I have sold items to coutries such as Afghanistan * Albania * Algeria * American Samoa (US) * Andorra * Angola * Anguilla (GB) * Antigua and Barbuda * Argentina * Armenia * Aruba (NL) * Australia * Austria * Azerbaijan * Bahamas * Bahrain * Bangladesh * Barbados * Belarus * Belgium * Belize * Benin * Bermuda (GB) * Bhutan * Bolivia * Bonaire (NL) * Bosnia and Herzegovina * Botswana * Bouvet Island (NO) * Brazil * British Indian Ocean Territory (GB) * British Virgin Islands (GB) * Brunei * Bulgaria * Burkina Faso * Burundi * Cambodia * Cameroon * Canada * Cape Verde * Cayman Islands (GB) * Central African Republic * Chad * Chile * China * Christmas Island (AU) * Cocos Islands (AU) * Colombia * Comoros * Congo * Democratic Republic of the Congo * Cook Islands (NZ) * Coral Sea Islands Territory (AU) * Costa Rica * Croatia * Cuba * Curaçao (NL) * Cyprus * Czech Republic * Denmark * Djibouti * Dominica * Dominican Republic * East Timor * Ecuador * Egypt * El Salvador * Equatorial Guinea * Eritrea * Estonia * Ethiopia * Falkland Islands (GB) * Faroe Islands (DK) * Fiji Islands * Finland * France * French Guiana (FR) * French Polynesia (FR) * French Southern Lands (FR) * Gabon * Gambia * Georgia * Germany * Ghana * Gibraltar (GB) * Greece * Greenland (DK) * Grenada * Guadeloupe (FR) * Guam (US) * Guatemala * Guernsey (GB) * Guinea * Guinea-Bissau * Guyana * Haiti * Heard and McDonald Islands (AU) * Honduras * Hong Kong (CN) * Hungary * Iceland * India * Indonesia * Iran * Iraq * Ireland * Isle of Man (GB) * Israel * Italy * Ivory Coast * Jamaica * Jan Mayen (NO) * Japan * Jersey (GB) * Jordan * Kazakhstan * Kenya * Kiribati * Kosovo * Kuwait * Kyrgyzstan * Laos * Latvia * Lebanon * Lesotho * Liberia * Libya * Liechtenstein * Lithuania * Luxembourg * Macau (CN) * Macedonia * Madagascar * Malawi * Malaysia * Maldives * Mali * Malta * Marshall Islands * Martinique (FR) * Mauritania * Mauritius * Mayotte (FR) * Mexico * Micronesia * Moldova * Monaco * Mongolia * Montenegro * Montserrat (GB) * Morocco * Mozambique * Myanmar * Namibia * Nauru * Navassa (US) * Nepal * Netherlands * New Caledonia (FR) * New Zealand * Nicaragua * Niger * Nigeria * Niue (NZ) * Norfolk Island (AU) * North Korea * Northern Cyprus * Northern Mariana Islands (US) * Norway * Oman * Pakistan * Palau * Palestinian Authority * Panama * Papua New Guinea * Paraguay * Peru * Philippines * Pitcairn Island (GB) * Poland * Portugal * Puerto Rico (US) * Qatar * Reunion (FR) * Romania * Russia * Rwanda * Saba (NL) * Saint Barthelemy (FR) * Saint Helena (GB) * Saint Kitts and Nevis * Saint Lucia * Saint Martin (FR) * Saint Pierre and Miquelon (FR) * Saint Vincent and the Grenadines * Samoa * San Marino * Sao Tome and Principe * Saudi Arabia * Senegal * Serbia * Seychelles * Sierra Leone * Singapore * Sint Eustatius (NL) * Sint Maarten (NL) * Slovakia * Slovenia * Solomon Islands * Somalia * South Africa * South Georgia (GB) * South Korea * South Sudan * Spain * Sri Lanka * Sudan * Suriname * Svalbard (NO) * Swaziland * Sweden * Switzerland * Syria * Taiwan * Tajikistan * Tanzania * Thailand * Togo * Tokelau (NZ) * Tonga * Trinidad and Tobago * Tunisia * Turkey * Turkmenistan * Turks and Caicos Islands (GB) * Tuvalu * U.S. Minor Pacific Islands (US) * U.S. Virgin Islands (US) * Uganda * Ukraine * United Arab Emirates * United Kingdom * United States * Uruguay * Uzbekistan * Vanuatu * Vatican City * Venezuela * Vietnam * Wallis and Futuna (FR) * Yemen * Zambia * Zimbabwe and major cities such as Tokyo, Yokohama, New York City, Sao Paulo, Seoul, Mexico City, Osaka, Kobe, Kyoto, Manila, Mumbai, Delhi, Jakarta, Lagos, Kolkata, Cairo, Los Angeles, Buenos Aires, Rio de Janeiro, Moscow, Shanghai, Karachi, Paris, Istanbul, Nagoya, Beijing, Chicago, London, Shenzhen, Essen, Düsseldorf, Tehran, Bogota, Lima, Bangkok, Johannesburg, East Rand, Chennai, Taipei, Baghdad, Santiago, Bangalore, Hyderabad, St Petersburg, Philadelphia, Lahore, Kinshasa, Miami, Ho Chi Minh City, Madrid, Tianjin, Kuala Lumpur, Toronto, Milan, Shenyang, Dallas, Fort Worth, Boston, Belo Horizonte, Khartoum, Riyadh, Singapore, Washington, Detroit, Barcelona,, Houston, Athens, Berlin, Sydney, Atlanta, Guadalajara, San Francisco, Oakland, Montreal, Monterey, Melbourne, Ankara, Recife, Phoenix/Mesa, Durban, Porto Alegre, Dalian, Jeddah, Seattle, Cape Town, San Diego, Fortaleza, Curitiba, Rome, Naples, Minneapolis, St. Paul, Tel Aviv, Birmingham, Frankfurt, Lisbon, Manchester, San Juan, Katowice, Tashkent, Fukuoka, Baku, Sumqayit, St. Louis, Baltimore, Sapporo, Tampa, St. Petersburg, Taichung, Warsaw, Denver, Cologne, Bonn, Hamburg, Dubai, Pretoria, Vancouver, Beirut, Budapest, Cleveland, Pittsburgh, Campinas, Harare, Brasilia, Kuwait, Munich, Portland, Brussels, Vienna, San Jose, Damman , Copenhagen, Brisbane, Riverside, San Bernardino, Cincinnati and Accra
Great Britain
Geography
Location North-western Europe
Coordinates 54°N 2°W
Archipelago British Isles
Adjacent to Atlantic Ocean
Area 209,331 km2 (80,823 sq mi)[1]
Area rank 9th
Highest elevation 1,345 m (4413 ft)
Highest point Ben Nevis[2]
Administration
United Kingdom
Countries
England
Scotland
Wales
Largest city London (pop. 8,878,892)
Demographics
Population 60,800,000 (2011 census)[3]
Population rank 3rd
Pop. density 302/km2 (782/sq mi)
Languages EnglishScotsWelshScottish GaelicCornish
Ethnic groups
86.8% White
7.1% Asian
3.1% Black
2.0% Mixed
0.3% Arab
0.6% Other[4][5]
Additional information
Time zone
Greenwich Mean Time (UTC)
• Summer (DST)
British Summer Time (UTC+1)
Great Britain is an island in the North Atlantic Ocean off the north-west coast of continental Europe, consisting of England, Scotland and Wales. With an area of 209,331 km2 (80,823 sq mi), it is the largest of the British Isles, the largest European island and the ninth-largest island in the world.[6][note 1] It is dominated by a maritime climate with narrow temperature differences between seasons. The island of Ireland, with an area 40 per cent that of Great Britain, is to the west—these islands, along with over 1,000 smaller surrounding islands and named substantial rocks, form the British Isles archipelago.[8]
Connected to mainland Europe until 9,000 years ago by a landbridge now known as Doggerland,[9] Great Britain has been inhabited by modern humans for around 30,000 years. In 2011, it had a population of about 61 million, making it the world's third-most-populous island after Java in Indonesia and Honshu in Japan,[10][11] and the most populated island outside of Asia.
The term "Great Britain" can also refer to the political territory of England, Scotland and Wales, which includes their offshore islands.[12] This territory and Northern Ireland constitute the United Kingdom.[13] The single Kingdom of Great Britain resulted from the 1707 Acts of Union between the kingdoms of England (which at the time incorporated Wales) and Scotland.
Terminology
See also: Terminology of the British Isles
Toponymy
Main article: Britain (place name)
The archipelago has been referred to by a single name for over 2000 years: the term 'British Isles' derives from terms used by classical geographers to describe this island group. By 50 BC, Greek geographers were using equivalents of Prettanikē as a collective name for the British Isles.[14] However, with the Roman conquest of Britain, the Latin term Britannia was used for the island of Great Britain, and later Roman-occupied Britain south of Caledonia.[15][16][17]
The earliest known name for Great Britain is Albion (Greek: Ἀλβιών) or insula Albionum, from either the Latin albus meaning "white" (possibly referring to the white cliffs of Dover, the first view of Britain from the continent) or the "island of the Albiones".[18] The oldest mention of terms related to Great Britain was by Aristotle (384–322 BC), or possibly by Pseudo-Aristotle, in his text On the Universe, Vol. III. To quote his works, "There are two very large islands in it, called the British Isles, Albion and Ierne".[19]
Greek geographer, Pytheas of Massalia
The first known written use of the word Britain was an ancient Greek transliteration of the original Proto-Celtic term in a work on the travels and discoveries of Pytheas that has not survived. The earliest existing records of the word are quotations of the periplus by later authors, such as those within Strabo's Geographica, Pliny's Natural History and Diodorus of Sicily's Bibliotheca historica.[20] Pliny the Elder (AD 23–79) in his Natural History records of Great Britain: "Its former name was Albion; but at a later period, all the islands, of which we shall just now briefly make mention, were included under the name of 'Britanniæ.'"[21]
The name Britain descends from the Latin name for Britain, Britannia or Brittānia, the land of the Britons.[22] Old French Bretaigne (whence also Modern French Bretagne) and Middle English Bretayne, Breteyne. The French form replaced the Old English Breoton, Breoten, Bryten, Breten (also Breoton-lond, Breten-lond). Britannia was used by the Romans from the 1st century BC for the British Isles taken together. It is derived from the travel writings of Pytheas around 320 BC, which described various islands in the North Atlantic as far north as Thule (probably Norway).
On 20 October 1604 King James, who had succeeded separately to the two thrones of England and Scotland, proclaimed himself "King of Great Brittaine, France, and Ireland".[51] When James died in 1625 and the Privy Council of England was drafting the proclamation of the new king, Charles I, a Scottish peer, Thomas Erskine, 1st Earl of Kellie, succeeded in insisting that it use the phrase "King of Great Britain", which James had preferred, rather than King of Scotland and England (or vice versa).[52] While that title was also used by some of James's successors, England and Scotland each remained legally separate countries, each with its own parliament, until 1707, when each parliament passed an Act of Union to ratify the Treaty of Union that had been agreed the previous year. This created a single kingdom with one parliament with effect from 1 May 1707. The Treaty of Union specified the name of the new all-island state as "Great Britain", while describing it as "One Kingdom" and "the United Kingdom". To most historians, therefore, the all-island state that existed between 1707 and 1800 is either "Great Britain" or the "Kingdom of Great Britain".
Geography
Further information: Geography of England, Geography of Scotland, and Geography of Wales
See also: Geography of the United Kingdom
Largest urban areas
See also: List of urban areas in the United Kingdom
Rank City-region Built-up area[84] Population
(2011 Census) Area
(km2) Density
(people/km2)
1 London Greater London 9,787,426 1,737.9 5,630
2 Manchester–Salford Greater Manchester 2,553,379 630.3 4,051
3 Birmingham–Wolverhampton West Midlands 2,440,986 598.9 4,076
4 Leeds–Bradford West Yorkshire 1,777,934 487.8 3,645
5 Glasgow Greater Glasgow 1,209,143 368.5 3,390
6 Liverpool Liverpool 864,122 199.6 4,329
7 Southampton–Portsmouth South Hampshire 855,569 192.0 4,455
8 Newcastle upon Tyne–Sunderland Tyneside 774,891 180.5 4,292
9 Nottingham Nottingham 729,977 176.4 4,139
10 Sheffield Sheffield 685,368 167.5 4,092
The British Isles
200 major towns and cities in the British Isles
Video links
Pathe travelogue, 1960, Journey through Britain Archived 4 November 2011 at the Wayback Machine
Pathe newsreel, 1960, Know the British Archived 4 November 2011 at the Wayback Machine
Pathe newsreel, 1950, Festival of Britain Archived 5 November 2011 at the Wayback Machine
vte
British Isles
NamesTerminology AlbaAlbionCymruPrydainBritainÉireHibernia
Politics
Sovereign states
IrelandUnited Kingdom (EnglandNorthern IrelandScotlandWales)
Crown Dependencies
Bailiwick of GuernseyJerseyIsle of Man
Political cooperation
Ireland–United Kingdom relationsBritish–Irish CouncilBritish–Irish Intergovernmental ConferenceBritish–Irish Parliamentary AssemblyCommon Travel Area
Geography
Island groups
Channel IslandsIslands of the ClydeGreat BritainHebrides InnerOuterIrelandIsle of ManNorthern Isles OrkneyShetlandIsles of Scilly
Lists of islands of
Bailiwick of GuernseyIrelandBailiwick of JerseyIsle of ManUnited Kingdom EnglandScotlandWales
History
(outline)
Island groups
Ireland
Current states
IrelandUnited Kingdom EnglandNorthern IrelandScotlandWalesGuernseyJerseyIsle of Man
Former states
Irish Free StateKingdom of England Principality of WalesKingdom of Great BritainKingdom of IrelandKingdom of ScotlandUnited Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
Society
Modern languages
Germanic
EnglishScots
Celtic
CornishScottish GaelicIrishManxWelsh
Romance
AuregnaisFrenchGuernésiaisJèrriaisSercquiais
Other
British Sign LanguageIrish Sign LanguageNorthern Ireland Sign LanguageShelta
People
BritishCornishEnglishEnglish GypsiesIrishIrish TravellersKaleManxNorthern IrishScottishUlster-ScotsWelsh
vte
United Kingdom articles
History
Chronology
FormationGeorgian eraVictorian eraEdwardian eraFirst World WarInterwarSecond World War civilianmilitaryPostwar politicalsocialSince 1979 politicalsocial
By topic
EconomicEmpireForeign relations 1814–1919Law enforcementMaritimeMass surveillanceMilitaryTaxationWomen's history
Geography
Administrative
Counties of the United KingdomCountries of the United KingdomCrown DependenciesOverseas territoriesCity statusTownsFormer colonies
Physical
British Isles terminologyGreat BritainClimate changeCoastlineGeologyLakes and lochsMountainsRiversVolcanoes
Resources
AgricultureEnergy biodieselcoalgeothermalhydraulic frac.hydroelectricitymarineNorth Sea oilRenewable energysolarwindFishing EnglishScottishWelshHuntingMaterials forestryminingWildlife faunaflora
Politics
ConstitutionCorruptionDevolutionElections By-electionsForeign relationsHuman rights LGBTJudiciaryLawLaw enforcementLocal governmentMonarchy monarchsrepublicanismNationalityParliament House of CommonsHouse of LordsPolitical partiesFemale party leadersPolitical scandalsShadow Cabinet
Government
Cabinet listCivil serviceDepartmentsMinisters listPrime Minister list
Military
His Majesty's Naval ServiceBritish ArmyRoyal Air ForceWeapons of mass destruction
Economy
Banks Bank of EnglandBudgetEconomic geographyFree trade agreementsIncomeManufacturingPound sterling (currency)Science and technologyStock exchanges (London Exchange)TaxationTelecommunicationsTourism
Transport
Air transportBus transportDrivingRoadsRail transport
Society
CannabisCrimeDemographyDrug policyEducationEnvironmental inequalityEnvironmental issuesEthnic groupsHealthHomelessness EnglandScotlandHousingHungerImmigrationInnovationLanguagesLife expectancyMental healthPovertyProstitutionPublic holidaysRacismSocial careSocial classSuicideUniversal basic income (UBI)Water supply and sanitationWasteWelfare state
Culture
ArtAnthemCinemaCuisine WineIdentityLiteratureMediaMusicReligionSportSymbolsTheatreStereotypes of the BritishWorld Heritage SitesAnglosphere
Countries of the United Kingdom
OutlineIndex
CategoryPortal
vte
World's largest islands
100,000 km2
(38,610 sq mi) and greater
GreenlandNew GuineaBorneoMadagascarBaffin IslandSumatraHonshuVictoria Island (Canada)Great BritainEllesmere IslandSulawesiSouth IslandJavaNorth IslandLuzonNewfoundlandCubaIceland
icon Islands portal
20,000–99,999 km2
(7,722–38,610 sq mi)
MindanaoIrelandHokkaidoHispaniolaSakhalinBanks IslandSri LankaTasmaniaDevon IslandAlexander IslandSeverny IslandIsla Grande de Tierra del FuegoAxel Heiberg IslandMelville IslandSouthampton IslandMarajóSpitsbergenKyushuTaiwanNew BritainPrince of Wales IslandYuzhny IslandHainanVancouver IslandTimorSicilySomerset IslandKotelny IslandSardiniaBananal
Authority control databases Edit this at Wikidata
International
WorldCat
Other
NARAIdRef
Categories: Great BritainBritish IslesMetropolitan or continental parts of states
Who is Britannia?
Everyone knows that she 'rules the waves', she is on the 50p and £2 coins we use every day, and there was a time in the 1990s when she really was cool, but who is Britannia?
Armed with a trident and shield, and wearing a Corinthian helmet, Britannia is the embodiment of the United Kingdom in female form. The image of this woman has been used to symbolise British national pride, unity and strength for centuries. In older times, Britannia’s strength was particularly associated with British naval power.
As the song goes:
Rule Britannia!
Britannia rule the waves.
Britons never, never, never shall be slaves.
Britannia costume at the Hastings bonfire procession.
Britannia is established in popular culture, as depicted here at the Hastings annual Bonfire procession.
The birth of Britannia
Britannia is typically associated with Queen Boudica or Boadicea; the Celtic Iceni ruler who led a revolt against the rule of the Roman empire. The symbolic figure of Britannia actually predates Boadicea however, to the time when the Romans first occupied land in the British Isles.
The icon was imported into Great Britain with the Roman conquest, and is based on the Roman goddess Minerva; the sponsor of arts, trade, strategy, and wisdom. Minerva was herself the Roman appropriation of the goddess Athena, with similarities seen between other deities such as the Egyptian Goddess of the Water, Bairthy.
Bronze Etruscan statue.
An Etruscan bronze statue of the Roman goddess Minerva, whom Britannia was based upon.
The name Britannia is derived from the Latin ‘Britannicae’ , which the Romans used in reference to the British Isles. This was in turn derived from the Greek form ‘Prettanike’ or ‘Brettaniai’ . The inhabitants were named ‘Britanni’ or ‘Britons’ . To this day ‘Prydain’ , from the Greek, is the Welsh translation of Britannia.
It was Emperor Julius Caesar who led the conquest of the British Isles. However, when the Emperor Claudius came to Britain he was portrayed as its conqueror. Following this, 'Britannicus' was added to his name.
As the overseas and furthest territory of the Roman Empire, it soon became identified with the goddess of warfare and water. Thus, the Roman goddess Minerva became Britannia, and the personification of the British Isles.
After the fall of the Roman Empire, England was invaded by the Anglo-Saxons. The original Celtic Britons withdrew to Scotland, Ireland, Wales, and Breton in France. They took with them the heritage of the iconic woman, which was for the time lost from England.
A map showing the changing perception of Britannia.
In the 16th and 17th century, under Queen Elizabeth I, England extended its naval power and successfully defeated a Spanish invasion. This, combined with a female monarch and growing national confidence, saw a return of Britannia as an image of the English nation's strength.
The Act of Union in 1707 united Scotland, England, Ireland and Wales. This gave further credence to the female imagery as an inclusive symbol of unity to the four nations.
The final assertion of Britannia as the symbol British power came in the reign of another female sovereign, Queen Victoria. The power of British industry and naval strength saw Britannia become the ultimate symbol of Victoria's growing British Empire.
Who is Britannia on coins?
After the Ancient Romans established the link between their far flung territories and the goddess, it became common to see Britannia on the Roman British coins. Britannia has therefore been a feature of British coins now for almost 2,000 years!
Roman coin showing Britannia on the reverse.
Roman Siliqua coin depicting Britannia on the reverse or tails.
In A.D. 122, following the expansion of Roman territory, Emperor Hadrian spent time in Britain. Coins were struck to commemorate his visit, including the bronze Sestertius and Siliqua, which featured an image and inscription of Britannia on the reverse. Further coins featuring Britannia were later minted under Antoninus Pius AD 138-160, in bronze and gold with the inscription IMPERATOR II BRITAN.
The female icon on coins departed with the Romans until reappearing 1672. In this year, Charles II chose to reintroduce Britannia onto his coinage. Britannia is depicted on Charles II's copper Halfpennies and Farthings, similar to the Roman coins. However, on these coins she also holds a shield bearing the Union flag in a more nationalist display.
A 1797 penny featuring Britannia sitting down.
A 1797 penny featuring Britannia, which because of its size was nicknamed the ‘Cartwheel penny’.
Since reintroduction, Britannia has continued to feature on various UK common currency coins. Most notably she featured on Farthings, Halfpenny and one Penny coins following the Great Recoinage of 1816. Today, following decimalisation in 1971, Britannia features on circulating 50p and £2 coins.
A 2015 £2 coin featuring a redesigned image of Britannia.
The 2015 common currency £2 coin featured a reworking of the classic image by Antony Dufort.
Gold Britannia coins
For many UK investors however, Britannia is best known as the flagship bullion coin of Britain. In 1987, to satisfy a growing demand for bullion coins from both coin collectors and investors, The Royal Mint introduced the gold Britannia coins. These contain one ounce of 24 carat gold (since 2013), and have a face value of £100. Along with the 22 carat Sovereign, they are the UK's leading bullion coins and the first choice of many investors.
As UK legal tender, gold coins such as the Britannia are exempt from Capital Gains Tax. Additionally, all investment gold in the UK and EU is VAT-free. This combines to make the gold coin an attractive financial safe haven investment. The 1987 Britannia proved a great success and The Royal Mint went on to strike half, quarter and tenth ounce coins. In 1997 The Royal Mint also added a silver Britannia coin, with a £2 face value, which has become the most popular silver coin for investment purposes.
Buying Gold Britannia coins
The design of the Britannia coin has remained largely the same, but there have been unique releases on occasion. BullionByPost sells gold Britannia bullion coins at low premiums including free, fully insured delivery. For those seeking the very lowest prices choose our best value mixed year coins; this will give you the best way to buy a Britannia. For coin collectors or numismatics, we also offer the exact year of Britannia plus other coins feature the iconic figure.
2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum
Article
Talk
Read
Edit
View history
Tools
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article's lead section may be too long. Please read the length guidelines and help move details into the article's body. (November 2023)
2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum
23 June 2016
Should the United Kingdom remain a member of the European Union or leave the European Union?
Results
Choice
Votes %
Leave 17,410,742 51.89%
Remain 16,141,241 48.11%
Valid votes 33,551,983 99.92%
Invalid or blank votes 25,359 0.08%
Total votes 33,577,342 100.00%
Registered voters/turnout 46,500,001 72.21%
Results by local voting area
Leave: 50–60% 60–70% 70-80%
Remain: 50–60% 60–70% 70-80% 90-100%
On the map, the darker shades for a colour indicate a larger margin. The electorate of 46.5m represents 70.8% of the population.
National and regional referendums
held within the United Kingdom
and its constituent countries
Northern Ireland border poll 1973
EC membership referendum 1975
Scottish devolution referendum 1979
Welsh devolution referendum 1979
Scottish devolution referendum 1997
Welsh devolution referendum 1997
Greater London Authority referendum 1998
NI Good Friday Agreement referendum 1998
NE England devolution referendum 2004
Welsh devolution referendum 2011
Alternative Vote referendum 2011
Scottish independence referendum 2014
EU membership referendum 2016
* UK-wide referendums in bold
vte
Part of a series of articles on
Brexit
Withdrawal of the United Kingdom from the European Union
Glossary of terms
Background
European Communities Act
1975 EC membership referendum
UK rebate
Bruges speech
No. No. No.
Maastricht Rebels
Black Wednesday
European Union (Amendment) Act 2008
European Union Act 2011
UK opt-outs from EU legislation
Euroscepticism in the UK
UK opinion polling on EU membership
Campaigns for a referendum
People's Pledge
Labour for a Referendum
Bloomberg speech
In or Out
2013–14 EU (Referendum) Bill (unsuccessful)
2014 European Parliament election
2014 UK Parliament by-elections
Clacton
Heywood and Middleton
Rochester and Strood
2015 UK general election
2015–16 EU membership renegotiation
2016 EU referendum
EU Referendum Act (Gibraltar)
EU Referendum (Date of Referendum etc.) Regulations
EU Referendum (Conduct) Regulations
Issues
Endorsements
Opinion polling
UK Government pro-EU leaflet
Campaigns
Leave campaigns
Vote Leave (official)
Business for Britain
Conservatives for Britain
BeLeave
Leave.EU
Bpoplive
The Freedom Association
Better Off Out
Grassroots Out
Labour Leave
Get Britain Out
Bruges Group
Campaign for an Independent Britain
Brexit: The Movie
Remain campaigns
Britain Stronger in Europe (official)
Labour In for Britain
European Movement UK
Britain in Europe
British Influence
Business for New Europe
Nucleus
Project Fear
Outcome
Results
Causes for result
International reactions
Immediate aftermath
2016 Conservative Party election
2016 Labour Party election
2016 UKIP election
Department for Exiting the EU
Department for International Trade
Allegations of unlawful campaigning
Alleged Russian interference
Notice of withdrawal
Article 50 process
Miller case (Article 50)
EU (Notification of Withdrawal) Act 2017
Brexit plan
Repeal Bill plan
2017 UK general election
Negotiations
Negotiation positions
EU negotiation mandate
Chequers agreement
Timeline: 2017, 2018, 2019
2019 European Parliament election
2019 UK general election
Withdrawal agreement
Brexit divorce bill
Fish for finance
Irish backstop
No-deal Brexit
Northern Ireland Protocol
Northern Ireland Protocol Bill
Windsor Framework
Legislation
Withdrawal Act 2018 (Gibraltar)
Nuclear Safeguards Act 2018
Cooper–Letwin Act
Benn Act
2019 suspension of rebel Conservative MPs
Public Vote Bill (not passed)
Terms of Withdrawal Bills (not passed)
Scottish EU Continuity Bill (blocked)
Withdrawal Agreement Act (Gibraltar)
Scottish EU Continuity Act
Internal Market Act
EU (Future Relationship) Act
Retained EU Law (Revocation and Reform) Bill
Impact
Impact on the Irish border
Good Friday Agreement
Impact on the EU
Economic effects
Effects on Gibraltar
Scientific cooperation
Retained EU law
2021 Jersey dispute
EU–UK relations
Relations pre- and post-Brexit
EU–UK trade negotiation
EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement (TCA)
Partnership Council
Partnership Assembly
Status of Gibraltar
Gibraltar–Spain border
Conjectured EEA membership
Opposition
Post-referendum opinion polling
New initiatives
Change Britain
More United
Open Britain
The New European
Unite to Remain
Led By Donkeys
Revoke Article 50 petition
Postcards from the 48%
Proposed second Scottish independence referendum
Calls for a second referendum
People's Vote
Britain for Europe
European Movement UK
For our Future's Sake
Healthier IN the EU
InFacts
Open Britain
Our Future Our Choice
Scientists for EU
Other organisations
Best for Britain
Bollocks to Brexit
Change UK
Liberal Democrats
Right to Vote
Timeline
Bloomberg speech Jan 2013
Referendum Bill blocked Jan 2014
European Parliament election May 2014
2015 general election May 2015
Renegotiation begins Jun 2015
Referendum Act passed Dec 2015
Renegotiation concluded Feb 2016
Referendum held Jun 2016
David Cameron resigns as PM Jul 2016
Theresa May becomes PM Jul 2016
Article 50 judgement Jan 2017
Brexit plan presented Feb 2017
Notification Act passed Mar 2017
Article 50 invoked Mar 2017
Repeal Bill plan presented Mar 2017
2017 general election Jun 2017
Brexit negotiations begin Jun 2017
Withdrawal Act passed Jun 2018
Chequers plan presented Jul 2018
Withdrawal agreement plan presented July 2018
Withdrawal agreement released Nov 2018
Scottish Continuity Bill blocked Dec 2018
Meaningful votes Jan–Mar 2019
Brexit delayed until 12 April Mar 2019
Cooper–Letwin Act passed Apr 2019
Brexit delayed until 31 October Apr 2019
European Parliament election May 2019
Theresa May resigns as PM Jul 2019
Boris Johnson becomes PM Jul 2019
Prorogation and annulment Aug–Sep 2019
Benn Act passed Sep 2019
Withdrawal agreement revised Oct 2019
Brexit delayed until 31 January Oct 2019
2019 general election Dec 2019
Agreement Act passed Jan 2020
UK leaves the European Union Jan 2020
Implementation period begins Jan 2020
UK–EU trade deal agreed Dec 2020
Future Relationship Act passed Dec 2020
Scottish Continuity Act passed Dec 2020
Implementation period ends Dec 2020
New EU–UK relationship begins Jan 2021
UK–EU trade deal ratified Apr 2021
Windsor Framework released Feb 2023
Windsor framework adopted Mar 2023
flag EU portal flag UK portal
vte
National and regional referendums
held within the United Kingdom
and its constituent countries
Northern Ireland border poll 1973
EC membership referendum 1975
Scottish devolution referendum 1979
Welsh devolution referendum 1979
Scottish devolution referendum 1997
Welsh devolution referendum 1997
Greater London Authority referendum 1998
NI Good Friday Agreement referendum 1998
NE England devolution referendum 2004
Welsh devolution referendum 2011
Alternative Vote referendum 2011
Scottish independence referendum 2014
EU membership referendum 2016
* UK-wide referendums in bold
vte
Part of a series of articles on
UK membership
of the European Union
(1973–2020)
Accession
1975 referendum
Treaty amendments
MEPs for UK constituencies
Officials and bodies
Issues and events
Withdrawal
flag EU portal flag UK portal
vte
Constitutional documents and events relevant to the status of the United Kingdom and its countries
List per year
vte
This article is part of a series on
Politics of the European Union
Accession negotiations suspended countries
Turkey Turkey
Applicant countries
Kosovo Kosovo
Special territories
Belgium–Germany relations
France–Germany relations
Germany–Netherlands relations
EU 3
Withdrawal from the European Union
Treaties and Declarations
Schuman Declaration (1950)
Treaty of Paris (1951)
Europe Declaration (1951)
Treaty of Rome (1957)
Euratom Treaty (1957)
Merger Treaty (1965)
Solemn Declaration (1983)
Single European Act (1986)
Maastricht Treaty (1992)
Treaty of Amsterdam (1997)
Treaty of Nice (2001)
Berlin Declaration (2007)
Treaty of Lisbon (2007)
Article 7
Article 50
Opt-outs
Treaties of accession
1972, 1979, 1985, 1994, 2003, 2005, 2011
Treaties of succession
1984, 2020
Other treaties
Schengen Agreement (1985)
European Economic Area Agreement (1992)
Abandoned treaties and agreements
European Constitution (2004)
UK membership renegotiation (2015–2016)
Executive institutions
European Council
President: Michel (ALDE)
Parties
List of meetings
European Commission
Von der Leyen Commission
President: Von der Leyen (EPP)
Vice Presidents
College of Commissioners
Civil Service
Secretary-General: Juhansone
Legislative institutions
Legislative procedure
Council of the EU
Presidency
Belgium Belgium
(January–June 2024)
Configurations
GAC FAC ECOFIN
Eurogroup AGRIFISH EPSCO COMPET TTE ENVI JHA EYC
Voting
Secretariat
Secretary-General: Thérèse Blanchet
Directorates-general
COREPER
European Parliament
(Members)
President: Metsola
Largest groups
EPP (Manfred Weber)
S&D (Iratxe García)
Member of the European Parliament
9th session (2019–2024)
Bureau
Vice Presidents
Quaestor
Conference
National parliaments
Judicial institutions
Court of Justice of the EU
European Court of Justice
Members
Advocates General
Rulings
General Court
Auditory institutions
European Court of Auditors
European Court of Auditors
Other auditory bodies
Internal Audit Service of the Commission
Committee on Budgetary Control of the Parliament
Economic and Financial Affairs configuration of the Council
Anti-Fraud Office
Public Prosecutor's Office
European Central Bank
President Lagarde
ESCB
EMU
Euro banknotes
Euro coins
Other bodies
European Investment Bank Group
Investment Bank
Investment Fund
EIB Institute
European Stability Mechanism
European Stability Mechanism
European University Institute
European University Institute
Unified Patent Court
Unified Patent Court
Agencies, decentralised independent bodies and joint undertakings
Decentralised agencies of the EU
Single market agencies
CFSP agencies
AFSC agencies
ESFS European Supervisory Authorities
SRM bodies
Executive agencies of the EU
Euratom agencies
Decentralised independent bodies of the EU
European Institute of Innovation and Technology
European Public Prosecutor's Office
Corporate bodies of the EU
European Data Protection Board
Authority for European Political Parties and European Political Foundations
Joint undertakings
of the EU
of the Euratom
Other independent bodies
European Data Protection Supervisor
European Ombudsman
Advisory bodies
European Committee of the Regions
European Economic and Social Committee
Political and Security Committee
European Union Military Committee
EU/ESA Space Council
Inter-institutional bodies
Publications Office of the European Union
European External Action Service
European Personnel Selection Office
Anti-Fraud Office
European Administrative School
Associated states
Switzerland
United Kingdom
Nuclear power in the European Union
Euratom since 1 January 2021
Economic and Monetary Union
Eurogroup
President
Republic of Ireland Paschal Donohoe
Other currencies in use
Bulgaria Bulgarian lev
Czech Republic Czech koruna
Denmark Danish krone
Hungary Hungarian forint
Poland Polish złoty
Romania Romanian leu
Sweden Swedish krona
ERM II
Enlargement of the eurozone
Non Euro countries relationship to Euro
Bulgaria Czechia Denmark Hungary Poland Sweden Romania
Eurozone since 2015
Prüm Convention
Schengen Information System
Visa Information System
Visa policy of the Schengen Area
Non-Schengen area EU member states
Bulgaria
Cyprus
Ireland (Opt-out)
Romania
Schengen Area from January 2023
European Economic Area
EEA Joint Committee
EEA National Identity cards
Microstates and the European Union
European Economic Area
Elections
1979, 1984, 1989, 1994
1999, 2004, 2009, 2014
2019 (last election)
European political parties
Constituencies
Referendums relating to the EU
Law
Acquis
Primacy (ECJ Case 6/64)
Subsidiarity
Regulation
Directive
Decision
Recommendation
Fundamental Rights
Policies and issues
Budget
Customs Union
Free Trade Agreements
European Single Market
Area of FS&J
Policies
Agricultural
Energy
Fisheries
Regional
Citizenship
Passports of the European Union
Identity
Pro-Europeanism
Euroscepticism
European banking union
European Banking Supervision
Single Resolution Mechanism
Capital Markets Union
European System of Financial Supervision
Integration
Supranationalism
United States of Europe
Multi-speed Europe
Enhanced co-op
Foreign relations
High Representative
Josep Borrell
Ext. Action Service
Foreign Policy
Defence Policy
Argentina–European Union relations
Armenia–European Union relations
Australia–European Union relations
Brazil–European Union relations
Canada–European Union relations
China–European Union relations
European Union–NATO relations
Georgia–European Union relations
Iceland–European Union relations
Kazakhstan–European Union relations
Japan–European Union relations
Mexico–European Union relations
Moldova–European Union relations
Norway–European Union relations
Russia–European Union relations
Switzerland–European Union relations
Turkey–European Union relations
Ukraine–European Union relations
United Kingdom–European Union relations (History)
Post-Brexit United Kingdom relations with the European Union
Brexit
United States–European Union relations
Common Travel Area (Ireland)
Microstates and the European Union
European Union and the United Nations
European Union Association Agreement
G7
G20
Defunct bodies
European Communities (1958–1993)
European Coal and Steel Community
European Economic Community
European Community
Western European Union
Convention on the Future of Europe
flag European Union portal
Other countries
vte
On 23 June 2016, a referendum, commonly referred to as the EU referendum or the Brexit referendum, took place in the United Kingdom (UK) and Gibraltar to ask the electorate whether the country should remain a member of, or leave, the European Union (EU). The referendum resulted in 51.9% of the votes cast being in favour of leaving the EU, triggering calls to begin the process of the country's withdrawal from the EU commonly termed "Brexit".
Since 1 January 1973 the United Kingdom had been a member state of the EU and its predecessor the European Economic Community, along with other international bodies. Since joining, the constitutional implications for the UK had been a topic of debate domestically. A referendum on continued membership of the Communities to try and settle the issue was held in 1975, with 67.2% of the votes cast in favour of the UK remaining a member.[1] Between 1975 and 2016 as European integration deepened, subsequent EC/EU treaties and agreements were ratified by the UK Parliament.
Following the surprise Conservative Party victory at the 2015 general election as a main manifesto pledge, the legal basis for the EU referendum was established through the European Union Referendum Act 2015. Prime minister David Cameron also oversaw a renegotiation of the terms of EU membership, intending to implement these changes in the event of a Remain result. The referendum was legally non-binding due to the ancient principle of parliamentary sovereignty, although the government promised to implement the result.[2]
Campaigning officially took place between 15 April and 23 June 2016.- The official group for remaining in the EU was Britain Stronger in Europe while Vote Leave was the official group endorsing leaving.[3] Other campaign groups, political parties, businesses, trade unions, newspapers and prominent individuals were also involved, with both sides having supporters from across the political spectrum. Parties in favour of 'remain' included Labour, the Liberal Democrats, the Scottish National Party (SNP), Plaid Cymru and the Green Party;[4][5][6][7] while the UK Independence Party (UKIP) campaigned in favour of leaving the European Union;[8] and the Conservative Party remained neutral.[9] In spite of the official positions of the Conservative Party and Labour, both parties allowed their MPs to publicly campaign for either side of the issue.[10][11] Issues during campaigning included the costs and benefits of membership for the UK's economy, freedom of movement and migration. Several allegations of unlawful campaigning and Russian interference arose during and after the referendum.
The results were that most areas of the UK had a majority for Leave, with the exception of Scotland, Northern Ireland, Greater London and Gibraltar, where the majority of voters chose Remain. Voter preference correlated with age, level of education and socioeconomic factors. The causes and reasoning of the Leave result have been the subject of analysis and commentary.
Immediately after the result, financial markets reacted negatively worldwide and Cameron announced that he would resign as Prime Minister and Leader of the Conservative Party. Cameron was succeeded by Theresa May on 13 July 2016. The referendum prompted a wide array of reactions internationally. Labour leader Jeremy Corbyn also faced a leadership challenge as a result of the EU referendum. On 29 March 2017, the United Kingdom gave formal notice of intent to withdraw from the EU, with the withdrawal being formalised on 31 January 2020.
Background
Further information: Accession of the United Kingdom to the European Communities, European Communities Act 1972 (UK), and European Union Act 2011
The European Communities were formed in the 1950s – the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) in 1952, and the European Atomic Energy Community (EAEC or Euratom) and European Economic Community (EEC) in 1957.[12] The EEC, the more ambitious of the three, came to be known as the "Common Market". The UK first applied to join them in 1961, but this was vetoed by France.[12] A later application was successful, and the UK joined in 1973; two years later, the first ever national referendum on continuing EC membership resulted in 67.2% voting “Yes” in favour of continued membership, on a 64.6% national turnout.[12] However no further referendums on the issue of the United Kingdom’s relationship with Europe were held and successive British governments integrated further into the European project which gained focus when the Maastricht Treaty established the European Union (EU) in 1993, which incorporated (and after the Lisbon Treaty, succeeded) the European Communities.[12][13]
Growing pressure for a referendum
See also: European Union Act 2011 and 2015 United Kingdom general election
Should the United Kingdom remain a member of the European Union or leave the European Union?
with the responses to the question (to be marked with a single (X)):
Remain a member of the European Union
Leave the European Union
and in Welsh:
A ddylai'r Deyrnas Unedig aros yn aelod o'r Undeb Ewropeaidd neu adael yr Undeb Ewropeaidd?
with the responses (to be marked with a single (X)):
Aros yn aelod o'r Undeb Ewropeaidd
Gadael yr Undeb Ewropeaidd
Administration
Date
Prior to being officially announced, it was widely speculated that a June date for the referendum was a serious possibility. The First Ministers of Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales co-signed a letter to Cameron on 3 February 2016 asking him not to hold the referendum in June, as devolved elections were scheduled to take place the previous month on 5 May. These elections had been postponed for a year to avoid a clash with the 2015 general election, after Westminster had implemented the Fixed-term Parliament Act. Cameron refused this request, saying people were able to make up their own minds in multiple elections spaced at least six weeks from each other.[61] [62]
On 20 February 2016, Cameron announced that the UK Government would formally recommend to the British people that the UK should remain a member of a reformed European Union and that the referendum would be held on 23 June, marking the official launch of the campaign. He also announced that Parliament would enact secondary legislation on 22 February relating to the European Union Referendum Act 2015. With the official launch, ministers of the UK Government were then free to campaign on either side of the argument in a rare exception to Cabinet collective responsibility.[63]
Eligibility to vote
The right to vote in the referendum in the United Kingdom is defined by the legislation as limited to residents of the United Kingdom who were either also Commonwealth citizens under Section 37 of the British Nationality Act 1981 (which include British citizens and other British nationals), or those who were also citizens of the Republic of Ireland, or both. Members of the House of Lords, who could not vote in general elections, were able to vote in the referendum. The electorate of 46,500,001 represented 70.8% of the population of 65,678,000 (UK and Gibraltar).[64] Other than the residents of Gibraltar, British Overseas Territories Citizens residing in the British Overseas Territories were unable to vote in the referendum.[65][66]
Residents of the United Kingdom who were citizens of other EU countries were not allowed to vote unless they were citizens (or were also citizens) of the Republic of Ireland, of Malta, or of the Republic of Cyprus.[67]
Nottingham City Council emailed a Vote Leave supporter to say that the council was unable to check whether the nationality that people stated on their voting registration form was true, and hence that they simply had to assume that the information that was submitted was, indeed, correct.[72]
3,462 EU nationals were wrongly sent postal voting cards, due to an IT issue experienced by Xpress, an electoral software supplier to a number of councils. Xpress was initially unable to confirm the exact number of those affected. The matter was resolved by the issuance of a software patch which rendered the wrongly recorded electors ineligible to vote on 23 June.[72]
Crown Dependencies
Residents of the Crown Dependencies (which are not part of the United Kingdom), namely the Isle of Man and the Bailiwicks of Jersey and Guernsey, even if they were British citizens, were excluded from the referendum unless they were also previous residents of the United Kingdom (that is: England and Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland).[73]
Some residents of the Isle of Man protested that they, as full British citizens under the British Nationality Act 1981 and living within the British Islands, should also have been given the opportunity to vote in the referendum, as the Isle and the Bailiwicks, although not included as if they were part of the United Kingdom for the purpose of European Union (and European Economic Area (EEA)) membership (as is the case with Gibraltar), would also have been significantly affected by the outcome and impact of the referendum.[73]
Campaign
Main article: Campaigning in the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum
See also: Causes of the vote in favour of Brexit
Britain Stronger in Europe campaigners, London, June 2016
Referendum posters for both the Leave and Remain campaigns in Pimlico, London
Remain campaign "I'm in" sticker
In October 2015, Britain Stronger in Europe, a cross-party group campaigning for Britain to remain a member of the EU, was formed.[74] There were two rival groups promoting British withdrawal from the EU that sought to become the official Leave campaign: Leave.EU (which was endorsed by most of UKIP, including Nigel Farage), and Vote Leave (endorsed by Conservative Party Eurosceptics). In January 2016, Nigel Farage and the Leave.EU campaign became part of the Grassroots Out movement, which was borne out of infighting between Vote Leave and Leave.EU campaigners.[75][76] In April, the Electoral Commission announced that Britain Stronger in Europe and Vote Leave were to be designated as the official remain and leave campaigns respectively.[77] This gave them the right to spend up to £7,000,000, a free mailshot, TV broadcasts and £600,000 in public funds. The UK Government's official position was to support the Remain campaign. Nevertheless, Cameron announced that Conservative Ministers and MPs were free to campaign in favour of remaining in the EU or leaving it, according to their conscience. This decision came after mounting pressure for a free vote for ministers.[78] In an exception to the usual rule of cabinet collective responsibility, Cameron allowed cabinet ministers to campaign publicly for EU withdrawal.[79] A Government-backed campaign was launched in April.[80] On 16 June, all official national campaigning was suspended until 19 June following the murder of Jo Cox.[81]
After internal polls suggested that 85% of the UK population wanted more information about the referendum from the government, a leaflet was sent to every household in the UK.[82] It contained details about why the government believed the UK should remain in the EU. This leaflet was criticised by those wanting to leave as giving the remain side an unfair advantage; it was also described as being inaccurate and a waste of taxpayers' money (it cost £9.3m in total).[83]
In the week beginning on 16 May, the Electoral Commission sent a voting guide regarding the referendum to every household within the UK and Gibraltar to raise awareness of the upcoming referendum. The eight-page guide contained details on how to vote, as well as a sample of the actual ballot paper, and a whole page each was given to the campaign groups Britain Stronger in Europe and Vote Leave to present their case.[84][85]
The Vote Leave campaign argued that if the UK left the EU, national sovereignty would be protected, immigration controls could be imposed, and the UK would be able to sign trade deals with the rest of the world. The UK would also be able to stop membership payments to the EU every week.[86][note 1] The Britain Stronger in Europe campaign argued that leaving the European Union would damage the UK economy, and that the status of the UK as a world influence was hinged upon its membership.[89]
Responses to the referendum campaign
Party policies
In the run up to the referendum, of the 650 MPs elected to the 2015-17 UK Parliament a total of 479 MPs publicly declared their intention to vote in favour of remaining in the European Union compared with just 158 MPs who declared their intention to vote in favour of leaving the European Union.
Leave
Remain
The tables list political parties with representation in the House of Commons or the House of Lords, the European Parliament, the Scottish Parliament, the Northern Ireland Assembly, the Welsh Parliament, or the Gibraltar Parliament at the time of the referendum.
Great Britain
Position Political parties Ref
Remain Green Party of England and Wales [90]
Labour Party [91][92]
Liberal Democrats [93]
Plaid Cymru – The Party of Wales [94]
Scottish Greens [95]
Scottish National Party (SNP) [96][97]
Leave UK Independence Party (UKIP) [98]
Neutral Conservative Party [99]
Northern Ireland
Position Political parties Ref
Remain Alliance Party of Northern Ireland [100][101]
Green Party Northern Ireland [102]
Sinn Féin [103]
Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP) [104]
Ulster Unionist Party (UUP) [105]
Leave Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) [106][107]
People Before Profit (PBP) [108]
Traditional Unionist Voice (TUV) [109]
Gibraltar
Position Political parties Ref
Remain Gibraltar Social Democrats [110]
Gibraltar Socialist Labour Party [111]
Liberal Party of Gibraltar [111]
Minor parties
Among minor parties, the Socialist Labour Party, the Communist Party of Britain, Britain First,[112] the British National Party (BNP),[113] Éirígí [Ireland],[114] the Respect Party,[115] the Trade Unionist and Socialist Coalition (TUSC),[116] the Social Democratic Party,[117] the Liberal Party,[118] Independence from Europe,[119] and the Workers' Party [Ireland][120] supported leaving the EU.
The Scottish Socialist Party (SSP), Left Unity and Mebyon Kernow [Cornwall] supported remaining in the EU.[121][122][123]
The Socialist Party of Great Britain supported neither leave nor remain and the Women's Equality Party had no official position on the issue.[124][125][126][127]
Cabinet ministers
For the positions of backbench MPs and other politicians, see Endorsements in the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum.
Uncertainty over the referendum result, together with several other factors—US interest rates rising, low commodity prices, low Eurozone growth and concerns over emerging markets such as China—contributed to a high level of stock market volatility in January and February 2016.[citation needed] On 14 June, polls showing that a Brexit was more likely led to the FTSE 100 falling by 2%, losing £98 billion in value.[160][161] After further polls suggested a move back towards Remain, the pound and the FTSE recovered.[162]
On the day of the referendum, sterling hit a 2016 high of $1.5018 for £1 and the FTSE 100 also climbed to a 2016 high, as a new poll suggested a win for the Remain campaign.[163] Initial results suggested a vote for 'Remain' and the value of the pound held its value. However, when the result for Sunderland was announced, it indicated an unexpected swing to 'Leave'. Subsequent results appeared to confirm this swing and sterling fell in value to $1.3777, its lowest level since 1985. On the following Monday when the markets opened, £1 sterling fell to a new low of $1.32.[164]
Muhammad Ali Nasir and Jamie Morgan two British economists differentiated and reflected on the weakness of the Sterling due to the weak external position of the UK's economy and the further role played by the uncertainty surrounding Brexit[165] They reported that during the week of the referendum, up to the declaration of the result, exchange rate depreciation deviated from the long-run trend by approximately 3.5 per cent, but the actual immediate effect on the exchange rate was an 8 per cent depreciation. Furthermore, that over the period from the announcement of the referendum, the exchange rate fluctuated markedly around its trend and one can also identify a larger effect based on the "wrong-footing" of markets at the point when the outcome was announced.[165]
When the London Stock Exchange opened on the morning of 24 June, the FTSE 100 fell from 6338.10 to 5806.13 in the first ten minutes of trading. It recovered to 6091.27 after a further 90 minutes, before further recovering to 6162.97 by the end of the day's trading. When the markets reopened the following Monday, the FTSE 100 showed a steady decline losing over 2% by mid-afternoon.[166] Upon opening later on the Friday after the referendum, the US Dow Jones Industrial Average dropped nearly 450 points or about 2½% in less than half an hour. The Associated Press called the sudden worldwide stock market decline a stock market crash.[167] Investors in worldwide stock markets lost more than the equivalent of US$2 trillion on 24 June 2016, making it the worst single-day loss in history, in absolute terms.[168] The market losses amounted to US$3 trillion by 27 June.[169] Sterling fell to a 31-year low against the US dollar.[170] The UK's and the EU's sovereign debt credit ratings were also lowered to AA by Standard & Poor's.[171][172]
By mid-afternoon on 27 June 2016, sterling was at a 31-year low, having fallen 11% in two trading days, and the FTSE 100 had surrendered £85 billion;[173] however, by 29 June it had recovered all its losses since the markets closed on polling day and the value of the pound had begun to rise.[174][175]
European responses
The referendum was generally well-accepted by the European far right.[176] Marine Le Pen, the leader of the French Front national, described the possibility of a Brexit as "like the fall of the Berlin Wall" and commented that "Brexit would be marvellous – extraordinary – for all European peoples who long for freedom".[177] A poll in France in April 2016 showed that 59% of the French people were in favour of Britain remaining in the EU.[178] Dutch politician Geert Wilders, leader of the Party for Freedom, said that the Netherlands should follow Britain's example: "Like in the 1940s, once again Britain could help liberate Europe from another totalitarian monster, this time called 'Brussels'. Again, we could be saved by the British."[179]
A June 2016 survey of British fishermen found that 92% intended to vote to leave the EU.[231] The EU's Common Fisheries Policy was mentioned as a central reason for their near-unanimity.[231] More than three-quarters believed that they would be able to land more fish, and 93% stated that leaving the EU would benefit the fishing industry.[232]
Historians
In May 2016, more than 300 historians wrote in a joint letter to The Guardian that Britain could play a bigger role in the world as part of the EU. They said: "As historians of Britain and of Europe, we believe that Britain has had in the past, and will have in the future, an irreplaceable role to play in Europe."[233] On the other hand, many historians argued in favour of leaving, seeing it as a return to self-sovereignty.[234][235]
Exit plan competition
Following David Cameron's announcement of an EU referendum, in July 2013 the Institute of Economic Affairs (IEA) announced the "Brexit Prize", a competition to find the best plan for a UK exit from the European Union, and declared that a departure was a "real possibility" following the 2015 general election.[236] Iain Mansfield, a Cambridge graduate and UKTI diplomat, submitted the winning thesis: A Blueprint for Britain: Openness not Isolation.[237] Mansfield's submission focused on addressing both trade and regulatory issues with EU member states as well as other global trading partners.[238][239]
Opinion polling
Main article: Opinion polling for the United Kingdom European Union membership referendum
Opinion polling on the referendum
Opinion polls from 2010 onwards suggested the British public were relatively evenly divided on the question, with opposition to EU membership peaking in November 2012 at 56% compared with 30% who prefer to remain in,[240] while in June 2015 those in favour of Britain remaining in the EU reached 43% versus those opposed 36%.[241] The largest ever poll (of 20,000 people, in March 2014) showed the public evenly split on the issue, with 41% in favour of withdrawal, 41% in favour of membership, and 18% undecided.[242] However, when asked how they would vote if Britain renegotiated the terms of its membership of the EU, and the UK Government stated that British interests had been satisfactorily protected, more than 50% indicated that they would vote for Britain to stay in.[243]
Analysis of polling suggested that young voters tended to support remaining in the EU, whereas those older tend to support leaving, but there was no gender split in attitudes.[244][245] In February 2016 YouGov also found that euroscepticism correlated with people of lower income and that "higher social grades are more clearly in favour of remaining in the EU", but noted that euroscepticism also had strongholds in "the more wealthy, Tory shires".[246] Scotland, Wales and many English urban areas with large student populations were more pro-EU.[246] Big business was broadly behind remaining in the EU, though the situation among smaller companies was less clear-cut.[247] In polls of economists, lawyers, and scientists, clear majorities saw the UK's membership of the EU as beneficial.[248][249][250][251][252] On the day of the referendum, the bookmaker Ladbrokes offered odds of 6/1 against the UK leaving the EU.[253] Meanwhile, spread betting firm Spreadex offered a Leave Vote Share spread of 45–46, a Remain Vote Share spread of 53.5-54.5, and a Remain Binary Index spread of 80–84.7, where victory for Remain would makeup to 100 and a defeat 0.[254]
On the day YouGov poll
Remain Leave Undecided Lead Sample Conducted by
52% 48% N/A 4% 4,772 YouGov
Shortly after the polls closed at 10 pm on 23 June, the British polling company YouGov released a poll conducted among almost 5,000 people on the day; it suggested a narrow lead for "Remain", which polled 52% with Leave polling 48%. It was later criticised for overestimating the margin of the "Remain" vote,[255] when it became clear a few hours later that the UK had voted 51.9% to 48.1% in favour of leaving the European Union.
Issues
Main article: Issues in the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum
The number of jobs lost or gained by a withdrawal was a dominant issue; the BBC's outline of issues warned that a precise figure was difficult to find. The Leave campaign argued that a reduction in red tape associated with EU regulations would create more jobs and that small to medium-sized companies who trade domestically would be the biggest beneficiaries. Those arguing to remain in the EU, claimed that millions of jobs would be lost. The EU's importance as a trading partner and the outcome of its trade status if it left was a disputed issue. Whereas those wanting to stay cited that most of the UK's trade was made with the EU, those arguing to leave say that its trade was not as important as it used to be. Scenarios of the economic outlook for the country if it left the EU were generally negative. The United Kingdom also paid more into the EU budget than it received.[256]
Boris Johnson played a key role in the Vote Leave campaign.
Citizens of EU countries, including the United Kingdom, have the right to travel, live and work within other EU countries, as free movement is one of the four founding principles of the EU.[257] Campaigners for remaining said that EU immigration had positive impacts on the UK's economy, citing that the country's growth forecasts were partly based upon continued high levels of net immigration.[256] The Office for Budget Responsibility also claimed that taxes from immigrants boost public funding.[256] A recent[when?] academic paper suggests that migration from Eastern Europe put pressure on wage growth at the lower end of the wage distribution, while at the same time increasing pressures on public services and housing.[258] The Leave campaign believed reduced immigration would ease pressure in public services such as schools and hospitals, as well as giving British workers more jobs and higher wages.[256] According to official Office for National Statistics data, net migration in 2015 was 333,000, which was the second highest level on record, far above David Cameron's target of tens of thousands.[259][260] Net migration from the EU was 184,000.[260] The figures also showed that 77,000 EU migrants who came to Britain were looking for work.[259][260]
After the announcement had been made as to the outcome of the referendum, Rowena Mason, political correspondent for The Guardian offered the following assessment: "Polling suggests discontent with the scale of migration to the UK has been the biggest factor pushing Britons to vote out, with the contest turning into a referendum on whether people are happy to accept free movement in return for free trade."[261] A columnist for The Times, Philip Collins, went a step further in his analysis: "This was a referendum about immigration disguised as a referendum about the European Union."[262]
The following table shows the breakdown of the voting areas and regional counts that were used for the referendum.[291]
Country Counts and voting areas
United Kingdom
(together with Gibraltar, treated as if it were a [full] part of the United Kingdom) Referendum declaration;
12 regional counts;
382 voting areas (381 in the UK, 1 in Gibraltar)
Constituent countries Counts and voting areas
England
(together with Gibraltar, treated as if it were a part of South West England) 9 regional counts;
327 voting areas (326 in the UK, 1 in Gibraltar)
Northern Ireland National count and single voting area;
18 parliamentary constituency totals
Scotland National count;
32 voting areas
Wales National count;
22 voting areas
Disturbances
On 16 June 2016, a pro-EU Labour MP, Jo Cox, was shot and killed in Birstall, West Yorkshire the week before the referendum by a man calling out "death to traitors, freedom for Britain", and a man who intervened was injured.[292] The two rival official campaigns agreed to suspend their activities as a mark of respect to Cox.[81] After the referendum, evidence emerged that Leave.EU had continued to put out advertising the day after Jo Cox's murder.[293][294] David Cameron cancelled a planned rally in Gibraltar supporting British EU membership.[295] Campaigning resumed on 19 June.[296][297] Polling officials in the Yorkshire and Humber region also halted counting of the referendum ballots on the evening of 23 June to observe a minute of silence.[298] The Conservative Party, Liberal Democrats, UK Independence Party and the Green Party all announced that they would not contest the ensuing by-election in Cox's constituency as a mark of respect.[299]
On polling day itself two polling stations in Kingston upon Thames were flooded by rain and had to be relocated.[300] In advance of polling day, concern had been expressed that the courtesy pencils provided in polling booths could allow votes to be later altered. Although this was widely dismissed as a conspiracy theory (see: Voting pencil conspiracy theory), some Leave campaigners advocated that voters should instead use pens to mark their ballot papers. On polling day in Winchester an emergency call was made to police about "threatening behaviour" outside the polling station. After questioning a woman who had been offering to lend her pen to voters, the police decided that no offence was being committed.[301]
Result
Main article: Results of the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum
Of the 382 voting areas in the United Kingdom and Gibraltar a total of 270 returned majority votes in favour of "Leave" whereas 129 returned majority votes in favour of "Remain" in the referendum including all 32 areas in Scotland.
Leave
Remain
The final result was announced on Friday 24 June 2016 at 07:20 BST by then-Electoral Commission Chairwoman Jenny Watson at Manchester Town Hall after all 382 voting areas and the twelve UK regions had declared their totals. With a national turnout of 72% across the United Kingdom and Gibraltar (representing 33,577,342 people), at least 16,788,672 votes were required to win a majority. The electorate voted to "Leave the European Union", with a majority of 1,269,501 votes (3.8%) over those who voted "Remain a member of the European Union".[302] The national turnout of 72% was the highest ever for a UK-wide referendum, and the highest for any national vote since the 1992 general election.[303][304][305][306] Roughly 38% of the UK population voted to leave the EU and roughly 35% voted to remain.[307]
2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum Choice Votes %
Leave the European Union 17,410,742 51.89
Remain a member of the European Union 16,141,241 48.11
Valid votes 33,551,983 99.92
Invalid or blank votes 25,359 0.08
Total votes 33,577,342 100.00
Registered voters/turnout 46,500,001 72.21
Source: Electoral Commission[308]
National referendum results (excluding invalid votes)
Leave
17,410,742 (51.9%) Remain
16,141,241 (48.1%)
▲
50%
Regional count results
Region Electorate Voter turnout,
of eligible Votes Proportion of votes Invalid votes
Remain Leave Remain Leave
East Midlands 3,384,299 74.2% 1,033,036 1,475,479 41.18% 58.82% 1,981
East of England 4,398,796 75.7% 1,448,616 1,880,367 43.52% 56.48% 2,329
Greater London 5,424,768 69.7% 2,263,519 1,513,232 59.93% 40.07% 4,453
North East England 1,934,341 69.3% 562,595 778,103 41.96% 58.04% 689
North West England 5,241,568 70.0% 1,699,020 1,966,925 46.35% 53.65% 2,682
Northern Ireland 1,260,955 62.7% 440,707 349,442 55.78% 44.22% 374
Scotland 3,987,112 67.2% 1,661,191 1,018,322 62.00% 38.00% 1,666
South East England 6,465,404 76.8% 2,391,718 2,567,965 48.22% 51.78% 3,427
South West England (inc Gibraltar) 4,138,134 76.7% 1,503,019 1,669,711 47.37% 52.63% 2,179
Wales 2,270,272 71.7% 772,347 854,572 47.47% 52.53% 1,135
West Midlands 4,116,572 72.0% 1,207,175 1,755,687 40.74% 59.26% 2,507
Yorkshire and the Humber 3,877,780 70.7% 1,158,298 1,580,937 42.29% 57.71% 1,937
Results by constituent countries & Gibraltar
Country Electorate Voter turnout,
of eligible Votes Proportion of votes Invalid votes
Remain Leave Remain Leave
England 38,981,662 73.0% 13,247,674 15,187,583 46.59% 53.41% 22,157
Gibraltar 24,119 83.7% 19,322 823 95.91% 4.08% 27
Northern Ireland 1,260,955 62.7% 440,707 349,442 55.78% 44.22% 384
Scotland 3,987,112 67.2% 1,661,191 1,018,322 62.00% 38.00% 1,666
Wales 2,270,272 71.7% 772,347 854,572 47.47% 52.53% 1,135
Voter demographics and trends
Further information: Causes of the vote in favour of Brexit
Voting figures from local referendum counts and ward-level data (using local demographic information collected in the 2011 census) suggests that Leave votes were strongly correlated with lower qualifications and higher age.[309][310][311][312] The data were obtained from about one in nine wards in England and Wales, with very little information from Scotland and none from Northern Ireland.[309] A YouGov survey reported similar findings; these are summarised in the charts below.[313][314]
Researchers based at the University of Warwick found that areas with "deprivation in terms of education, income and employment were more likely to vote Leave". The Leave vote tended to be greater in areas which had lower incomes and high unemployment, a strong tradition of manufacturing employment, and in which the population had fewer qualifications.[315] It also tended to be greater where there was a large flow of Eastern European migrants (mainly low-skilled workers) into areas with a large share of native low-skilled workers.[315] Those in lower social grades (especially the 'working class') were more likely to vote Leave, while those in higher social grades (especially the 'upper middle class') were more likely to vote Remain.[316]
On 5 September 2016, the polling company Ipsos MORI estimated the following percentage breakdown of votes in the referendum by different demographic group, as well as the percentage of turnout among registered voters in most of those demographic groups:[323]
The referendum was criticised for not granting people younger than 18 years of age a vote. Unlike in the 2014 Scottish independence referendum, the vote was not extended to 16- and 17-year-old citizens. Critics argued that these people would live with the consequences of the referendum for longer than those who were able to vote. Some supporters for the inclusion of these young citizens considered this exclusion a violation of democratic principles and a major shortcoming of the referendum.[324][325]
Increase of applications for passports of other EU countries
The referendum result also had an immediate impact on some other countries. The South African rand experienced its largest single-day decline since 2008, dropping over 8% against the United States dollar.[376][377] Other countries affected included Canada, whose stock exchange fell 1.70%,[378] Nigeria[377] and Kenya.[377]
On 28 June 2016, former governor of Bank of England Mervyn King said that current governor Mark Carney would help to guide Britain through the next few months, adding that the BOE would undoubtedly lower the temperature of the post-referendum uncertainty, and that British citizens should keep calm, wait and see.[379]
On 5 January 2017, Andy Haldane, chief economist and the executive director of monetary analysis and statistics at the Bank of England, admitted that the bank's forecasts (predicting an economic downturn should the referendum favour Brexit) had proved inaccurate given the subsequent strong market performance.[380] He stated that the bank's models "were rather narrow and fragile [and] ill-equipped to making sense of behaviours that were deeply irrational" and said that his "profession is to some degree in crisis" due to this and the unforeseen 2007–2008 crisis.[380][381]
Electoral Reform Society
In August 2016, the Electoral Reform Society published a highly critical report on the referendum and called for a review of how future events are run. Contrasting it very unfavourably with the 'well-informed grassroots' campaign for Scottish independence, Katie Ghose described it as "dire" with "glaring democratic deficiencies" which left voters bewildered. Ghose noted a generally negative response to establishment figures with 29% of voters saying David Cameron made them more likely to vote leave whereas only 14% said he made them want to vote remain. Looking ahead, the society called for an official organisation to highlight misleading claims and for Office of Communications (Ofcom) to define the role that broadcasters were expected to play.[382]
Television coverage
The BBC, ITV and Sky News all provided live coverage of the counts and the reaction to the result. The BBC's coverage, presented by David Dimbleby, Laura Kuenssberg and John Curtice, was simulcast domestically on BBC One and the BBC News Channel, and internationally on BBC World News. ITV's coverage was presented by Tom Bradby, Robert Peston and Allegra Stratton.
The BBC called the referendum result for Leave with its projected forecast at 04:40 BST on 24 June. David Dimbleby announced it with the words:
Well, at twenty minutes to five, we can now say the decision taken in 1975 by this country to join the Common Market has been reversed by this referendum to leave the EU. We are absolutely clear now that there is no way that the Remain side can win. It looks as if the gap is going to be something like 52 to 48, so a four-point lead for leaving the EU, and that is the result of this referendum, which has been preceded by weeks and months of argument and dispute and all the rest of it. The British people have spoken and the answer is: we're out!
(The remark about 1975 was technically incorrect; the UK had joined the Common Market in 1973 and the 1975 referendum was on whether to remain in it.)
Television coverage
Timeslot Programme Presenters Broadcaster
22:00–06:00 EU Referendum Live Tom Bradby, Robert Peston & Allegra Stratton ITV
06:00–09:30 Good Morning Britain Piers Morgan, Susanna Reid & Charlotte Hawkins
09:30–14:00 ITV News Alastair Stewart
18:00–19:00 ITV News Mark Austin, Robert Peston & Mary Nightingale
22:00–22:45 ITV News Tom Bradby, Robert Peston & Allegra Stratton
21:55–09:00 EU Referendum – The Result David Dimbleby, Laura Kuenssberg & John Curtice BBC
09:00–13:00 EU Referendum – The Reaction Sophie Raworth, Victoria Derbyshire & Norman Smith
13:00–13:45 BBC News at One Sophie Raworth
13:45–14:00 Regional news Various
Investigations into campaigns
Campaign spending
Main article: Allegations of unlawful campaigning in the 2016 EU referendum
A protest following the Cambridge Analytica allegations, 29 March 2018
On 9 May 2016, Leave.EU was fined £50,000 by the UK Information Commissioner's Office 'for failing to follow the rules about sending marketing messages': they sent people text messages without having first gained their permission to do so.[383][384]
In February 2017, the Electoral Commission announced that it was investigating the spending of Stronger in and Vote Leave, along with smaller parties, as they had not submitted all the necessary invoices, receipts, or details to back up their accounts.[385] In April 2017, the Commission specified that 'there were reasonable grounds to suspect that potential offences under the law may have occurred' in relation to Leave.EU.[386][387]
On 4 March 2017, the Information Commissioner's Office also reported that it was 'conducting a wide assessment of the data-protection risks arising from the use of data analytics, including for political purposes' in relation to the Brexit campaign. It was specified that among the organisations to be investigated was Cambridge Analytica and its relationship with the Leave.EU campaign.[388][387]
ICO report: Investigation into the use of data analytics in political campaigns
In May 2017, The Irish Times reported that £425,622 donated by the Constitutional Research Council to the Democratic Unionist Party for spending during the referendum may have originated in Saudi Arabia.[389]
In November 2017, the Electoral Commission said that it was investigating allegations that Arron Banks, an insurance businessman and the largest single financial supporter of Brexit, violated campaign spending laws.[390] The commission's investigation focuses on both Banks and Better for the Country Limited, a company of which Banks is a director and majority shareholder.[391] The company donated £2.4 million to groups supporting British withdrawal from the EU.[390] The investigation began after the Commission found "initial grounds to suspect breaches of electoral law".[392] The Commission specifically seeks to determine "whether or not Mr Banks was the true source of loans reported by a referendum campaigner in his name" and "whether or not Better for the Country Limited was the true source of donations made to referendum campaigners in its name, or if it was acting as an agent".[390]
In December 2017, the Electoral Commission announced several fines related to breaches of campaign finance rules during the referendum campaign.[393] The Liberal Democrats were fined £18,000 and Open Britain (formerly Britain Stronger in Europe) paid £1,250 in fines.[393] The maximum possible fine was £20,000.[393]
In March 2018, Deutsche Welle reported that Canadian whistleblower Christopher Wylie "told UK lawmakers during a committee hearing...that a firm linked to Cambridge Analytica helped the official Vote Leave campaign [the official pro-Brexit group headed by Boris Johnson and Michael Gove] circumvent campaign financing laws during the Brexit referendum".[394]
In May 2018, the Electoral Commission fined Leave.EU £70,000 for unlawfully overspending by a minimum of £77,380 – exceeding the statutory spending limit by more than 10%, inaccurately reporting three loans it had received from Aaron Banks totalling £6 million including "a lack of transparency and incorrect reporting around who provided the loans, the dates the loans were entered into, the repayment date and the interest rate", and failing to provide the required invoices for "97 payments of over £200, totalling £80,224". The Electoral Commission's director of political finance and regulation and legal counsel said that the "level of fine we have imposed has been constrained by the cap on the commission's fines".[395][396] In the same month, the Electoral Commission issued a £2,000 fine to the pro-EU campaign group Best for Our Future Limited; it also fined Unison £1,500 for inaccurately reporting a donation to Best for Our Future and failing to pay an invoice; and it fined GMB £500 for inaccurately reporting a donation to Best for Our Future.[397]
In July 2018, the Electoral Commission fined Vote Leave £61,000 for not declaring £675,000 incurred under a common plan with BeLeave, unlawfully overspending by £449,079, inaccurately reporting 43 items of spending totalling £236,501, failing to provide the required invoices for "8 payments of over £200, totalling £12,850", and failing to comply with an investigation notice issued by the commission. Darren Grimes representing BeLeave was fined £20,000, the maximum permitted individual fine, for exceeding its spending limit as an unregistered campaigner by more than £660,000 and delivering an inaccurate and incomplete spending return. Veterans for Britain was also fined £250 for inaccurately reporting a donation it received from Vote Leave.[398] The Electoral Commission referred the matter to the police. On 14 September 2018, following a High Court of Justice case, the court found that Vote Leave had received incorrect advice from the UK Electoral Commission, but confirmed that the overspending had been illegal. Vote Leave subsequently said they would not have paid it without the advice.[399][400]
In February 2019, the Digital, Culture, Media and Sport Select Committee's 18-month investigation into disinformation and fake news published its final report,[401] calling for and inquiry to establish, in relation to the referendum, "what actually happened with regard to foreign influence, disinformation, funding, voter manipulation, and the sharing of data, so that appropriate changes to the law can be made and lessons can be learnt for future elections and referenda".[402]
Speculation about Russian interference
Main article: Russian interference in the 2016 Brexit referendum
1982 Greenlandic European Communities membership referendum
Acts of Parliament of the United Kingdom relating to the European Communities and the European Union
Allegations of unlawful campaigning in the 2016 EU referendum
European Union (Withdrawal) (No. 2) Act 2019
Causes of the vote in favour of Brexit
Effect of Brexit on Gibraltar
European Union Bill 2004–2005
European Union law
European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018
European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2019 ("Cooper–Letwin Act")
Opinion polling on the United Kingdom's membership of the European Union (2016–2020)
Potential United Kingdom rejoining of the European Union
Proposed referendum on the Brexit withdrawal agreement
Referendums in the United Kingdom
Referendums related to the European Union
Treaty of Accession 1972
Withdrawal from the European Union
Notes
The figure widely circulated by the Vote Leave campaign that the UK sends the EU £350m a week was declared a "misuse of official statistics" by the UK Statistics authority.[87] This figure did not take into account the UK's budget rebate. Taking the rebate into account, the UK sent the EU £252m a week in 2016. Later, a private prosecution was launched against Boris Johnson for misconduct in public office; the case was thrown out.[88]
Kaminska, Izabella (8 October 2020). "ICO's final report into Cambridge Analytica invites regulatory questions". Financial Times. Retrieved 23 January 2023.
Brexit
Renegotiation Referendum
results Brexit negotiations Brexit withdrawal agreement
NI protocol Trade negotiation Trade and Cooperation Agreement Windsor Framework Timeline
Referendum question
"Should the United Kingdom remain a member of the European Union or leave the European Union?"
Referendum legislation
European Union Referendum Act 2015
Gibraltar European Union Referendum (Date of Referendum etc.) Regulations 2016 The European Union Referendum (Conduct) Regulations 2016
Background
Treaties
Rome 1972 Accession Treaty Single European Act Maastricht Amsterdam Nice European Constitution Lisbon United Kingdom opt-outs from EU legislation
Legislation
European Communities Act 1972
Amendments: 1986 1993 1998 2002 2008 2011 European Economic Area Act 1993
Proposed bills
European Union Bill 2004–05 European Communities Act 1972 (Repeal) Bills European Union (Referendum) Bill 2013–14
Elections
2014 European Parliament election 2015 general election
By-elections
2014 Clacton 2014 Heywood and Middleton 2014 Rochester and Strood
Other
UK accession 1973 EC enlargement UK membership 1975 EC membership referendum UK rebate Bruges speech No. No. No. Black Wednesday EEA Maastricht Rebels UK Opt-outs The European Union: In or Out Bloomberg speech Russian interference 2015–16 renegotiation Euroscepticism in the UK
Campaign
Issues Opinion polling Endorsements Project Fear Unlawful campaigning allegations Brexit: The Movie Pro-EU leaflet
Campaign
organisations
Remain
Britain Stronger in Europe (official campaign) Labour In for Britain
Leave
Vote Leave (official campaign) Leave.EU BeLeave Grassroots Out Labour Leave Campaign for an Independent Britain The Freedom Association
Better Off Out Get Britain Out Bruges Group
Aftermath of
referendum
Political party
leadership elections
Conservative
2016 2019 Scottish, Feb 2020 Labour UKIP
Opposition to Brexit
Proposed second referendum
People's Vote Petition to revoke Article 50 Led By Donkeys Bollocks to Brexit
Elections
2017 local 2017 general 2018 local 2019 local 2019 European Parliament
Brexit Party 2019 general
By-elections
2016 Witney 2016 Richmond Park 2016 Sleaford and North Hykeham 2017 Copeland 2017 Stoke-on-Trent Central 2019 Peterborough 2019 Brecon and Radnorshire
Other
International reactions March to Leave Brexit Alliance Blue Collar Conservativism Brexit Party Independent Alliance for Reform
Brexit process
Miller I case Invocation of Article 50 Negotiations
Brexit divorce bill 2017 2018 2019 Withdrawal agreement
Parliamentary votes No-deal Brexit
Operation Yellowhammer Prorogation of Parliament
Miller II / Cherry case Trade negotiation between the UK and the EU
Fish for finance EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement (TCA)
Impact of Brexit
and
potential effects
on Northern Ireland and
the Republic of Ireland
2024 Northern Ireland Executive formation Brexit and the Irish border Northern Ireland Protocol
proposed changes Irish Sea border Windsor Framework
Other
on Gibraltar on the EU Science and technology Economic effects Post-Brexit United Kingdom relations with the European Union
Brexit legislation
White papers
Brexit plan Repeal Bill plan Chequers plan Brexit withdrawal agreement plan
Enacted
Notification of Withdrawal Act 2017 Withdrawal Act 2018 (Gibraltar) Nuclear Safeguards Act 2018 Cooper–Letwin Act Benn Act Withdrawal Agreement Act 2020 (Gibraltar) Internal Market Act 2020 Future Relationship Act 2020 UK Withdrawal from the European Union (Continuity) (Scotland) Act 2020
Proposed
Terms of Withdrawal from EU (Referendum) Bills UK Withdrawal from the European Union (Legal Continuity) (Scotland) Bill 2018 European Union Withdrawal Agreement (Public Vote) Bill 2017–19
Related
Brexit 50p coin Change Britain Change UK Chaos with Ed Miliband European Research Group "Enemies of the People" Leave Means Leave Led By Donkeys More United Northern Future Forum The New European Open Britain Proposed second Scottish independence referendum Rue du Brexit Terminology (Glossary) Tufton Street United Ireland Voting pencil conspiracy theory Retained EU law
Media depictions
Remainiacs (2017) Postcards from the 48% (2018) Not Tonight (2018) Brexit: The Uncivil War (2019) @BorderIrish (2018–2020)
Category
Articles relating to the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum
vte
United Kingdom Elections and referendums in the United Kingdom
General elections
1801 1802 1806 1807 1812 1818 1820 1826 1830 1831 1832 1835 1837 1841 1847 1852 1857 1859 1865 1868 1874 1880 1885 1886 1892 1895 1900 1906 1910 (Jan) 1910 (Dec) 1918 1922 1923 1924 1929 1931 1935 1945 1950 1951 1955 1959 1964 1966 1970 1974 (Feb) 1974 (Oct) 1979 1983 1987 1992 1997 2001 2005 2010 2015 2017 2019 Next
Local elections
1889 1890 1892 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1919 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025
European elections
1979 1984 1989 1994 1999 2004 2009 2014 2019
Referendums
1975 2011 2016
vte
2015 United Kingdom general election
← 2010 election Constituencies Debates MPs elected MPs who stood down MPs who lost their seat MPs by seniority Endorsements Opinion polling Parties Target seats Results breakdown Results by constituency Seat gains and losses 2017 election →
Incumbent Prime Minister: David Cameron (Conservative) Appointed Prime Minister: David Cameron (Conservative)
Incumbent Deputy Prime Minister: Nick Clegg (Liberal Democrats) Appointed Deputy Prime Minister: None
Parties elected to
the House of Commons
Conservative (David Cameron) Labour (Ed Miliband) Scottish National Party (Nicola Sturgeon) Liberal Democrats (Nick Clegg) Democratic Unionist Party (Peter Robinson) Sinn Féin (Gerry Adams) Plaid Cymru (Leanne Wood) Social Democratic and Labour Party (Alasdair McDonnell) Ulster Unionist Party (Mike Nesbitt) UK Independence Party (Nigel Farage) Green Party of England and Wales (Natalie Bennett)
Parties only represented in Scotland,
Wales, Northern Ireland, London,
or the European Parliament
Green Party Northern Ireland (Steven Agnew) Scottish Greens (Patrick Harvie/Maggie Chapman) Traditional Unionist Voice (Jim Allister) Alliance Party of Northern Ireland (David Ford)
Other
Full list of parties standing candidates
Results by area
England (list) Northern Ireland (list) Scotland (list) Wales (list)
See also
EdStone Milifandom Party spending investigation Woman to Woman campaign Ballot Monkeys Meet the Ukippers UKIP: The First 100 Days The Vote
2015 United Kingdom local elections 2016 EU membership referendum
vte
2017 United Kingdom general election
← 2015 election Constituencies Debates MPs elected MPs who stood down MPs who lost their seat MPs by seniority Endorsements Opinion polling Parties Target seats Results breakdown Results by constituency 2019 election →
Incumbent Prime Minister: Theresa May (Conservative) Appointed Prime Minister: Theresa May (Conservative)
Parties elected to
the House of Commons
Conservative (Theresa May) Labour (Jeremy Corbyn) Scottish National Party (Nicola Sturgeon) Liberal Democrats (Tim Farron) Democratic Unionist Party (Arlene Foster) Sinn Féin (Gerry Adams) Plaid Cymru (Leanne Wood) Green Party of England and Wales (Caroline Lucas and Jonathan Bartley)
Parties only represented in Scotland,
Wales, Northern Ireland, London,
or the European Parliament
UK Independence Party (Paul Nuttall) Scottish Greens (Patrick Harvie/Maggie Chapman) Social Democratic and Labour Party (Colum Eastwood) Ulster Unionist Party (Robin Swann) Alliance Party of Northern Ireland (Naomi Long) Traditional Unionist Voice (Jim Allister) People Before Profit Alliance (Collective leadership)
Other
Full list of parties standing candidates Ettrick, Roxburgh and Berwickshire Scottish Parliament by-election (held on same day)
Results by area
England (list) Northern Ireland (list) Scotland (list) Wales (list)
2016 EU membership referendum 2017 United Kingdom local elections
vte
2019 United Kingdom general election
Early Parliamentary General Election Act 2019
← 2017 election Constituencies Debates MPs elected MPs who stood down MPs who lost their seat MPs by seniority Endorsements Opinion polling Parties Target seats Results breakdown Results by constituency next election →
Incumbent Prime Minister: Boris Johnson (Conservative) Appointed Prime Minister: Boris Johnson (Conservative)
Parties elected to
the House of Commons
Conservative (Campaign) - (Boris Johnson) Labour (Jeremy Corbyn) Scottish National Party (Nicola Sturgeon, Ian Blackford) Liberal Democrats (Jo Swinson) Democratic Unionist Party (Arlene Foster, Nigel Dodds) Sinn Féin (Michelle O'Neill) Plaid Cymru (Adam Price, Liz Saville Roberts) Social Democratic and Labour Party (Colum Eastwood) Green Party of England and Wales (Siân Berry and Jonathan Bartley) Alliance Party of Northern Ireland (Naomi Long)
Results by area
England (list) Northern Ireland (list) Scotland (list) Wales (list)
Related topics
Glossary of terms Red wall Workington man Get Brexit Done Blue wall
2019 UK local elections 2019 UK European Parliament election
vte
Gibraltar Elections and referendums in Gibraltar
General elections
1950 1953 1956 1959 1964 1969 1972 1976 1980 1984 1988 1992 1996 2000 2003 2007 2011 2015 2019 2023 Next
City Council elections
1921 1924 1927 1930 1933 1936 1939 1945 1947 1950 1953 1956 1959 1962 1965
By-elections
1957 1967 1991 1999 2013
European elections
2004 2009 2014 2019
Referendums
1967 2002 2006 2016 2021
vte
Stock market crashes
17th century
Early stock market crashes in the Dutch Republic
18th century
The Mississippi Bubble South Sea Bubble of 1720 Bengal Bubble of 1769 Crisis of 1772 Panic of 1792 Panic of 1796–1797
19th century
Panic of 1819 Panic of 1825 Panic of 1837 Panic of 1847 Panic of 1857 Black Friday (1869) Panic of 1873 Paris Bourse crash of 1882 Panic of 1884 Encilhamento (1890–1893) Panic of 1893 Panic of 1896
20th century
Panic of 1901 Panic of 1907 Depression of 1920–1921 Wall Street Crash of 1929 Recession of 1937–1938 Kennedy Slide of 1962 1973–1974 stock market crash Souk Al-Manakh stock market crash (1982) Black Monday (19 October 1987) Rio de Janeiro Stock Exchange collapse Friday the 13th mini-crash (1989) Japanese asset price bubble crash (1990–1992) Black Wednesday (16 September 1992) 1997 Asian financial crisis October 27, 1997 mini-crash 1998 Russian financial crisis
21st century
Dot-com bubble crash (2000–2002) 9/11 stock market crash (2001) Stock market downturn of 2002 Chinese stock bubble of 2007 U.S. bear market of 2007–2009 Financial crisis of 2007–08 2009 Dubai debt standstill Greek government-debt crisis stock market crash (2010) 2010 Flash Crash 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami stock market crash August 2011 stock markets fall 2011 Bangladesh share market scam 2015–2016 Chinese stock market turbulence 2015–2016 stock market selloff Brexit stock market crash (2016) 2018 cryptocurrency crash 2020 stock market crash
vte
1975 United Kingdom European Communities membership referendum
Results
Referendum question
"Do you think that the United Kingdom should stay in the European Community (the Common Market)?"
Legislation
Referendum Act 1975
Background
Treaty of Rome 1970 United Kingdom general election Accession of the United Kingdom to the European Communities Treaty of Accession 1972 European Communities Act 1972 1973 EC enlargement February 1974 United Kingdom general election October 1974 United Kingdom general election
Campaign organisations
Advocating a "Yes" vote
Britain in Europe
Advocating a "No" vote
National Referendum Campaign
Parties
For a "Yes" vote
Conservative Party Liberal Party Social Democratic and Labour Party Alliance Party Vanguard Unionist Progressive Party
Neutral/split
Labour Party
For a "No" vote
Scottish National Party Plaid Cymru Ulster Unionist Party Democratic Unionist Party Provisional Sinn Féin Official Sinn Féin National Front Communist Party of Great Britain
Debates
A Question of Europe
Aftermath
European Assembly Elections Act 1978 1979 European Parliament election in the United Kingdom UK rebate Single European Act Black Wednesday Maastricht Treaty Lisbon Treaty 2015–16 United Kingdom renegotiation of European Union membership 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum
vte
Member states of the European Union
Austria Belgium Bulgaria Croatia Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Germany Greece Hungary Ireland Italy Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malta Netherlands Poland Portugal Romania Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden
See also: Potential enlargement and Former members
vte
Founding treaties of the European Communities (1951–1993) and Union (since 1993) and related political documents
Founding treaties
Consolidated versions
Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (1957) Treaty on European Union (1992) Treaty establishing the European Atomic Energy Community (1957)
Amendments
General
In force
Paris (1954) Rome (1957) Netherlands Antilles Association Convention (1962) Merger (1965) First Budgetary Treaty (1970) Second Budgetary Treaty (1975) Single European Act (1986) Maastricht (1992) Amsterdam (1997) Nice (2001) Lisbon (2007) Protocol 36 (2011) Article 136 (2011)
Unratified
Renegotiation of UK membership (2016)
Changes in membership
Accession
1972 1979 1985 1994 2003 2005 2011
Secession
Greenland (1984) United Kingdom (“Brexit” 2020)
Unratified
Treaty establishing the European Defence Community (1952) Treaty establishing the European Political Community (1952) Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe (2004)
Expired or terminated
) Modified Brussels (Western European Union, 1954) Paris (European Coal and Steel Community, 1951)
Related political documents
Schuman Declaration (1950) Europe Declaration (1951) Declarations at the London and Paris Conferences (1954) Benelux memorandum (1955) Spaak Report (1956) Fouchet Plan (1961) Davignon report (1970) Copenhagen report (1973) London report (1981) Solemn Declaration (1983) Rome Declaration (1984) Schengen Agreement (1985) Schengen Convention (1990) Petersberg Declaration (1992) Saint-Malo declaration (1998) Schengen acquis of the EU (1999) Bologna declaration Charter of Fundamental Rights (2000) PFI Convention (2002) Seville Declarations (2002) Prüm Convention (2005) Berlin Declaration (2007) European Stability Mechanism (2012) European Fiscal Compact (2012) Agreement on a Unified Patent Court (2013) Single Resolution Fund Agreement (2014) Malta Declaration (2017) Versailles declaration (2022)
European Union Portal
vte
Withdrawal from the European Union
Withdrawal of member state territories
Algeria French Algeria (independence)
Greenland Greenland (changed to OCT status)
Saint Pierre and Miquelon Saint Pierre and Miquelon (changed to OCT status)
Saint Barthélemy Saint Barthélemy (changed to OCT status)
Withdrawal of member states
United Kingdom United Kingdom (and Gibraltar): Brexit
Hypothesised
Denmark Denmark France France Hungary Hungary Netherlands Netherlands Poland Poland Romania Romania
Current membership Enlargement Article 50 Procedure
Portals:
icon Politics
flag European Union
flag United Kingdom
2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum at Wikipedia's sister projects:
Media from Commons
News from Wikinews
Data from Wikidata
Authority control databases Edit this at Wikidata
National
France BnF data
Other
IdRef
Categories:
2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum2016 in British politics2016 in Gibraltar2016 in the European Union2016 referendumsJune 2016 events in the United KingdomReferendums in the United KingdomReferendums related to the European UnionUnited Kingdom and the European Union
Boris Johnson is a British politician and a member of the Conservative Party. He served as the mayor of London and the foreign secretary before becoming prime minister of the United Kingdom in 2019. In July 2022 he stepped down as leader of the Conservative Party. That meant that he would no longer be prime minister. However, he stayed in that office until the party chose a new leader in September.
Early Life
Read Aloud: Rewind (Subscriber Feature)
Read Aloud: Play/Stop (Subscriber Feature)
Read Aloud: Fast Forward (Subscriber Feature)
Alexander Boris de Pfeffel Johnson was born on June 19, 1964, in New York City. His family moved often during his childhood, when he was called Al. He became known as Boris while attending boarding school in England. Johnson graduated from Oxford University in 1987, where he studied classics.
Career
Read Aloud: Rewind (Subscriber Feature)
Read Aloud: Play/Stop (Subscriber Feature)
Read Aloud: Fast Forward (Subscriber Feature)
Journalism
Johnson began working as a journalist in 1987. He first worked for The Times, one of Britain’s oldest and most influential newspapers. However, he was soon dismissed for making up a quotation. Johnson then got a job at The Daily Telegraph, where he worked as a reporter and editor from 1989 to 1999. In 1994 he began writing a political column for The Spectator, a weekly magazine. Five years later he was named the magazine’s editor, a position he held until 2005.
During his career as a journalist and politician, Johnson wrote a number of books. These include Lend Me Your Ears (2003), a collection of essays, and The Dream of Rome (2006), a historical survey of the Roman Empire.
Politics
Johnson first ran for a seat in Parliament in 1997. He lost, but he soon began appearing on British talk shows. Johnson became popular, and when he ran for office again in 2001, he won. He made frequent appearances on television and became one of the country’s most-recognized politicians.
In 2007 Johnson entered the London mayoral race. He won by a slim margin. Once he was in office, it became clear that Johnson did not have a plan for the city. However, he was reelected in 2012. In 2015 Johnson returned to Parliament and chose to not run for mayor again.
In 2016 British voters were asked to decide if the United Kingdom should stay in the European Union (EU) or to leave it. Johnson, like many Conservative politicians, was a strong supporter of the “Leave” campaign. When 52 percent of voters chose to leave the EU, Prime Minister David Cameron resigned, and Theresa May became the next prime minister. She chose Johnson as her foreign secretary. He did not agree with her handling of Britain’s exit from the EU, so he resigned from the post in July 2018. In May 2019, May announced that she would step down as Conservative Party leader on June 7. She remained as caretaker prime minister until her party could choose a new leader.
In July 2019 Johnson was elected to be leader of the party and became prime minister. He faced many problems during his term in office. One challenge was the pandemic caused by the COVID-19 disease. The disease spread throughout the United Kingdom, and many people, including Johnson, became sick. The government set rules to keep the disease from spreading more. People were not allowed to gather in large groups. They also had to wear masks. Johnson and other members of the government broke the rules, and they were fined.
In July 2022 Johnson faced a new problem. A member of his government was accused of misconduct. Johnson’s initial statements regarding the scandal proved false. Members of his party called for him to step down. He refused. However, in early July, many important government leaders resigned. On July 7 Johnson announced his resignation as Conservative Party leader. He remained in office as prime minister until the party chose a replacement. In September the party chose Liz Truss as the new leader. Johnson stepped down, and Truss took office as prime minister on September 6.