental innovation. After trying to create a replacement for synthetic rubber, the American Earl L. Warrick inadvertently invented "nutty putty" during World War II. Later, Peter Hodgson recognized the potential as a childhood plaything and packaged it as Silly Putty. Similarly, Play-Doh was originally created as a wallpaper cleaner.[20] In 1943 Richard James was experimenting with springs as part of his military research when he saw one come loose and fall to the floor. He was intrigued by the way it flopped around on the floor. He spent two years fine-tuning the design to find the best gauge of steel and coil; the result was the Slinky, which went on to sell in stores throughout the United States.[citation needed]
After the Second World War, as society became ever more affluent and new technology and materials (plastics) for toy manufacture became available, toys became cheap and ubiquitous in households across the Western World. At this point, name-brand toys became widespread in the U.S.–a new phenomenon that helped market mass-produce toys to audiences of children growing up with ample leisure time and during a period of relative prosperity.[19]
Among the more well-known products of the 1950s there was the Danish company Lego's line of colourful interlocking plastic brick construction sets (based on Hilary Page's Kiddicraft Self-Locking Bricks, described by London's V&A Museum of Childhood as among the "must-have toys" of the 1940s[21]), Mr. Potato Head, the Barbie doll (inspired by the Bild Lilli doll from Germany), and Action Man.[22] The Rubik's Cube became an enormous seller in the 1980s. In modern times, there are computerized dolls that can recognize and identify objects, the voice of their owner, and choose among hundreds of pre-programmed phrases with which to respond.[23]
Culture
The act of children's play with toys embodies the values set forth by the adults of their specific community, but through the lens of the child's perspective. Within cultural societies, toys are a medium to enhance a child's cognitive, social, and linguistic learning.[24]
In some cultures, toys are used as a way to enhance a child's skillset within the traditional boundaries of their future roles in the community. In Saharan and North African cultures, play is facilitated by children through the use of toys to enact scenes recognizable in their community such as hunting and herding. The value is placed in a realistic version of development in preparing a child for the future they are likely to grow up into. This allows the child to imagine and create a personal interpretation of how they view the adult world.[25]
However, in other cultures, toys are used to expand the development of a child's cognition in an idealistic fashion. In these communities, adults place the value of play with toys to be on the aspirations they set forth for their child. In the Western culture, the Barbie and Action-Man represent lifelike figures but in an imaginative state out of reach from the society of these children and adults. These toys give way to a unique world in which children's play is isolated and independent of the social constraints placed on society leaving the children free to delve into the imaginary and idealized version of what their development in life could be.[25]
In addition, children from differing communities may treat their toys in different ways based on their cultural practices. Children in more affluent communities may tend to be possessive of their toys, while children from poorer communities may be more willing to share and interact more with other children. The importance the child places on possession is dictated by the values in place within the community that the children observe on a daily basis.[26]
Child development
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Toys, like play itself, serve multiple purposes in both humans and animals. They provide entertainment while fulfilling an educational role. Toys enhance cognitive behavior and stimulate creativity. They aid in the development of physical and mental skills which are necessary in later life.
Wooden blocks, though simple, are regarded by early childhood education experts such as Sally Cartwright (1974) as an excellent toy for young children; she praised the fact that they are relatively easy to engage with, can be used in repeatable and predictable ways, and are versatile and open-ended, allowing for a wide variety of developmentally appropriate play.[27] Andrew Witkin, director of marketing for Mega Brands, told Investor's Business Daily that "They help develop hand-eye coordination, math and science skills and also let kids be creative."[28] Other toys like marbles, jackstones, and balls serve similar functions in child development, allowing children to use their minds and bodies to learn about spatial relationships, cause and effect, and a wide range of other skills.
Two children playing with paddle balls in Hitting the Ball in the Shadow of the Banana, a painting by the Chinese artist Su Hanchen (苏汉臣, active 1130s–1160s AD), Song Dynasty
One example of the dramatic ways that toys can influence child development involves clay sculpting toys such as Play-Doh and Silly Putty and their home-made counterparts. Mary Ucci, Educational Director of the Child Study Center of Wellesley College, has demonstrated how such toys positively impact the physical development, cognitive development, emotional development, and social development of children.[29]
Toys for infants often make use of distinctive sounds, bright colors, and unique textures. Through repetition of play with toys, infants begin to recognize shapes and colors. Play-Doh, Silly Putty and other hands-on materials allow the child to make toys of their own.
Educational toys for school age children of often contain a puzzle, problem-solving technique, or mathematical proposition. Often toys designed for older audiences, such as teenagers or adults, demonstrate advanced concepts. Newton's cradle, a desk toy designed by Simon Prebble, demonstrates the conservation of momentum and energy.
Not all toys are appropriate for all ages of children.[30] Even some toys which are marketed for a specific age range can even harm the development of children in that range, such as when for example toys meant for young girls contribute to the ongoing problem of girls' sexualization in Western culture.[31]
A study suggested that supplying fewer toys in the environment allows toddlers to better focus to explore and play more creatively. The provision of four rather than sixteen toys is thus suggested to promote children's development and healthy play.[32]
Age compression
Age compression is the modern trend of children moving through play stages faster than was the case in the past. Children have a desire to progress to more complex toys at a faster pace, girls in particular. Barbie dolls, for example, were once marketed to girls around 8 years old but have been found to be more popular in recent years with girls around 3 years old,[33] with most girls outgrowing the brand by about age 7.[34] The packaging for the dolls labels them appropriate for ages 3 and up. Boys, in contrast, apparently enjoy toys and games over a longer timespan, gravitating towards toys that meet their interest in assembling and disassembling mechanical toys, and toys that "move fast and things that fight". An industry executive points out that girls have entered the "tween" phase by the time they are 8 years old and want non-traditional toys, whereas boys have been maintaining an interest in traditional toys until they are 12 years old, meaning the traditional toy industry holds onto their boy customers for 50% longer than their girl customers.[33]
Girls gravitate towards "music, clothes, make-up, television talent shows and celebrities". As young children are more exposed to and drawn to music intended for older children and teens, companies are having to rethink how they develop and market their products.[35] Girls also demonstrate a longer loyalty to characters in toys and games marketed towards them.[36] A variety of global toy companies have marketed themselves to this aspect of girls' development, for example, the Hello Kitty brand and the Disney Princess franchise.[37] Boys have shown an interest in computer games at an ever-younger age in recent years.[citation needed]
Gender
A toy tank with a remote control. Such toys are generally thought of as boys' toys.
Main articles: Girls' toys and games and Boys' toys and games
Certain toys, such as Barbie dolls and toy soldiers, are often perceived as being more acceptable for one gender than the other. The turning point for the addition of gender to toys came about in the 1960s and 1970s. Before 1975, only about two percent of toys were labeled by gender, whereas today on the Disney store's website, considered a dominating global force for toys by researcher Claire Miller, all toys are labeled by gender.[38] The journal Sex Roles began publishing research on this topic in 1975, focusing on the effects of gender in youth. Too, many psychological textbooks began to address this new issue. Along with these publications, researchers also started to challenge the ideas of male and female as being opposites, even going as far as to claim toys which have characteristics of both genders are preferable.[39]
A milestone for research on gender is the use of meta-analysis, which provides a way to assess patterns in a systematic way, especially relevant for a topic such as gender, which can be difficult to quantify.[39] Nature and nurture have historically been analyzed when looking at gender in play, as well as reinforcement by peers and parents of typical gender roles and consequently, gender play.[39] Toy companies have often promoted the segregation by gender in toys because it enables them to customize the same toy for each gender, which ultimately doubles their revenue. For example, Legos added more colors to certain sets of toys in the 1990s, including colors commonly attributed to girls such as lavender.[citation needed]
It has been noted by researchers that, "Children as young as 18 months display sex-stereotyped toy choices".[40] When eye movement is tracked in young infants, infant girls show a visual preference for a doll over a toy truck (d > 1.0). Boys showed no preference for the truck over the doll. However, they did fixate on the truck more than the girls (d = .78).[41] This small study suggests that even before any self-awareness of gender identity has emerged, children already prefer sex-typical toys. These differences in toy choice are well established within the child by the age of three.[42]
Another study done by Jeffrey Trawick-Smith took 60 different children ages three to four and observed them playing with nine different toys deemed best for development. They were allowed to play with the toys in a typical environment, a preschool classroom, which allowed for the results to be more authentic compared to research done in a lab. The researchers then quantified play quality of the children with each toy based on factors such as learning, problem solving, curiosity, creativity, imagination, and peer interaction. The results revealed that boys generally received higher scores for overall play quality than girls, and the toys with the best play quality were those identified as the most gender neutral, such as building blocks and bricks along with pieces modeling people. Trawick-Smith then concluded that the study encourages a focus on toys which are beneficial to both genders in order to create a better balance.[43]
While some parents promote gender neutral play, many parents encourage their children to participate in sex-typed activities, including doll-playing and engaging in housekeeping activities for girls and playing with trucks and engaging in sports activities for boys.[44] Researcher Susan Witt said that parents are the primary influencer on the gender roles of their children.[45] Parents, siblings, peers, and even teachers have been shown to react more positively to children engaging in sex-typical behavior and playing with sex-typical toys.[46] This is often done through encouragement or discouragement, as well as suggestions[45] and imitation.[citation needed] Additionally, sons are more likely to be reinforced for sex-typical play and discouraged from atypical play.[46] However, it is generally not as looked down upon for girls to play with toys designed "for boys", an activity which has also become more common in recent years.[47] Fathers are also more likely to reinforce typical play and discourage atypical play than mothers are.[48] A study done by researcher Susan Witt suggests that stereotypes are oftentimes only strengthened by the environment, which perpetuates them to linger in older life.[45]
This stereotypical attribution of sex-typical toys for girls and boys is gradually changing, with toys companies creating more gender neutral toys, as the benefits associated with allowing children to play with toys that appeal to them far outweighs controlling their individual preferences.[49] For example, many stores are beginning to change their gender labels on children's play items. Target removed all identification related to gender from their toy aisles and Disney did the same for their costumes.[38] The Disney store is an especially prevalent example of gender in play because they are a global identity in the toy world. A study done regarding their website found that though they have removed gender labels from their costumes, the toys online reflect more stereotypical gender identities. For example, toys depicting males were associated with physicality and females were associated with beauty, housing, and caring.[50] Though Disney promotes their toys as being for both genders, there is no gender neutral section on their website. Those which are generally deemed for both genders more closely resemble what many would label "boy toys," as they relate closer to the stereotype of masculinity within play.[50]
Traditions within various cultures promote the passing down of certain toys to their children based on the child's gender. In Indigenous South American communities, boys receive a toy bow and arrow from their father while young girls receive a toy basket from their mother.[24] In North African and Saharan cultural communities, gender plays a role in the creation of self-made dolls. While female dolls are used to represent brides, mothers, and wives, male dolls are used to represent horsemen and warriors. This contrast stems from the various roles of men and women within the Saharan and North African communities. There are differences in the toys that are intended for girls and boys within various cultures, which is reflective of the differing roles of men and women within a specific cultural community.[25]
Research on the repercussions of gender in toys suggests that desegregation of the genders can be achieved by encouraging more gender-neutral play.[43] Researchers Carol Auster and Claire Mansbach have argued that allowing children to play with toys which more closely fit their talents would help them to better develop their skills.[50] In terms of parental influence, a study found that parents who demonstrated some androgynous behavior have higher scores in support, warmth, and self-worth in regards to the treatment of their children.[45] Even as this debate is evolving and children are becoming more inclined to cross barriers in terms of gender with their toys, girls are typically more encouraged to do so than boys because of the societal value of masculinity.[38]
Economics
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Making toys, Digby, Nova Scotia. 2008
With toys comprising such a large and important part of human existence, the toy industry has a substantial economic impact. Sales of toys often increase around holidays where gift-giving is a tradition. Some of these holidays include Christmas, Easter, Saint Nicholas Day, and Three Kings Day.
In 2005, toy sales in the United States totaled about $22.9 billion.[28] Money spent on children between the ages of 8 and twelve alone totals approximately $221 million annually in the U.S.[51] It was estimated that in 2011, 88% of toy sales was in the age group 0–11 years.[52]
Toys "R" Us operated over 1,500 stores in 30 countries and had an annual revenue of US$13.6 billion
Toy companies change and adapt their toys to meet the changing demands of children thereby gaining a larger share of the substantial market. In recent years many toys have become more complicated with flashing lights and sounds in an effort to appeal to children raised around television and the internet. According to Mattel's president, Neil Friedman, "Innovation is key in the toy industry and to succeed one must create a 'wow' moment for kids by designing toys that have fun, innovative features and include new technologies and engaging content."
In an effort to reduce costs, many mass-producers of toys locate their factories in areas where wages are lower. China manufactures about 70 percent of the world's toys and is home to more than 8,000 toy firms, most of which are located in the Pearl River Delta of Guangdong Province.[53] 75% of all toys sold in the U.S., for example, are manufactured in China.[28] Issues and events such as power outages, supply of raw materials, supply of labor, and raising wages that impact areas where factories are located often have an enormous impact on the toy industry in importing countries.
Many traditional toy makers have been losing sales to video game makers for years. Because of this, some traditional toy makers have entered the field of electronic games and have even been turning audio games into toys, and are enhancing the brands that they have by introducing interactive extensions or internet connectivity to their current toys.[54]
In addition, the rise of distributed manufacturing enables consumers to make their own toys from open source designs with a 3-D printer.[55] As of 2017 consumers were already offsetting millions of dollars per year by 3D printing their own toys from MyMiniFactory, a single repository.[56][57]
Types
Lincoln Logs have been a popular construction type toy in the U.S. since the 1920s.
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Construction sets
Main article: Construction set
The Greek philosopher Plato wrote that the future architect should play at building houses as a child.[58] A construction set is a collection of separate pieces that can be joined to create models. Popular models include cars, spaceships, and houses. The things that are built are sometimes used as toys once completed, but generally speaking, the object is to build things of one's own design, and old models often are broken up with the pieces reused in new models.
The oldest and perhaps most common construction toy is a set of simple wooden blocks, which are often painted in bright colors and given to babies and toddlers. Construction sets such as Lego bricks and Lincoln Logs are designed for slightly older children and have been quite popular in the last century. Construction sets appeal to children (and adults) who like to work with their hands, puzzle solvers, and imaginative sorts.
Some other examples include Bayko, Konstruk-Tubes, K'Nex, Erector Sets, Tinkertoys, and Meccano, and generic construction toys such as Neodymium magnet toys.
Dolls and miniatures
Main article: doll
A girl and her doll in the 1900s
A doll is a model of a human (often a baby), a humanoid (like Bert and Ernie), or an animal. Modern dolls are often made of cloth or plastic. Other materials that are, or have been, used in the manufacture of dolls include cornhusks, bone, stone, wood, porcelain (sometimes called china), bisque, celluloid, wax, and even apples. Often, people will make dolls out of whatever materials are available to them.
Sometimes intended as decorations, keepsakes, or collectibles for older children and adults, most dolls are intended as toys for children, usually girls, to play with. Dolls have been found in Egyptian tombs that date to as early as 2000 BCE.[4]
Dolls are usually miniatures, but baby dolls may be of true size and weight. A doll or stuffed animal of soft material is sometimes called a plush toy or plushie. A popular toy of this type is the Teddy Bear.
Teddy Bears
A distinction is often made between dolls and action figures, which are generally of plastic or semi-metallic construction and poseable to some extent, and often are merchandising from television shows or films which feature the characters. Modern action figures, such as Action Man, are often marketed towards boys, whereas dolls are often marketed towards girls.
Toy soldiers, perhaps a precursor to modern action figures, have been a popular toy for centuries. They allow children to act out battles, often with toy military equipment and a castle or fort. Miniature animal figures are also widespread, with children perhaps acting out farm activities with animals and equipment centered on a toy farm.
Vehicles
A toy boat
Main article: Vehicle
Children have played with miniature versions of vehicles since ancient times, with toy two-wheeled carts being depicted on ancient Greek vases.[58] Wind-up toys have also played a part in the advancement of toy vehicles. Modern equivalents include toy cars such as those produced by Matchbox or Hot Wheels, miniature aircraft, toy boats, military vehicles, and trains. Examples of the latter range from wooden sets for younger children such as BRIO to more complicated realistic train models like those produced by Lionel, Doepke and Hornby. Larger die-cast vehicles, 1:18 scale, have become popular toys; these vehicles are produced with a great attention to detail.[citation needed]
Puzzles
Main article: Puzzle
A Rubik's Cube
A puzzle is a problem or enigma that challenges ingenuity. Solutions to puzzles may require recognizing patterns and creating a particular order. People with a high inductive reasoning aptitude may be better at solving these puzzles than others. Puzzles based on the process of inquiry and discovery to complete may be solved faster by those with good deduction skills. A popular puzzle toy is the Rubik's Cube, invented by Hungarian Ernő Rubik in 1974. Popularized in the 1980s, solving the cube requires planning and problem-solving skills and involves algorithms.
There are many different types of puzzles; for example, a maze is a type of tour puzzle. Other categories include: construction puzzles, stick puzzles, tiling puzzles, disentanglement puzzles, sliding puzzles, logic puzzles, picture puzzles, lock puzzles, and mechanical puzzles.
Collectibles
Main article: Collectible
Some toys, such as Beanie Babies, attract large numbers of enthusiasts, eventually becoming collectibles. Other toys, such as Boyds Bears are marketed to adults as collectibles. Some people spend large sums of money in an effort to acquire larger and more complete collections. The record for a single Pez dispenser at an auction, for example, is US$1100.[59]
Promotional merchandise
This toy tractor also serves as an advertisement for John Deere.
Many successful films, television programs, books and sport teams have official merchandise, which often includes related toys. Some notable examples are Star Wars (a space fantasy franchise) and Arsenal, an English football club.
Likewise, many successful children's films, television series, books or franchises extend their marketing campaign to fast food chains by including small toys of fictional characters or the series' associated symbols in a sealed plastic bag within their kids' meals. One famous example is the Happy Meal from McDonald's.[60]
Promotional toys can fall into any of the other toy categories; for example, they can be dolls or action figures based on the characters of movies or professional athletes, or they can be balls, yo-yos, or lunch boxes with logos on them. Sometimes they are given away for free as a form of advertising. Model aircraft are often toys that are used by airlines to promote their brand, just as toy cars and trucks and model trains are used by trucking, railroad and other companies as well. Many food manufacturers run promotions where a toy is included with the main product as a prize. Toys are also used as premiums, where consumers redeem proofs of purchase from a product and pay shipping and handling fees to get the toy. Some people go to great lengths to collect these sorts of promotional toys.
Digital toys
Digital toys are toys that incorporate some form of interactive digital technology.[61] Examples of digital toys include virtual pets and handheld electronic games. Among the earliest digital toys are Mattel Auto Race and the Little Professor, both released in 1976. The concept of using technology in a way that bridges the digital with the physical world, providing unique interactive experiences for the user, has also been referred to as phygital.[62]
Physical activity
Main article: Physical activity
A boy from Jakarta with his ball. Ball games are good exercise, and are popular worldwide.
A large amount of toys are part of active play. These include traditional toys such as hoops, tops, jump ropes, and balls, as well as more modern toys like Frisbees, foot bags, fidget toys, astrojax, and Myachi.
Playing with these sorts of toys allows children to exercise, building strong bones and muscles and aiding in physical fitness. Throwing and catching balls and Frisbees can improve hand–eye coordination. Jumping rope, (also known as skipping) and playing with foot bags can improve balance.
Safety regulations
Main article: Toy safety
Toys with small parts, such as these Lego elements are required by law in some countries to have warnings about choking hazards.
Many countries have passed safety standards limiting the types of toys that can be sold. Most of these seek to limit potential hazards, such as choking or fire hazards that could cause injury. Children, especially very small ones, often put toys into their mouths, so the materials used to make a toy are regulated to prevent poisoning. Materials are also regulated to prevent fire hazards. Young children cannot judge what is safe and what is dangerous, and parents do not always think of all possible situations, so such warnings and regulations are important on toys.[citation needed]
Every country has its own regulations on toy safety, but since the globalization and opening of markets, most of them try to harmonize their regulations. The most common danger for younger children is to put toys in their mouths. This is why chemicals contained in paint and other components of children's products are carefully regulated. Countries or trade zones such as the European Union regularly publish lists to regulate the quantities or ban chemicals from toys and juvenile products. The globalization of toys has had negative effects on locally-produced toys in various countries, pushing out traditional ways of play[63] and presenting new risks to children in areas where parental literacy levels make it hard for parents to understand the risks and age-appropriateness of various imported toys.[63]
There have also been issues of toy safety regarding lead paint. Some toy factories, when projects become too large for them to handle, outsource production to other less known factories, often in other countries. Recently,[when?] there were some in China that America had to send back. The subcontractors may not be watched as closely and sometimes use improper manufacturing methods. The U.S. government, along with mass market stores, is now moving towards requiring companies to submit their products to testing before they end up on shelves.[64]
Disposal
Some communities require recycling of the batteries in toys such as qfix robot "crash-bobby".
This article contains instructions, advice, or how-to content. The purpose of Wikipedia is to present facts, not to train. Please help improve this article either by rewriting the how-to content or by moving it to Wikiversity, Wikibooks or Wikivoyage. (May 2022)
When toys have been outgrown or are no longer wanted, they may be donated to charity, sold at garage sales, auctioned, or even donated to museums. However, when toys are broken, worn out or otherwise unfit for use, care should be taken when disposing of them. Donated or resold toys should be gently used, clean and have all parts.[65] Before disposal of any battery-operated toy, batteries are removed and recycled; some communities demand this be done. Some manufacturers, such as Little Tikes, will take back and recycle their products.
In 2007, massive recalls of toys produced in China[66] led many U.S.-based charities to cut back on, or even discontinue, their acceptance of used toys. Goodwill stopped accepting donations of any toys except for stuffed animals, and other charities checked all toys against government-issued checklists.[67]
The WEEE directive (Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment), which aims at increasing re-using, reducing, and recycling electronic waste, applies to toys in the United Kingdom as of 2 January 2007.[68]
Toy use in animals
It is not unusual for some animals to play with toys. An example of this is a dolphin being trained to nudge a ball through a hoop. Young chimpanzees use sticks as dolls–the social aspect is seen by the fact that young females more often use a stick this way than young male chimpanzees.[69][70] They carry their chosen stick and put it in their nest. Such behaviour is also seen in some adult female chimpanzees, but never after they have become mothers.
See also
icon Toys portal
Antique toy show
Boys' games and toys
Battery recycling
Board games
Card games
Girls' games and toys
List of toys
List of toys and children's media awards
List of wooden toys
National Toy Hall of Fame (United States)
Toy museums
Toy Story, a franchise about anthropomorphic toys
Traditional Mexican handcrafted toys
References
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"FYI: What Is the Oldest Toy in the World?". Popular Science. 18 March 2019.
MrDonn.org – Daily Life in Ancient India, including the mysterious Indus Valley Civilization Archived 19 September 2008 at the Wayback Machine
Maspero, Gaston Camille Charles. Manual of Egyptian Archaeology and Guide to the Study of Antiquities in Egypt. Project Gutenberg.
Wilkinson, Toby (2008). Dictionary of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. p. 251. ISBN 978-0-500-20396-5.
Powell, Barry B. (2001). Classical Myth; Third Edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. pp. 33–34. ISBN 978-0-13-088442-8.
Oliver, Valerie (1996). "History of the Yo-Yo". Spintastics Skill Toys, Inc. Archived from the original on 9 August 2006. Retrieved 30 October 2006.
Klein, Stephen (1998). Jenkins, Henry (ed.). The Children's Culture Reader. New York University Press. pp. 95–109.
FRB Whitehouse (Table Games of Georgian and Victorian Days, Priory House, Herfortshire, UK, 1951)
"History of Toys". everydaytoys.com. Archived from the original on 20 December 2013. Retrieved 17 December 2012.
Shedding some light on the magic lantern Archived 21 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine. Mervyn Heard. Retrieved 1 August 2011.
Bordwell, David and Kristin Thompson, Film History: An Introduction, 3rd edition (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2010), 4. ISBN 978-0-07-338613-3
Joplin, N. (1996). Toy Soldiers. London: Quintet Publishing, Ltd.
"Puzzles Old and New by Professor Hoffmann". puzzlemuseum.com.
"Peter Rabbit blazed a trail still well trod". The Times. Retrieved 6 October 2022.
"How Beatrix Potter Invented Character Merchandising". Smithsonian. Retrieved 6 October 2022.
Reed, Lawrence W. "Child Labor and the British Industrial Revolution". Mackinac Center for Public Policy. Retrieved 10 April 2022.
"National Child Labor Committee". Library of Congress. Retrieved 10 April 2022.
Hains, Rebecca C.; Jennings, Nancy A. (2021). The Marketing of Children's Toys. Palgrave. p. 2.
"On the invention of silly putty, from Lemelson-MIT Program". web.mit.edu. Archived from the original on 16 February 2003.
"Must Have Toys 1940s - V&A Museum of Childhood". V&A Museum of Childhood. Victoria and Albert Museum, London. Retrieved 11 October 2018.
"A Brief History of Toys". localhistories.org. Retrieved 17 December 2012.
Van Patten, Denise. "A Brief History of Talking Dolls – From Bebe Phonographe to Amazing Amanda". About.com. Retrieved 30 October 2006.
Smith, Peter K (2010). Children and Play:Understanding Children's Worlds. West Sussex, United Kingdom: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 89–94. ISBN 978-0-631-23521-7. Retrieved 5 December 2016.
Rossie, Jean-Pierre (2005). Toys, Play, Culture, and Society. An anthrological approach with reference to North Africa and the Sahara. Stockholm: SITREC. pp. 88–91. ISBN 978-91-974811-3-7. Retrieved 5 December 2016.
Starr, Benjamin (13 March 2013). "Toy Stories: Children's Favorite Toys Around the World". Visual News. Archived from the original on 6 January 2017. Retrieved 5 December 2016.
Cartwright, Sally (March 1974). "Blocks and learning". Young Children. 29 (3): 141–146. JSTOR 42657609.
Tsuruoka, Doug (5 January 2007). "Toys: Not All Fun And Games". Investor's Business Daily. Archived from the original on 9 October 2009. Retrieved 8 January 2007.
Ucci, Mary (April 2006). "Playdough: 50 Years' Old, And Still Gooey, Fun, And Educational". Child Health Alert. 24. Retrieved 17 February 2007.[permanent dead link] (Note that the full-text online version requires login.)
Bernard, Susan (1994). The Mommy Guide: Real-life Advice and Tips from Over 250 Moms and Other Experts. Contemporary Books. ISBN 978-0-8092-3797-5.
"Report of the APA Task Force on the Sexualization of Girls". American Psychological Association. Retrieved 10 April 2022.
Dauch, Carly; Imwalle, Michelle; Ocasio, Brooke; Metz, Alexia E. (February 2018). "The influence of the number of toys in the environment on toddlers' play". Infant Behavior and Development. 50: 78–87. doi:10.1016/j.infbeh.2017.11.005. PMID 29190457.
Pressler, Margaret Webb (29 October 2011). "Bored with her toys". The Washington Post. Retrieved 2 April 2006.
Hains, Rebecca (1 February 2016). "A Barbie with curves is still all about looks". The Washington Post. Retrieved 10 April 2022.
"Kid Rhino Addresses Age Compression By Tweaking Products, Strategies". Billboard. 10 March 2001. Retrieved 15 February 2018 – via Google Books.
Tansel, Utku (19 October 2010). "Effects of age compression on traditional toys and games". Euromonitor International. Archived from the original on 5 April 2012. Retrieved 29 October 2011.
Hains, Rebecca (2014). The Princess Problem. Sourcebooks. ISBN 978-1402294037.
Miller, Claire Cain (30 October 2015). "Boys and Girls, Constrained by Toys and Costumes". The New York Times.
Zosuls, Kristina M.; Miller, Cindy Faith; Ruble, Diane N.; Martin, Carol Lynn; Fabes, Richard A. (June 2011). "Gender Development Research in Sex Roles: Historical Trends and Future Directions". Sex Roles. 64 (11–12): 826–842. doi:10.1007/s11199-010-9902-3. PMC 3131694. PMID 21747580.
Caldera, Yvonne M.; Huston, Aletha C.; O'Brien, Marion (February 1989). "Social Interactions and Play Patterns of Parents and Toddlers with Feminine, Masculine, and Neutral Toys". Child Development. 60 (1): 70–76. doi:10.2307/1131072. JSTOR 1131072. PMID 2702876.
Alexander, G. M.; Wilcox, T.; Woods, R. (2009). "Sex differences in infants' visual interest in toys". Archives of Sexual Behavior. 38 (3): 427–433. doi:10.1007/s10508-008-9430-1. PMID 19016318. S2CID 20435292.
Alexander, G. M.; Saenz, J. (2012). "Early androgens, activity levels and toy choices of children in the second year of life". Hormones and Behavior. 62 (4): 500–504. doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2012.08.008. PMID 22955184. S2CID 25564513.
Trawick-Smith, Jeffrey; Wolff, Jennifer; Koschel, Marley; Vallarelli, Jamie (July 2015). "Effects of Toys on the Play Quality of Preschool Children: Influence of Gender, Ethnicity, and Socioeconomic Status". Early Childhood Education Journal. 43 (4): 249–256. doi:10.1007/s10643-014-0644-7. S2CID 145171764.
Eccles, Jacquelynne S.; Jacobs, Janis E.; Harold, Rena D. (July 1990). "Gender Role Stereotypes, Expectancy Effects, and Parents' Socialization of Gender Differences". Journal of Social Issues. 46 (2): 183–201. doi:10.1111/j.1540-4560.1990.tb01929.x.
Witt, Susan D (1997). "Parental influence on children's socialization to gender roles". Adolescence. 32 (126): 253–259. PMID 9179321. ProQuest 195928943.
Servin, A.; Bohlin, G.; Berlin, L. (1999). "Sex differences in 1-, 3-, and 5-year olds' toy-choice in a structured play-session". Scandinavian Journal of Psychology. 40 (1): 43–48. doi:10.1111/1467-9450.00096. PMID 10216463.
"Toys for Girls and Boys". Canadian Toy Testing Council. Archived from the original on 4 March 2000.
Berenbaum, S. A., Martin, C. L., Hanish, L. D., Briggs, P. T., & Fabes, R. A. (2008). Sex differences in children's play. In J. Becker, K. Berkley, N. Geary, E. Hampson, J.Herman, & Young, E.A. (Eds.), Sex Differences in the Brain from Genes to Behavior (1ed., pp. 275–290).New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
"Gender Neutral Toys: How They Empower Our Kids". Toy Review Experts. 22 June 2017.
Auster, Carol J.; Mansbach, Claire S. (1 October 2012). "The Gender Marketing of Toys: An Analysis of Color and Type of Toy on the Disney Store Website". Sex Roles. 67 (7): 375–388. doi:10.1007/s11199-012-0177-8. S2CID 143551702.
"Parents of tweens seek balance for fast-maturing kids". CNN. Associated Press. 28 November 2006. Archived from the original on 1 December 2006. Retrieved 16 March 2008.
Crupnick, Russ. "Drilling to the Core in Toy Spending". npdgroupblog.com. NPD Group. Archived from the original on 12 March 2013. Retrieved 12 February 2013.
Chen, Dezhi; Wei, William; Hu, Daiping; Muralidharan, Etayankara (5 September 2016). "Survival strategy of OEM companies: a case study of the Chinese toy industry". International Journal of Operations & Production Management. 36 (9): 1065–1088. doi:10.1108/IJOPM-04-2015-0212.
"World in their hands". The Age. Melbourne. 26 March 2007.
"Researchers run the numbers on cutting the cost of toys by 3-D printing them at home". Geekwire. 20 July 2017.
Petersen; et al. (2017). "Impact of DIY Home Manufacturing with 3-D Printing on the Toy and Game Market". Technologies. 5 (3): 45. doi:10.3390/technologies5030045.
"How 3D printing could save consumers millions in toys and games". 3D Printing Industry. 24 July 2017.
Karl Hils, The Toy – Its Value, Construction and Use, Edmund Ward Ltd., London, 1959.
Brown, Patricia Leigh (23 April 1995). "New Auction Gems: Common Folks; Venerable Houses Woo Unstuffy Buyers With Unstuffy Stuff". The New York Times. p. 37. Archived from the original on 15 May 2007. Retrieved 11 October 2006.
Bishop, Pete (20 March 1990). "Fast food meals for kids come under fire". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 21 October 2020.
Manjoo, Farhad (26 November 2014). "Tech Toys That Go Beyond the Screen". The New York Times.
"What is Phygital?". phygitalien.com. Archived from the original on 16 December 2014. Retrieved 9 December 2014.
Oktaviani, R.C.; Ichwan, F.N. (2021). Hains, Rebecca C.; Jennings, Nancy A. (eds.). The Marketing of Children's Toys. Palgrave.
Barboza, David (11 September 2007). "Why Lead in Toy Paint? It's Cheaper". The New York Times. Retrieved 28 March 2010.
"Goodwill Industries International – Dos and Don'ts". 13 August 2005. Archived from the original on 13 August 2005.
Lipton, Eric S. (19 June 2007). "As More Toys Are Recalled, Trail Ends in China". The New York Times. Retrieved 19 June 2007.
Eckelbecker, Lisa (15 November 2007). "Santa helpers deal with toy recalls; Charities must scrutinize gifts". Worcester Telegram & Gazette. Archived from the original on 8 January 2009. Retrieved 16 November 2007.
"EC Directive on Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) - DTI". 23 June 2007. Archived from the original on 23 June 2007.
"Chimp "Girls" Play With "Dolls" Too—First Wild Evidence". National Geographic. 22 December 2010.
Kahlenberg, Sonya M.; Wrangham, Richard W. (2010). "Sex differences in chimpanzees' use of sticks as play objects resemble those of children". Current Biology. 20 (24): R1067–R1068. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2010.11.024. PMID 21172622. S2CID 14490592.
Further reading
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Toys.
Kline, Stephen (1995). Out of the Garden: Toys, TV, and Children's Culture in the Age of Marketing. Verso Books. ISBN 978-1-85984-059-7.
Walsh, Tim (2005). Timeless Toys: Classic Toys and the Playmakers Who Created Them. Andrews McMeel Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7407-5571-2.
Wulffson, Don L. (July 2000). Toys!. Henry Holt and Company. ISBN 978-0-8050-6196-3.
External links
The Toys of our Childhood, online exhibit on Archives of Ontario website
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Categories: ToysPlay (activity)
Category:Traditional toys
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigationJump to search
For more information, see Toy.
See also: Category:Wooden toys
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Traditional toys.
Traditional toys.
Subcategories
This category has the following 6 subcategories, out of 6 total.
D
Dolls (17 C, 35 P)
J
Jigsaw puzzles (1 C, 7 P)
K
Kites (5 C, 69 P)
P
Paper planes (6 P)
T
Traditional dolls (3 C, 26 P)
Y
Yo-yos (2 C, 12 P)
Pages in category "Traditional toys"
The following 93 pages are in this category, out of 93 total. This list may not reflect recent changes.
A
Akabeko
B
Baby rattle
Bamboo-copter
Banana rib hobbyhorse riding
Bead maze
Beigoma
Bird of Happiness (toy)
Bubble pipe
Buriburi gitcho
C
Channapatna toys
Chatter Telephone
Cone cow
Cup-and-ball
Cymbal-banging monkey toy
D
Dalecarlian horse
Den-den daiko
Diabolo
Doll
Dreidel
Dymkovo toys
E
Eskimo yo-yo
E.S.R., Inc.
F
Filimonovo toy
G
Gee-haw whammy diddle
Grager
Gurrufío
H
Hamilton Invaders
Hobby horse (toy)
Hōko (doll)
Hoop rolling
J
Jack-in-the-box
Jacob's ladder (toy)
Jig doll
Jigsaw puzzle
Jumping jack (toy)
K
Kaleidophone
Kaleidoscope
Kamifūsen
Kargopol toys
Kendama
Kentucky Do-Nothing
Kite
Knucklebones
Kondapalli Toys
L
Leaf boat
M
Mak kep
Marapachi Dolls
Marble (toy)
Mechanical bank
Myriorama (cards)
N
Nankin Tamasudare
Napoleonic toys
Nirmal toys and craft
O
Ocarina
Ohajiki
Ookpik
P
Paper doll
Paper plane
Pellet drum
Penny toy
Piggy bank
Pinwheel (toy)
R
Rattleback
Reamsa
Rocking horse
Roly-poly toy
Rubber duck
S
Skipping rope
Snow globe
Squeaky toy
Stilts
T
Temari (toy)
Thatta Ghulamka
Thattai (instrument)
Tin can telephone
Tin toy
Tò he
Top
Toy balloon
Toy block
Toy forts and castles
Toy piano
Toy soldier
Toy wagon
Traditional Mexican handcrafted toys
Trammel of Archimedes
Tricycle
Trompo
U
Ultop
W
Wendy house
Whirligig
Y
Yo-yo
Z
Zoetrope
Horse racing
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigationJump to search
"Horse race" redirects here. For other uses, see Horse race (disambiguation).
Horse racing
GGF Race5.jpg
Horse racing at Golden Gate Fields, 2017
Highest governing body Generally regulated by assorted national or regional governing bodies
Characteristics
Contact Yes
Mixed-sex Yes
Type Outdoor
Equipment Horse, appropriate horse tack
Venue Turf, dirt or synthetic surface race track suitable for horses
Presence
Country or region Worldwide
Steeplechase racing at Deauville
Harness racing in Adelaide
Horse racing in Palio di Legnano 2013
Horse racing is an equestrian performance sport, typically involving two or more horses ridden by jockeys (or sometimes driven without riders) over a set distance for competition. It is one of the most ancient of all sports, as its basic premise – to identify which of two or more horses is the fastest over a set course or distance – has been mostly unchanged since at least classical antiquity.[1]
Horse races vary widely in format, and many countries have developed their own particular traditions around the sport. Variations include restricting races to particular breeds, running over obstacles, running over different distances, running on different track surfaces, and running in different gaits. In some races, horses are assigned different weights to carry to reflect differences in ability, a process known as handicapping.[2]
While horses are sometimes raced purely for sport, a major part of horse racing's interest and economic importance is in the gambling associated with it,[3] an activity that in 2019 generated a worldwide market worth around US$115 billion.[4]
History
Riderless Racers at Rome by Théodore Géricault, 1817
British nobility horse racing at Apsley House, London c. 1850s
Horse racing has a long and distinguished history and has been practised in civilisations across the world since ancient times. Archaeological records indicate that horse racing occurred in Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome, Babylon, Syria, and Egypt.[5] It also plays an important part of myth and legend, such as the contest between the steeds of the god Odin and the giant Hrungnir in Norse mythology.
Chariot racing was one of the most popular ancient Greek, Roman and Byzantine sports. Both chariot and mounted horse racing were events in the ancient Greek Olympics by 648 BC[6] and were important in the other Panhellenic Games. It continued although chariot racing was often dangerous to both driver and horse, which frequently suffered serious injury and even death. In the Roman Empire, chariot and mounted horse racing were major industries.[7] From the mid-fifteenth, spring carnival in Rome closed with a horse race. Fifteen to 20 riderless horses, originally imported from the Barbary Coast of North Africa, were set loose to run the length of the Via del Corso, a long, straight city street; their time was about 2+1⁄2 minutes.
In later times, Thoroughbred racing became, and remains, popular with aristocrats and royalty of British society, earning it the title "Sport of Kings".[8]
Historically, equestrians honed their skills through games and races. Equestrian sports provided entertainment for crowds and displayed the excellent horsemanship needed in battle. Horse racing of all types evolved from impromptu competitions between riders or drivers. The various forms of competition, requiring demanding and specialized skills from both horse and rider, resulted in the systematic development of specialized breeds and equipment for each sport. The popularity of equestrian sports through the centuries has resulted in the preservation of skills that would otherwise have vanished after horses stopped being used in combat.[9]
In Britain, horse racing became well-established in the 18th century. It continued to grow in popularity throughout the 18th and beyond. King Charles II (reigned 1649 to 1685) was an avid sportsman who gave Newmarket its prominence. By 1750 the Jockey Club was formed to control the Newmarket races, set the rules of the game, prevent dishonesty, and making for a level field.[10] Epsom Derby began in 1780. The five classic races began with the St Leger Stakes in 1776. The system was complete in 1814 with five annual races.[11] Newmarket and the Jockey Club set the standards but most of the racing took place for small cash prizes and enormous local prestige in landowners’ fields and in the rising towns. The system of wagering was essential to the funding and the growth of the industry, and all classes participated from the poor to royalty. High society was in control, and they made a special effort to keep the riff-raff out and the criminal element away from the wagering. With real money at stake, the system needed skilled jockeys, trainers, grooms, and experts at breeding, thereby opening new prestigious careers for working-class rural men. Every young ambitious stable boy could dream of making it big.[12]
Horse racing is one of the few sports that continued during the 2020 COVID-19 crisis,[13] with Australian and Hong Kong the two main racing jurisdictions to carry on, albeit with no crowds. The USA, United Kingdom and France were some of the more prominent racing bodies to either postpone or cancel all events.
Types of horse racing
There are many types of horse racing, including:
Flat racing, where horses gallop directly between two points around a straight or oval track.
Jump racing, or Jumps racing, also known as Steeplechasing or, in the UK and Ireland, National Hunt racing, where horses race over obstacles.
Harness racing, where horses trot or pace while pulling a driver in a sulky.[14]
Saddle Trotting, where horses must trot from a starting point to a finishing point under saddle
Endurance racing, where horses travel across country over extreme distances, generally ranging from 25 to 100 miles (40 to 161 km). Anything less than 25 miles qualifies as a limited distance ride or LD.
Different breeds of horses have developed that excel in each of the specific disciplines. Breeds that are used for flat racing include the Thoroughbred, Quarter Horse, Arabian, Paint, and Appaloosa.[15] Jump racing breeds include the Thoroughbred and AQPS. In harness racing, Standardbreds are used in Australia, New Zealand and North America, when in Europe, Russian and French Trotter are used with Standardbred. Light cold blood horses, such as Finnhorses and Scandinavian coldblood trotter are also used in harness racing within their respective geographical areas.
There also are races for ponies: both flat and jump[16] and harness racing.[17]
Flat racing
Flat racing is the most common form of horse racing seen worldwide. Flat racing tracks are typically oval in shape and are generally level, although in Great Britain and Ireland there is much greater variation, including figure-of-eight tracks like Windsor and tracks with often severe gradients and changes of camber, such as Epsom Racecourse. Track surfaces vary, with turf most common in Europe and dirt more common in North America and Asia. Newly designed synthetic surfaces, such as Polytrack or Tapeta, are seen at some tracks.
Individual flat races are run over distances ranging from 440 yards (400 m) up to two and a half miles (4 km), with distances between five and twelve furlongs (1.0 and 2.4 km) being most common. Short races are generally referred to as "sprints", while longer races are known as "routes" in the United States or "staying races" in Europe. Although fast acceleration ("a turn of foot") is usually required to win either type of race, in general sprints are seen as a test of speed, while long-distance races are seen as a test of stamina. The most prestigious flat races in the world, such as the Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe, Melbourne Cup, Japan Cup, Epsom Derby, Kentucky Derby and Dubai World Cup, are run over distances in the middle of this range and are seen as tests of both speed and stamina to some extent.
In the most prestigious races, horses are generally allocated the same weight to carry for fairness, with allowances given to younger horses and female horses running against males. These races are called conditions races and offer the biggest purses. There is another category of races called handicap races where each horse is assigned a different weight to carry based on its ability.[18] Besides the weight they carry, horses' performance can also be influenced by position relative to the inside barrier, gender, jockey, and training.
Jump racing
Race horses hurdling at Bangor
Main articles: National Hunt racing, Steeplechase (horse racing), and Hurdling (horse race)
Jump (or jumps) racing in Great Britain and Ireland is known as National Hunt racing (although, confusingly, National Hunt racing also includes flat races taking place at jumps meetings; these are known as National Hunt flat races). Jump racing can be subdivided into steeplechasing and hurdling, according to the type and size of obstacles being jumped. The word "steeplechasing" can also refer collectively to any type of jump race in certain racing jurisdictions, particularly in the United States.
Typically, horses progress to bigger obstacles and longer distances as they get older, so that a European jumps horse will tend to start in National Hunt flat races as a juvenile, move on to hurdling after a year or so, and then, if thought capable, move on to steeplechasing.
Harness racing
Main article: Harness racing
A type of racing where horses go around a track while pulling a sulky and a driver behind them. In this sport, Standardbreds are used. These horses are separated into two categories, trotters and pacers. Pacers move the legs on each side of their body in tandem, while trotters move their diagonal legs together. The latter are typically faster than the former due to the gaits used.[19] Occasionally a horse will break their gait into an actual canter or gallop. This could cause the loss of a race or even a disqualification.[20] Notable races include the Breeder's Crown series.[21]
Saddle trot racing
Ridden trot races are more common in places such as Europe and New Zealand. These horses are trotters who race on the flat under saddle with a jockey on their backs.[22]
Endurance racing
Main article: Endurance riding
Suffolk Downs starting gate, East Boston, Massachusetts
The length of an endurance race varies greatly. Some are very short, only ten miles, while other races can be up to one hundred miles. There are a few races that are even longer than one hundred miles and last multiple days.[23] These different lengths of races are divided into five categories: pleasure rides (10–20 miles), non-competitive trail rides (21–27 miles), competitive trail rides (20–45 miles), progressive trail rides (25–60 miles), and endurance rides (40–100 miles in one day, up to 250 miles (400 km) in multiple days).[24] Because each race is very long, trails of natural terrain are generally used.
Contemporary organized endurance racing began in California around 1955, and the first race marked the beginning of the Tevis Cup[25] This race was a one-hundred-mile, one-day-long ride starting in Squaw Valley, Placer County, and ending in Auburn. Founded in 1972, the American Endurance Ride Conference was the United States' first national endurance riding association.[24] The longest endurance race in the world is the Mongol Derby, which is 1,000 km (620 mi) long.[26]
Breeds
Further information: Horse breeding
In most horse races, entry is restricted to certain breeds; that is, the horse must have a sire (father) and a dam (mother) who are studbook-approved individuals of whatever breed is racing.[citation needed] For example, in a normal harness race, the horse's sire and dam must both be pure Standardbreds. The exception to this is in Quarter Horse racing, where an Appendix Quarter Horse may be considered eligible to race against (standard) Quarter Horses. The designation of "Appendix" refers to the addendum section, or Appendix, of the Official Quarter Horse registry. An Appendix Quarter Horse is a horse that has either one Quarter Horse parent and one parent of any other eligible breed (such as Thoroughbred, the most common Appendix cross), two parents that are registered Appendix Quarter Horses, or one parent that is a Quarter Horse and one parent that is an Appendix Quarter Horse. AQHA also issues a "Racing Register of Merit", which allows a horse to race on Quarter Horse tracks, but not be considered a Quarter Horse for breeding purposes (unless other requirements are met).[27]
A stallion who has won many races may be put up to stud when he is retired. Artificial insemination and embryo transfer technology (allowed only in some breeds) have brought changes to the traditions and ease of breeding.
Pedigrees of stallions are recorded in various books and websites, such as Weatherbys Stallion Book, the Australian Stud Book and Thoroughbred Heritage.[citation needed]
Thoroughbred
Main article: Thoroughbred
There are three founding sires that all Thoroughbreds can trace back to in the male line: the Darley Arabian, the Godolphin Arabian, and the Byerley Turk, named after their respective owners Thomas Darley, Lord Godolphin, and Captain Robert Byerly. They were taken to England, where they were mated with mares from English and imported bloodlines.[28] The resultant foals were the first generation of Thoroughbreds, and all modern Thoroughbreds trace back to them. Thoroughbreds range in height, which is measured in hands (a hand being four inches). Some are as small as 15 hands while others are over 17. Thoroughbreds can travel medium distances at fast paces, requiring a balance between speed and endurance. Thoroughbreds may be bay, black, dark bay/brown, chestnut, gray, roan, white or palomino. Artificial insemination, cloning and embryo transfer are not allowed in the Thoroughbred breed.[29]
Standardbred horses harness racing
Standardbred
Main article: Standardbred
The standardbred is a breed of horse used for a variety of purposes, but they are largely bred for harness racing. They are descended from thoroughbreds, morgans, and extinct breeds. Standardbreds are typically docile and easy to handle. They do not spook easily and are quite versatile in what they can do. They can be jumpers, dressage, and pleasure riding horses.[30]
Arabian horse
Main article: Arabian horse
The Arabian horse was developed by the Bedouin people of the Middle East specifically for stamina over long distances, so they could outrun their enemies. It was not until 1725 that the Arabian was introduced into the United States.[31] Arabians appeared in the United States in colonial times, though were not bred as purebreds until about the time of the Civil War. Until the formation of the Arabian Horse Registry of America in 1908, Arabians were recorded with the Jockey Club in a separate subsection from Thoroughbreds.
Arabians must be able to withstand traveling long distances at a moderate pace. They have an abundance of type I muscle fibers, enabling their muscles to work for extended periods of time. Also, the muscles of the Arabian are not nearly as massive as those of the Quarter Horse, which allow it to travel longer distances at quicker speeds. The Arabian is primarily used today in endurance racing but is also raced over traditional race tracks in many countries.
Arabian Horse Racing is governed by the International Federation of Arabian Horse Racing.[32]
Quarter Horse
Main article: American Quarter Horse
The ancestors of the Quarter Horse were prevalent in America in the early 17th century. These horses were a blend of Colonial Spanish horses crossed with English horses that were brought over in the 1700s. The native horse and the English horse were bred together, resulting in a compact, muscular horse. At this time, they were mainly used for chores such as plowing and cattle work. The American Quarter Horse was not recognized as an official breed until the formation of the American Quarter Horse Association in 1940.[33]
In order to be successful in racing, Quarter Horses need to be able to propel themselves forward at extremely fast sprinter speed. The Quarter Horse has much larger hind limb muscles than the Arabian, which make it less suitable for endurance racing.[34] It also has more type II-b muscle fibers, which allow the Quarter Horse to accelerate rapidly.
When Quarter Horse racing began, it was very expensive to lay a full mile of track so it was agreed that a straight track of four hundred meters, or one-quarter of a mile, would be laid instead.[35] It became the standard racing distance for Quarter Horses and inspired their name. With the exception of the longer, 870-yard (800 m) distance contests, Quarter Horse races are run flat out, with the horses running at top speed for the duration. There is less jockeying for position, as turns are rare, and many races end with several contestants grouped together at the wire. The track surface is similar to that of Thoroughbred racing and usually consists of dirt.
In addition to the three main racing breeds above and their crosses, horse racing may be conducted using various other breeds: Appaloosa, American Paint Horse, mules, Selle Français, AQPS[36] and Korean Jeju.[37]
Horse breeds and muscle structure
Muscles are bundles of contractile fibers that are attached to bones by tendons. These bundles have different types of fibers within them, and horses have adapted over the years to produce different amounts of these fibers.[38][39]
Type 1
Type I muscle fibers are adapted for aerobic exercise and rely on the presence of oxygen. They are slow-twitch fibers. They allow muscles to work for longer periods of time resulting in greater endurance.
Type 2
Type II muscles are adapted for anaerobic exercise because they can function in the absence of oxygen.
Type II-a fibers are intermediate, representing a balance between the fast-twitch fibers and the slow-twitch fibers. They allow the muscles to generate both speed and endurance. Thoroughbreds possess more Type II-a muscle fibers than Quarter Horses or Arabians. This type of fiber allows them to propel themselves forward at great speeds and maintain it for an extended distance.
Type II-b fibers are fast-twitch fibers. These fibers allow muscles to contract quickly, resulting in a great deal of power and speed.
Training
The Derby Pets - The Winner; painting by James Pollard, c. 1840
The conditioning program for the horses varies depending on the race length. Genetics, training, age, and skeletal soundness are all factors that contribute to a horse's performance.[40] The muscle structure and fiber type of horses depends on the breed; therefore, genetics must be considered when constructing a conditioning plan. A horse's fitness plan must be coordinated properly in order to prevent injury or lameness. If these are to occur, they may negatively affect a horse's willingness to learn.[40] Sprinting exercises are appropriate for training two-year-old racehorses, but the number is limited by psychological factors as well as physical.[40] A horse's skeletal system adapts to the exercise it receives. Because the skeletal system does not reach full maturity until the horse is at least six years of age, young racehorses often suffer injuries.[40]
Horse racing by continent
North America
United States
See also: Horse racing in the United States
Horse racing at Jacksonville, Alabama, 1841
Horse racing at Toledo, Ohio, 1910
Horse race in Benin, Africa)
In the United States, Thoroughbred flat races are run on surfaces of either dirt, synthetic or turf. Other tracks offer Quarter Horse racing and Standardbred racing, on combinations of these three types of racing surfaces. Racing of other breeds, such as Arabian horse racing, is found on a limited basis. American Thoroughbred races are run at a wide variety of distances, most commonly from 5 to 12 furlongs (0.63 to 1.50 mi; 1.0 to 2.4 km); with this in mind, breeders of Thoroughbred race horses attempt to breed horses that excel at a particular distance (see dosage index).
Horse racing in the United States and on the North American continent dates back to 1665, which saw the establishment of the Newmarket course in Salisbury, New York, a section of what is now known as the Hempstead Plains of Long Island, New York.[41] This first racing meet in North America was supervised by New York's colonial governor, Richard Nicolls. The area is now occupied by the present Nassau County, New York, a region of Greater Westbury and East Garden City. The South Westbury section is still known as Salisbury.
The first record of quarter-mile length races dated back to 1674 in Henrico County, Virginia. Each race consisted of only two horses, and they raced down the village streets and lanes. The Quarter Horse received its name from the length of the race.
The American Stud Book was started in 1868, prompting the beginning of organized horse racing in the United States. There were 314 tracks operating in the United States by 1890; and in 1894, the American Jockey Club was formed.[42]
The Pleasanton Fairgrounds Racetrack at the Alameda County Fairgrounds is the oldest remaining horse racing track in America,[43] dating from 1858, when it was founded by the sons of the Spaniard Don Agustín Bernal.
Belmont Park is located at the western edge of the Hempstead Plains. Its mile-and-a-half main track is the largest dirt Thoroughbred racecourse in the world, and it has the sport's largest grandstand.
One of the latest major horse tracks opened in the United States was the Meadowlands Racetrack, opened in 1977 for Thoroughbred racing. It is the home of the Meadowlands Cup. Other more recently opened tracks include Remington Park, Oklahoma City, opened in 1988, and Lone Star Park in the Dallas–Fort Worth Metroplex, opened in 1997; the latter track hosted the prestigious Breeders' Cup series of races in 2004.
Thoroughbred horse racing in the United States has its own Hall of Fame in Saratoga Springs, New York. The Hall of Fame honors remarkable horses, jockeys, owners, and trainers.
The traditional high point of US horse racing is the Kentucky Derby, held on the first Saturday of May at Churchill Downs in Louisville, Kentucky. Together, the Derby; the Preakness Stakes, held two weeks later at Pimlico Race Course in Baltimore, Maryland; and the Belmont Stakes, held three weeks after the Preakness at Belmont Park on Long Island, form the Triple Crown of Thoroughbred Racing for three-year-olds. They are all held early in the year, throughout May and the beginning of June. In recent years the Breeders' Cup races, run at the end of the year, have challenged the Triple Crown events as determiners of the three-year-old champion. The Breeders' Cup is normally held at a different track every year; however, the 2010 and 2011 editions were both held at Churchill Downs, and 2012, 2013 and 2014 races were held at Santa Anita Park. Keeneland, in Lexington, Kentucky, hosted the 2015 Breeders' Cup.
The corresponding Standardbred event is the Breeders Crown. There is also a Triple Crown of Harness Racing for Pacers and a Triple Crown of Harness Racing for Trotters.
For Arabians, there is the Arabian Triple Crown, consisting of Drinkers of the Wind Derby in California, the Texas Six Shooter Stakes, and the Bob Magness Derby in Delaware.
American betting on horse racing is sanctioned and regulated by the state where the race is located.[44] Simulcast betting exists across state lines with minimal oversight except the companies involved through legalized parimutuel gambling. A takeout, or "take," is removed from each betting pool and distributed according to state law, among the state, race track and horsemen. A variety of factors affect takeout, namely location and the type of wager that is placed.[45] One form of parimutuel gaming is Instant Racing, in which players bet on video replays of races.
Advanced Deposit Wagering is a form of gambling on the outcome of horse races in which the bettor must fund his or her account before being allowed to place bets. ADW is often conducted online or by phone. In contrast to ADW, credit shops allow wagers without advance funding; accounts are settled at month-end. Racetrack owners, horse trainers and state governments sometimes receive a cut of ADW revenues.
Canada
The most famous horse from Canada is generally considered to be Northern Dancer, who after winning the Kentucky Derby, Preakness and Queen's Plate in 1964 went on to become the most successful Thoroughbred sire of the twentieth century; his two-minute-flat Derby was the fastest on record until Secretariat in 1973. The only challenger to his title of greatest Canadian horse would be his son Nijinsky II, who is the last horse to win the English Triple Crown. Woodbine Racetrack (1956) in Toronto is home of the Queen's Plate (1860), Canada's premier Thoroughbred stakes race, and the North America Cup (1984), Canada's premier Standardbred stakes race. It is the only race track in North America which stages Thoroughbred and Standardbred (harness) meetings on the same day. The Canadian International and Woodbine Mile (1981) are Canada's most important Grade I races worth Can$1,000,000 each, and have been won by many renowned horses such as Secretariat and Wise Dan respectively. Other key races include Woodbine Oaks (1956), Prince of Wales Stakes (1929), Breeders' Stakes (1889) and Canadian Derby (1930).
Horse Racing in Warsaw at Pole Mokotowskie Race Track in 1891
Europe
Horse racing in Sweden, c. 1555
Belgium
Horse racing in Belgium takes place at three venues – Hippodrome Wellington in Ostend (opened in 1883 in honour of Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington), Hippodroom Waregem in Waregem in Flanders and Hippodrome de Wallonie in Mons, Wallonia.
Czech Republic
There are 15 racecourses in the Czech Republic, most notably Pardubice Racecourse, where the country's most famous race, the Velka Pardubicka steeplechase, has been run since 1874.[46] However, the first official race was organized back in 1816 by Emperor Francis II near Kladruby nad Labem. The Czech horse racing season usually starts at the beginning of April and ends sometime in November. Racing takes place mostly at weekends and there is usually one meeting on a Saturday and one on Sunday.[47] Horse races, as well as Thoroughbred horse breeding, is organized by Jockey Club Czech Republic, founded in 1919.[48]
France
See also: List of French flat horse races, Category:Horse racing in France, and French flat racing Champion Jockey
France has a major horse racing industry. It is home to the famous Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe held at Longchamp Racecourse, the richest race in Europe and the second richest turf race in the world after the Japan Cup, with a prize of 4 million Euros (approximately US$5.2 million). Other major races include the Grand Prix de Paris, the Prix du Jockey Club (the French Derby) and the Prix de Diane. Besides Longchamp, France's other premier flat racecourses include Chantilly and Deauville. There is also a smaller but nevertheless important jumps racing sector, with Auteil Racecourse being the best known. The sport's governing body is France Galop.
Great Britain
Main article: Horseracing in Great Britain
See also: Horseracing in Scotland and Horseracing in Wales
1890 engraving of horses jumping the Becher's Brook fence in the Grand National. With treacherous fences combined with the distance (over 4 miles), the race has been called "the ultimate test of horse and rider".[49]
Eclipse, an undefeated British racehorse and outstanding sire.
Horse racing in Great Britain is predominantly thoroughbred flat and jumps racing. It was in Great Britain in the 17th to 19th centuries that many of the sport's rules and regulations were established. Named after Edward Smith-Stanley, 12th Earl of Derby, The Derby was first run in 1780. The race serves as the middle leg of the British Triple Crown, preceded by the 2000 Guineas and followed by the St Leger. The name "Derby" has since become synonymous with great races all over the world, and as such has been borrowed many times in races abroad.[50]
The Grand National is the most prominent race in British culture, watched by many people who do not normally watch or bet on horse racing at other times of the year.[51] Many of the sport's greatest jockeys, most notably Sir Gordon Richards, have been British. The sport is regulated by the British Horseracing Authority. The BHA's authority does not extend to Northern Ireland; racing in Ireland is governed on an All-Ireland basis.
Greece
Despite having an ancient tradition with well-documented history, all racetracks in Greece have ceased operation due to the Greek government-debt crisis.[52]
Hungary
Hungary has a long-standing horse racing tradition. The first horse racing in Pest was noted on June 6, 1827.[citation needed] Although racing in Hungary is neither as popular nor as prestigious as it is in Western Europe, the country is notable for producing some fine international racehorses. Foremost of these is Kincsem, foaled in 1874 and the most successful Thoroughbred racehorse ever, having won 54 races in 54 starts. The country also produced Overdose, a horse who won his first 12 races, including group races in Germany and Italy, and finished fourth in the King's Stand Stakes at Royal Ascot.
Ireland
Main article: Horse racing in Ireland
Ireland has a rich history of horse racing; point to pointing originated there, and even today, jump racing is more popular than racing on the flat. As a result, every year Irish horse racing fans travel in huge numbers to the highlight event of the National Hunt calendar, the Cheltenham Festival, and in recent years Irish owned or bred horses have dominated the event.[citation needed] Ireland has a thriving Thoroughbred breeding industry, stimulated by favorable tax treatment.[citation needed] The world's largest Thoroughbred stud farm, Coolmore Stud, has its main site there (in addition to major operations in the U.S. and Australia).
In recent years,[when?] various Irish bred and trained horses achieved victory in one or more of the British 2000 Guineas, The Derby and the Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe, considered the three most prestigious races in Europe. In the six runnings of the Epsom Derby between 2008 and 2013, Irish horses filled 20 of the first 30 placings, winning the race 5 times.[citation needed]
Italy
See also: List of horse races in Italy
Historically, Italy has been one of the leading European horse-racing nations, albeit in some respects behind Great Britain, Ireland, and France in size and prestige. The late Italian horse breeder Federico Tesio was particularly notable. In recent years, however, the sport in the country has suffered a major funding crisis, culminating in its 2014 expulsion from the European Pattern.[53]
Netherlands
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In Wassenaar in the Hague there is a grass course at Duindigt.
Poland
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"First regular horse racing on Pola Mokotowskie in Warsaw" January Suchodolski 1849.
Horse racing in Poland can be dated to 1777, when a horse owned by Polish noble Kazimierz Rzewuski beat the horse of the English chargé d'affaires, Sir Charles Whitworth, on the road from Wola to Ujazdów Castle. The first regular horse racing was organized in 1841 on Mokotów Fields in Warsaw by Towarzystwo Wyścigów Konnych i Wystawy Zwierząt Gospodarskich w Królestwie Polskim (in English, the Society of Horse Racing in Congress Poland). The main racetrack in Poland is Warsaw's Służewiec Racecourse. The industry was severely limited during the Communist era, when gambling, the major source of funding, was made illegal.
Sweden
See also: Harness racing in Sweden
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Harness racing (also known as trotting), is a popular sport in Sweden, with significant amounts of money wagered annually.
Oceania
Australia
Main articles: Thoroughbred racing in Australia and Harness racing in Australia
Tambo Valley Picnic Races, Victoria, Australia 2006
Horse racing in Australia was founded during the early years of settlement and the industry has grown to be among the top three leading Thoroughbred racing nations of the world.[54] The world-famous Melbourne Cup, the race that stops a nation, has recently attracted many international entries. In country racing, records indicate that Goulburn commenced racing in 1834.[55] Australia's first country racing club was established at Wallabadah in 1852 and the Wallabadah Cup is still held on New Year's Day (the current racecourse was built in 1898).[56]
In Australia, the most famous racehorse was Phar Lap (bred in New Zealand), who raced from 1928 to 1932. Phar Lap carried 9 st 12 lb (62.5 kg) to win the 1930 Melbourne Cup. Australian steeplechaser Crisp is remembered for his battle with Irish champion Red Rum in the 1973 Grand National. In 2003–2005 the mare Makybe Diva (bred in Great Britain) became the only racehorse to ever win the Melbourne Cup three times, let alone in consecutive years. In harness racing, Cane Smoke had 120 wins, including 34 in a single season, Paleface Adios became a household name during the 1970s, while Cardigan Bay, a pacing horse from New Zealand, enjoyed great success at the highest levels of American harness racing in the 1960s. More recently, Blacks A Fake has won four Inter Dominion Championships, making him the only horse to complete this feat in Australasia's premier harness race.[57]
Competitive endurance riding commenced in Australia in 1966, when the Tom Quilty Gold Cup was first held in the Hawkesbury district, near Sydney, New South Wales. The Quilty Cup is considered the National endurance ride and there are now over 100 endurance events contested across Australia, ranging in distances from 80 km to 400 km.[58] The world's longest endurance ride is the Shahzada 400 km Memorial Test which is conducted over five days traveling 80 kilometers a day at St Albans on the Hawkesbury River, New South Wales. In all endurance events, there are rigorous vet checks, conducted before, during and after the competition, in which the horses' welfare is of the utmost concern.[59]
New Zealand
Main articles: Thoroughbred racing in New Zealand and Harness racing in New Zealand
Racing is a long-established sport in New Zealand, stretching back to colonial times.
Horse racing is a significant part of the New Zealand economy which in 2004 generated 1.3% of the GDP. The indirect impact of expenditures on racing was estimated to have generated more than $1.4 billion in economic activity in 2004 and created 18,300 full-time equivalent jobs. More than 40,000 people were involved in some capacity in the New Zealand racing industry in 2004. In 2004, more than one million people attended race meetings in New Zealand.[60] There are 69 Thoroughbred and 51 harness clubs licensed in New Zealand. Racecourses are situated in 59 locations throughout New Zealand.
The bloodstock industry is important to New Zealand, with the export sale of horses – mainly to Australia and Asia – generating more than $120 million a year. During the 2008–09 racing season 19 New Zealand bred horses won 22 Group One races around the world.[61]
Notable thoroughbred racehorses from New Zealand include Carbine, Nightmarch, Sunline, Desert Gold and Rising Fast.[62][63] Phar Lap and Tulloch were both bred in New Zealand but did not race there.
The most famous New Zealand standardbred horse is probably Cardigan Bay. Stanley Dancer drove the New Zealand bred horse, Cardigan Bay to win $1 million in stakes in 1968, the first harness horse to surpass that milestone in American history.[64] Other horses of note include Young Quinn, Christian Cullen, Lazarus and the trotter Lyell Creek.
Africa
Mauritius
Maiden Cup 2006 - To The Line, winner of the race
On 25 June 1812, the Champ de Mars Racecourse was inaugurated by The Mauritius Turf Club which was founded earlier in the same year by Colonel Edward A. Draper. The Champ de Mars is situated on a prestigious avenue in Port Louis, the capital city and is the oldest racecourse in the southern hemisphere. The Mauritius Turf Club is the second oldest active turf club in the world.
Undeniably, racing is one of the most popular sports in Mauritius now attracting regular crowds of 20,000 people or more to the only racecourse of the island.
A high level of professionalism has been attained in the organization of races over the last decades preserving the unique electrifying ambiance prevailing on race days at the Champ de Mars.
Members of the British Royal Family, such as Queen Elizabeth II, Princess Margaret or the Queen Mother have attended or patronised races at the Champ de Mars numerous times.
Champ de Mars has four classic events a year such as: Duchess of York Cup, Barbé Cup, Maiden Cup and the Duke of York Cup.
Most of the horses are imported from South Africa but some are also acquired from Australia, the United Kingdom and France.[65][66][67][68][69][70][71][72]
South Africa
Horse racing is a popular sport in South Africa that can be traced back to 1797. The first recorded race club meeting took place five years later in 1802.[73] The national horse racing body is known as the National Horseracing Authority and was founded in 1882. The premier event, which attracts 50,000 people to Durban, is the Durban July Handicap, which has been run since 1897 at Greyville Racecourse. It is the largest and most prestigious event on the continent, with betting running into the hundreds of millions of Rands. Several July winners have gone on to win major international races, such as Colorado King, London News, and Ipi Tombe.[74] However, the other notable major races are the Summer Cup, held at Turffontein Racecourse in Johannesburg, and The Sun Met, which is held at Kenilworth race track in Cape Town.
Asia
China
Horse racing in one form or another has been a part of Chinese culture for millennia. Horse racing was a popular pastime for the aristocracy at least by the Zhou Dynasty – 4th century B.C. General Tian Ji's strategem for a horse race remains perhaps the best-known story about horse racing in that period. In the 18th and 19th centuries, horse racing and equestrian sports in China was dominated by Mongol influences.
Thoroughbred horse racing came to China with British settlements in the middle 1800s and most notably centered around the treaty ports, including the two major race courses in Shanghai, the Shanghai Racecourse and the International Recreation Grounds (in Kiang-wan), and the racecourses of Tianjin. The Kiang-wan racecourse was destroyed in the lead-up to the Second Sino-Japanese War and the Shanghai Race Club closed in 1954. The former Shanghai Racecourse is now People's Square and People's Park and the former club building was the Shanghai Art Museum.
As Hong Kong and Macau are Special Administrative Region, they're allowed to exemption from ban of gambling on mainland China. (See below)
Horse racing was banned in the Republic of China from 1945, and the People's Republic of China maintained the ban after 1949, although allowances were made for ethnic minority peoples for whom horse sports are a cultural tradition. Speed horse racing (速度赛马) was an event in the National Games of China, mainly introduced to cater to minority peoples, such as the Mongols. The racecourse was initially 5 km, but from 2005 (the 10th National Games) was extended to 12 km. The longer race led to deaths and injuries to participating horses in both 2005 and the 11th National Games in 2009. Also, with the entry into the sport of Han majority provinces such as Hubei, which are better funded and used Western, rather than traditional, breeding and training techniques, meant that the original purpose of the event to foster traditional horse racing for groups like the Mongols was at risk of being usurped. At the 2009 National Games, Hubei won both the gold and silver medals, with Inner Mongolia winning bronze. As a result of these factors, the event was abolished for the 12th National Games in 2013.
Club horse racing reappeared on a small scale in the 1990s. In 2008, the China Speed Horse Race Open in Wuhan was organized as the qualification round for the speed horse race event at the National Games the next year, but was also seen by commentators as a step towards legalizing both horse racing and gambling on the races.[75] The Wuhan Racecourse was the only racecourse that organized races in China.[76] In 2014, the Wuhan Jockey Club organized more than 80 races. Almost all Chinese trainers and jockeys stabled in Wuhan. However, with the demise of the event at the National Games and the government not relenting from the ban on commercial racing, various racecourses built in recent years are all in a state of disuse: The Nanjing Racecourse, which previously hosted National Games equestrian events, is now used as a car park;[77] the Beijing Jockey Club was shut down in 2008. The racecourse in Inner Mongolia has not been active after 2012.
Horse racing eventually returned to mainland China on the year 2014 as the one-day, five-card event for foreign horses, trainers and jockeys.[78]
Hong Kong
Happy Valley Racecourse in Hong Kong at night
The British tradition of horse racing left its mark with the creation of one of the most important entertainment and gambling institutions in Hong Kong. Established as the Royal Hong Kong Jockey Club in 1884, the non-profit organization conducts nearly 700 races every season at the two race tracks: in Happy Valley and Sha Tin.
All horses are imported since there is no breeding operation.[citation needed] The sport annually draws millions of dollars of tax revenue. Off-track betting is available from overseas bookmakers.
In the 1920s, the Hong Kong Jockey Club had race meetings for visitors already. Visitors were divided into public and member. The charges for these two types of visitors are different.
The charge for admission to the Public Enclosure is $1 per day for all while soldiers and sailors can enjoy half price. On the other hand, members are required to show their badges to obtain admission to the Members’ Enclosure. And also the charge for admission to the Members’ Enclosure is $2 per day.[79] By comparing the lowest wage in 1929, we observe that the lowest wage is around $12 ( $0.4 per day) which has a large distance for the requirement enclosure.[80] Therefore, we can observe that the race meetings are mainly opened for upper class mostly while grass-root has a lower chance to touch horse racing activity.
Nowadays, the Hong Kong Jockey Club is a cornerstone of modern Hong Kong. It donates all its profits to the Hong Kong government, charities and public institutions. It is the territory's largest taxpayer, contributing 11% of the government's revenues in 2000. In economic terms, the Hong Kong Jockey Club is an old-fashioned government-protected monopoly; all other forms of gambling are illegal in this industry.[81]
Hong Kong—Sweepstakes
Sweepstakes were introduced in Hong Kong during the 1920s. There are three types of sweepstakes which are the Special Cash Sweeps, the Last Race Sweep and the Ordinary Cash Sweeps. Special Cash Sweeps were at first drawn twice a year, and increased to three times a year later given its popularity. It carried the highest prize money amongst three types of sweepstakes. The Last Race Sweep commanded higher prize money then Ordinary Cash Sweeps, which were drawn for almost every race and therefore carried the lowest prize money.[82]
Sweepstakes could be purchased either at sweepstakes stations or from sweepstakes vendors throughout Hong Kong. With different numbers print on each sweepstake, one sweepstake is drawn and assigned, for each horse participating in the race, and the sweepstake attached to the winning horse would win the first prize. Likewise, the number of the first runner-up and second runner-up would win the second and third prize, respectively, with the rest winning consolation prizes. With the introduction of new bet types in horse racing and the launch of the Mark Six lottery in the 1970s, the club finally stopped selling sweepstakes in 1977.[82]
Macau
Jockey Club of Macau was established for harness racing. It started to conduct horse races in 1989.[83]
India
Main article: Horse racing in India
India's first racecourse was set up in Madras in 1777. Today India has nine racetracks operated by seven racing authorities.[citation needed]
Japan
Main article: Horseracing in Japan
Nakayama Racecourse in Funabashi, Japan
Japan has two governing bodies that control its horseracing – the Japan Racing Association (JRA), and National Association of Racing (NAR). Between them they conduct more than 21,000 horse races a year. The JRA is responsible for 'Chuo Keiba' (meaning 'central horse racing'), taking place on the ten main Japanese tracks. The NAR, meanwhile, is responsible for 'Chihou Keiba' (meaning 'local horse racing'). Racing in Japan is mainly flat racing, but Japan also has jump racing and a sled-pulling race known as Ban'ei (also called Draft Racing).
Japan's top stakes races are run in the spring, autumn, and winter. These include the country's most prominent race – the Grade 1 Japan Cup, a 2,400 m (about 1½ mile) invitational turf race run every November at Tokyo Racecourse for a purse of ¥476 million (about US$5.6 million), one of the richest turf races in the world. Other noted stakes races include the February Stakes, Japanese Derby, Takamatsunomiya Kinen, Yasuda Kinen, Takarazuka Kinen, Arima Kinen, Satsuki Sho, Kikka Sho, and the Tenno Sho races run in the spring and fall. Japan's top jump race is the Nakayama Grand Jump, run every April at Nakayama Racecourse.
Malaysia
In Malaysia, horse racing was introduced during the British colonial era and remains to the present day as a gambling activity. There are three race courses in Peninsular Malaysia, namely Penang Turf Club, Perak Turf Club and Selangor Turf Club. Within and only within the turf clubs, betting on horse racing is a legal form of gambling. Racing in Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore is conducted and governed under the Rules of the Malayan Racing Association and betting in Malaysia is operated and organized by Pan Malaysian Pools Sdn Bhd. In East Malaysia, races are governed independently by the Royal Sabah Turf Club[84] and the Sarawak Turf Club.[85]
Mongolia
Mongolian horse racing takes place during the Naadam festival. Mongolia does not have Thoroughbred horse racing. Rather, it has its own Mongolian style of horse racing in which the horses run for at least a distance of 25 kilometers.[86]
Pakistan
Horse races are held in Pakistan at four clubs. In Lahore at Lahore Race Club, Rawalpindi at Chakri, in Karachi at Karachi Race Club and in Gujrat at Gujrat Race Club.
Philippines
Main article: Horseracing in the Philippines
Horseracing in the Philippines began in 1867. The history of Philippine horseracing has three divisions according to the breeds of horses used. They are the Philippine-pony era (1867–1898), the Arabian-horse era (1898–1930), and the Thoroughbred-era (1935–present).[87]
Singapore
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Horse racing was introduced to Singapore by the British during the colonial era and remained one of the legal forms of gambling after independence. It remains a highly popular form of entertainment with the local Singaporean community to this day. Races are typically held on Friday evenings and Sundays at the Singapore Turf Club in Kranji. Horse racing has also left its mark in the naming of roads in Singapore such as Race Course Road in Little India, where horse racing was first held in Singapore, and Turf Club Road in Bukit Timah where Singapore Turf Club used to be situated before moving to its current location in 1999.[citation needed]
South Korea
Main article: Horse racing in South Korea
Horse racing in South Korea dates back to May 1898, when a foreign language institute run by the government included a donkey race in its athletic rally. However, it wasn't until the 1920s that modern horse racing involving betting developed. The nation's first authorised club, the Chosun Racing Club, was established in 1922 and a year later, the pari-mutuel betting system was officially adopted for the first time.[88]
The Korean War disrupted the development of horse racing in the country, but after the Seoul Olympics in 1988, the Olympic Equestrian Park was converted into racing facilities named Seoul Race Park, which helped the sport to develop again.[88]
Turkey
Main article: Jockey Club of Turkey
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Horses have been an important role in Turks' lives throughout history. After the modern Republic Of Turkey was established in 1923 by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the number of breeding and racing Arabian and thoroughbred racehorses accelerated rapidly especially after the beginning of the 1930s. The Jockey Club of Turkey, founded in 1950, was the turning point of both the Turkish breeding and racing industries.
United Arab Emirates
The big race in the UAE is the Dubai World Cup, a race with a purse of US$10 million, which was the largest purse in the world until being surpassed by the Pegasus World Cup, an American race with a $12 million purse that held its first edition in 2017. The Dubai World Cup is once again the world's richest horse race. The Pegasus World Cup had its purse reduced in 2019 to make room for a new turf race.[89] Other races include the Dubai Kahayla Classic with a purse of US$250,000.
The Meydan Racecourse in Dubai, reportedly the world's largest race track, opened on March 27, 2010, for the Dubai World Cup race. The race track complex contains two tracks with seating for 60,000, a hotel, restaurants, theater and museum.
There is no parimutuel betting in the UAE as gambling is illegal.[90]
South America
Argentina
In Argentina the sport is known as turf. Some of the most famous racers are Irineo Leguisamo, Vilmar Sanguinetti, Marina Lezcano, Jorge Valdivieso, Pablo Falero and Jorge Ricardo.
Carlos Gardel's tango Por una cabeza is about horse racing, a sport of which he was a known fan. Gardel was a good friend of Irineo Leguisamo, who is the most recognized Uruguayan jockey, who raced numerous years in Argentine.[citation needed]
Betting
Main article: Betting on horse racing
At many horse races, there is a gambling station, where gamblers can stake money on a horse. Gambling on horses is prohibited at some tracks; Springdale Race Course, home of the nationally renowned TD Bank Carolina Cup and Colonial Cup Steeplechase in Camden, South Carolina, is known as one of the tracks where betting is illegal, due to a 1951 law. Where gambling is allowed, most tracks offer parimutuel betting where gamblers' money is pooled and shared proportionally among the winners once a deduction is made from the pool. In some countries, such as the UK, Ireland, and Australia, an alternative and more popular facility is provided by bookmakers who effectively make a market in odds. This allows the gambler to 'lock in' odds on a horse at a particular time (known as 'taking the price' in the UK). Parimutuel gambling on races also provides not only purse money to participants but considerable tax revenue, with over $100 billion wagered annually in 53 countries.[91]
Dangers
Anna Waller, a member of the Department of Emergency Medicine at the University of North Carolina, co-authored a four-year-long study of jockey injuries and stated to The New York Times that "For every 1,000 jockeys you have riding [for one year], over 600 will have medically treated injuries." She added that almost 20% of these were serious head or neck injuries. The study reported 6,545 injuries during the years 1993–1996.[92][93] More than 100 jockeys were killed in the United States between 1950 and 1987.[94]
Horses also face dangers in racing. 1.5 horses die out of every 1,000 starts in the United States.[citation needed] The U.S. Jockey Club in New York estimates that about 600 horses died at racetracks in 2006. Another estimates there are 1,000 deaths annual in the US.[95] The Jockey Club in Hong Kong reported a far lower figure of 0.58 horses per 1,000 starts. There is speculation that drugs used in horse racing in the United States, which are banned elsewhere, are responsible for the higher death rate in the United States.[96]
In the Canadian province of Ontario, a study of 1,709 racehorse deaths between 2003 and 2015 found that the majority of deaths were attributable to "damage during exercise to the horses' musculoskeletal system", including fractures, dislocations, and tendon ruptures.[97] Mortality rates were eight times higher for thoroughbreds than standardbreds, and highest amongst young horses. The study also found that the incidence of off-track deaths was twice as high for thoroughbreds.
In the United Kingdom, 186 horses were killed as a direct result of racing in 2019. Of these 145 died in National Hunt (jump) racing and 41 in flat racing.[98] A report published in 2005 estimated that "around 375 horses who are entered into races each season die from their injuries, or they are killed because they are considered of no further commercial value, even though they are young enough to continue racing." It added, "Reasons for horses being destroyed include broken legs, back, neck and pelvis; fatal spinal injuries, exhaustion, heart attack, and burst blood vessels in the lungs."[99]
See also
icon Horses portal
Sports portal
Australian and New Zealand punting glossary
Commercial animal cloning
Fully automatic time
Glossary of North American horse racing
Going (horse racing)
Horse length
Horse racing equipment
Jockey Challenge
List of horse racing tracks
List of jockeys
Match race
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External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Horse racing.
The dictionary definition of horse racing at Wiktionary
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