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This article is about the hexagram as a Jewish symbol. For other uses, see Hexagram.
"Jewish Star" redirects here. For other uses, see The Jewish Star (disambiguation).
"Magen David" redirects here. For the halakhic commentator, see David HaLevi Segal.
The Star of David as depicted on the flag of Israel.
The Star of David (Hebrew: מָגֵן דָּוִד, romanized: Magen David, lit. 'Shield of David')[a] is a generally recognized symbol of both Jewish identity and Judaism.[1] Its shape is that of a hexagram: the compound of two equilateral triangles.
A derivation of the seal of Solomon, which was used for decorative and mystical purposes by Muslims and Kabbalistic Jews, its adoption as a distinctive symbol for the Jewish people and their religion dates back to 17th-century Prague.[2] In the 19th century, the symbol began to be widely used among the Jewish communities of Eastern Europe, ultimately coming to be used to represent Jewish identity or religious beliefs.[2][3] It became representative of Zionism after it was chosen as the central symbol for a Jewish national flag at the First Zionist Congress in 1897.[4]
By the end of World War I, it had become an internationally accepted symbol for the Jewish people, being used on the gravestones of fallen Jewish soldiers.[5]
Today, the star is used as the central symbol on the national flag of the State of Israel.
Roots
Unlike the menorah,[2] the Lion of Judah, the shofar and the lulav, the hexagram was not originally a uniquely Jewish symbol.[6] The hexagram, being an inherently simple geometric construction, has been used in various motifs throughout human history, which were not exclusively religious. It appeared as a decorative motif in both 4th-century synagogues and Christian churches in the Galilee region.[7][8]
Gershom Scholem writes that the term "seal of Solomon" was adopted by Jews from Islamic magic literature, while he could not assert with certainty whether the term "shield of David" originated in Islamic or Jewish mysticism.[2] Leonora Leet argues though that not just the terminology, but the esoteric philosophy behind it had pre-Islamic Jewish roots and provides among other arguments the Talmud's mention of the hexagram as being engraved on Solomon's seal ring.[9] She also shows that Jewish alchemists were the teachers of their Muslim and Christian counterparts, and that a way-opener such as Maria Hebraea of Alexandria (2nd or 3rd century CE; others date her earlier) already used concepts which were later adopted by Muslim and Christian alchemists and could be graphically associated with the symbolism of the upper and lower triangles constituting the hexagram, which came into explicit use after her time.[9] The hexagram however only becomes widespread in Jewish magical texts and amulets (segulot) in the early Middle Ages, which is why most modern authors have seen Islamic mysticism as the source of the medieval Spanish Kabbalists' use of the hexagram.[9][10] The name "Star of David" originates from King David of ancient Israel.
Use as Jewish emblem
Only around one millennium later, however, the star would begin to be used as a symbol to identify Jewish communities, a tradition that seems to have started in Prague before the 17th century, and from there spread to much of Eastern Europe.[2][11]
In the 19th century, it came to be adopted by European Jews as a symbol to represent Jewish religion or identity in the same manner the Christian cross identified that religion's believers.[2][12] The symbol became representative of the worldwide Zionist community after it was chosen as the central symbol on a flag at the First Zionist Congress in 1897, due to its usage in some Jewish communities and its lack of specifically religious connotations.[3][13] It was not considered an exclusively Jewish symbol until after it began to be used on the gravestones of fallen Jewish soldiers in World War I.[5]
History of Jewish usage
Early use as an ornament
The Star of David in the oldest surviving complete copy of the Masoretic text, the Leningrad Codex, dated 1008.
The hexagram does appear occasionally in Jewish contexts since antiquity, apparently as a decorative motif. For example, in Israel, there is a stone bearing a hexagram from the arch of the 3rd–4th century Khirbet Shura synagogue in the Galilee.[14][15] Originally, the hexagram may have been employed as an architectural ornament on synagogues, as it is, for example, on the cathedrals of Brandenburg and Stendal, and on the Marktkirche at Hanover. A hexagram in this form is found on the ancient synagogue at Capernaum.[14]
The use of the hexagram in a Jewish context as a possibly meaningful symbol may occur as early as the 11th century, in the decoration of the carpet page of the famous Tanakh manuscript, the Leningrad Codex dated 1008. Similarly, the symbol illuminates a medieval Tanakh manuscript dated 1307 belonging to Rabbi Yosef bar Yehuda ben Marvas from Toledo, Spain.[14]
Kabbalistic use
Page of segulot in a medieval Kabbalistic grimoire (Sefer Raziel HaMalakh, 13th century)
A hexagram has been noted on a Jewish tombstone in Taranto, Apulia in Southern Italy, which may date as early as the third century CE.[16][17] The Jews of Apulia were noted for their scholarship in Kabbalah, which has been connected to the use of the Star of David.[18]
Medieval Kabbalistic grimoires show hexagrams among the tables of segulot, but without identifying them as "Shield of David".
In the Renaissance, in the 16th-century Land of Israel, the book Ets Khayim conveys the Kabbalah of Ha-Ari (Rabbi Isaac Luria) who arranges the traditional items on the seder plate for Passover into two triangles, where they explicitly correspond to Jewish mystical concepts. The six sfirot of the masculine Zer Anpin correspond to the six items on the seder plate, while the seventh sfira being the feminine Malkhut corresponds to the plate itself.[19][20][21]
However, these seder-plate triangles are parallel, one above the other, and do not actually form a hexagram.[22]
According to G. S. Oegema (1996)
Isaac Luria provided the hexagram with a further mystical meaning. In his book Etz Chayim he teaches that the elements of the plate for the Seder evening have to be placed in the order of the hexagram: above the three sefirot "Crown", "Wisdom", and "Insight", below the other seven.[23][page needed]
Similarly, M. Costa[full citation needed] wrote that M. Gudemann and other researchers in the 1920s claimed that Isaac Luria was influential in turning the Star of David into a national Jewish emblem by teaching that the elements of the plate for the Seder evening have to be placed in the order of the hexagram. Gershom Scholem (1990) disagrees with this view, arguing that Isaac Luria talked about parallel triangles one beneath the other and not about the hexagram.[24]
The Star of David at least since the 20th century remains associated with the number seven and thus with the Menorah, and popular accounts[unreliable source?] associate it with the six directions of space plus the center (under the influence of the description of space found in the Sefer Yetsira: Up, Down, East, West, South, North, and Center), or the Six Sefirot of the Male (Zeir Anpin) united with the Seventh Sefirot of the Female (Nukva).[25] Some say that one triangle represents the ruling tribe of Judah and the other the former ruling tribe of Benjamin. It is also seen as a dalet and yud, the two letters assigned to Judah. There are 12 Vav, or "men," representing the 12 tribes or patriarchs of Israel.
Official usage in Central European communities
Historical flag of the Jewish community in Prague
In 1354, King of Bohemia Charles IV approved for the Jews of Prague a red flag with a hexagram.[26] In 1460, the Jews of Ofen (Buda, now part of Budapest, Hungary) received King Matthias Corvinus with a red flag on which were two Shields of David and two stars.[27] In the first Hebrew prayer book, printed in Prague in 1512, a large hexagram appears on the cover. In the colophon is written: "Each man beneath his flag according to the house of their fathers...and he will merit to bestow a bountiful gift on anyone who grasps the Shield of David." In 1592, Mordechai Maizel was allowed to affix "a flag of King David, similar to that located on the Main Synagogue" on his synagogue in Prague. Following the Battle of Prague (1648), the Jews of Prague were again granted a flag, in recognition of their contribution to the city's defense. That flag showed a yellow hexagram on a red background, with a "Swedish star" placed in the center of the hexagram.[26]
As a symbol of Judaism and the Jewish community
Herzl's proposed flag, as sketched in his diaries. Although he drew a Star of David, he did not describe it as such
Max Bodenheimer's (top left) and Herzl's (top right) 1897 drafts of the Zionist flag, compared to the final version used at the 1897 First Zionist Congress (bottom)
The symbol became representative of the worldwide Zionist community, and later the broader Jewish community, after it was chosen to represent the First Zionist Congress in 1897.[3][13]
A year before the congress, Herzl had written in his 1896 Der Judenstaat:
We have no flag, and we need one. If we desire to lead many men, we must raise a symbol above their heads. I would suggest a white flag, with seven golden stars. The white field symbolizes our pure new life; the stars are the seven golden hours of our working-day. For we shall march into the Promised Land carrying the badge of honor.[28]
David Wolffsohn (1856–1914), a businessman prominent in the early Zionist movement, was aware that the nascent Zionist movement had no official flag, and that the design proposed by Theodor Herzl was gaining no significant support, wrote:
At the behest of our leader Herzl, I came to Basle to make preparations for the Zionist Congress. Among many other problems that occupied me then was one that contained something of the essence of the Jewish problem. What flag would we hang in the Congress Hall? Then an idea struck me. We have a flag—and it is blue and white. The talith (prayer shawl) with which we wrap ourselves when we pray: that is our symbol. Let us take this Talith from its bag and unroll it before the eyes of Israel and the eyes of all nations. So I ordered a blue and white flag with the Shield of David painted upon it. That is how the national flag, that flew over Congress Hall, came into being.
In the early 20th century, the symbol began to be used to express Jewish affiliations in sports. Hakoah Vienna was a Jewish sports club founded in Vienna, Austria, in 1909 whose teams competed with the Star of David on the chest of their uniforms, and won the 1925 Austrian League soccer championship.[29] Similarly, The Philadelphia Sphas basketball team in Philadelphia (whose name was an acronym of its founding South Philadelphia Hebrew Association) wore a large Star of David on their jerseys to proudly proclaim their Jewish identity, as they competed in the first half of the 20th century.[30][31][32][33]
In boxing, Benny "the Ghetto Wizard" Leonard[34] (who said he felt as though he was fighting for all Jews) fought with a Star of David embroidered on his trunks in the 1910s.[citation needed] World heavyweight boxing champion Max Baer fought with a Star of David on his trunks as well, notably, for the first time as he knocked out Nazi Germany hero Max Schmeling in 1933;[35] Hitler never permitted Schmeling to fight a Jew again.[citation needed]
The Holocaust
Main article: Yellow badge
The yellow badge
A Star of David, often yellow, was used by the Nazis during the Holocaust to identify Jews. After the German invasion of Poland in 1939, there initially were different local decrees forcing Jews to wear distinct signs (e.g. in the General Government, a white armband with a blue Star of David; in the Warthegau, a yellow badge, in the form of a Star of David, on the left breast and on the back). If a Jew was found in public without the star, he could be severely punished. The requirement to wear the Star of David with the word Jude (German for Jew) was then extended to all Jews over the age of six in the Reich and in the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia (by a decree issued on September 1, 1941, and signed by Reinhard Heydrich)[36] and was gradually introduced in other Nazi-occupied areas. Others, however, wore the Star of David as a symbol of defiance against Nazi antisemitism, as in the case of United States Army private Hal Baumgarten, who wore a Star of David emblazoned on his back during the 1944 invasion of Normandy.[37]
Contemporary use
The flag of Israel
The flag of Israel, depicting a blue Star of David on a white background, between two horizontal blue stripes was adopted on October 28, 1948, five months after the country's establishment. The origins of the flag's design date from the First Zionist Congress in 1897; the flag has subsequently been known as the "flag of Zion".
Many Modern Orthodox synagogues, and many synagogues of other Jewish movements, have the Israeli flag with the Star of David prominently displayed at the front of the synagogues near the Ark containing the Torah scrolls.
Magen David Adom (MDA) ("Red Star of David" or, translated literally, "Red Shield of David") is Israel's only official emergency medical, disaster, and ambulance service. It has been an official member of the International Committee of the Red Cross since June 2006. According to the Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Magen David Adom was boycotted by the International Committee of the Red Cross, which refused to grant the organization membership because "it was [...] argued that having an emblem used by only one country was contrary to the principles of universality."[38] Other commentators said the ICRC did not recognize the medical and humanitarian use of this Jewish symbol, a Red Shield, alongside the Christian cross and the Muslim crescent.[39]
Use in sports
Béla Guttmann, footballer for Hakoah Vienna
Since 1948, the Star of David has carried the dual significance of representing both the state of Israel and Jewish identity in general. In the United States especially, it continues to be used in the latter sense by a number of athletes.
In baseball, Jewish major leaguer Gabe Kapler had a Star of David tattooed on his left calf in 2000, with the words "strong-willed" and "strong-minded", major leaguer Mike "Superjew" Epstein drew a Star of David on his baseball glove, and major leaguer Ron Blomberg had a Star of David emblazoned in the knob of his bat which is on display at the Baseball Hall of Fame.[40][41][42][43][44][45]
NBA basketball star Amar'e Stoudemire, who says he is spiritually and culturally Jewish,[46] had a Star of David tattoo put on his left hand in 2010.[47][48] NFL football defensive end Igor Olshansky has Star of David tattoos on each side of his neck, near his shoulders.[49][50][51] Israeli golfer Laetitia Beck displays a blue-and-white Magen David symbol on her golf apparel.[52][53]
In boxing, Jewish light heavyweight world champion Mike "The Jewish Bomber" Rossman fought with a Star of David embroidered on his boxing trunks,[54] and also has a blue Star of David tattoo on the outside of his right calf.[55][56][57]
Other boxers fought with Stars of David embroidered on their trunks include world lightweight champion, world light heavyweight boxing champion Battling Levinsky, Barney Ross (world champion as a lightweight, as a junior welterweight, and as a welterweight), world flyweight boxing champion Victor "Young" Peres, world bantamweight champion Alphonse Halimi, and more recently World Boxing Association super welterweight champion Yuri Foreman, light welterweight champion Cletus Seldin, and light middleweight Boyd Melson.[58][failed verification][59][60][61][62][63][64][65] Welterweight Zachary "Kid Yamaka" Wohlman has a tattoo of a Star of David across his stomach, and welterweight Dmitriy Salita even boxes under the nickname "Star of David".[66][67]
Maccabi clubs still use the Star of David in their emblems.[68]
Etymology
The Jewish Encyclopedia cites a 12th-century Karaite document as the earliest Jewish literary source to mention a symbol called "Magen Dawid" (without specifying its shape).[69]
The name 'Shield of David' was used by at least the 11th century as a title of the God of Israel, independent of the use of the symbol. The phrase occurs independently as a divine title in the Siddur, the traditional Jewish prayer book, where it poetically refers to the divine protection of ancient King David and the anticipated restoration of his dynastic house, perhaps based on Psalm 18, which is attributed to David, and in which God is compared to a shield (v. 31 and v. 36). The term occurs at the end of the "Samkhaynu/Gladden us" blessing, which is recited after the reading of the Haftara portion on Saturday and holidays.[70]
The earliest known text related to Judaism which mentions a sign called the "Shield of David" is Eshkol Ha-Kofer by the Karaite Judah Hadassi, in the mid-12th century CE:
Seven names of angels precede the mezuzah: Michael, Gabriel, etc. ...Tetragrammaton protect you! And likewise the sign, called the "Shield of David", is placed beside the name of each angel.[71]
This book is of Karaite, and not of Rabbinic Jewish origin, and it does not describe the shape of the sign in any way.
Miscellaneous
In Unicode, the "Star of David" symbol is U+2721 (✡︎).
The world's largest Star of David (2,400 metres (7,900 ft) diameter) is at Harold Holt Naval Communications Station, Exmouth, Australia at 21.815927°S 114.165888°E.[72] (Google Earth view)
Some criminal gangs, including the Gangster Disciples and those affiliated with the Folk Nation, use the Star of David as their symbol. In the case of the Gangster Disciples this is a reference to the group's founder, David Barksdale, also known as "King David".
The Flag and Badge of British Colonial Nigeria contained a Star of David-like hexagram from 1914 to 1952.
The insignia of the Trinidad and Tobago Police Service has included a hexagram since the end of the 19th century.[73]
Gallery
Star in the Schneider Synagogue, Istanbul
Star in the Schneider Synagogue, Istanbul
Star in the Ari Ashkenazi Synagogue, Safed
Star in the Ari Ashkenazi Synagogue, Safed
The Magen David Adom emblem
The Magen David Adom emblem
A synagogue in Karlsruhe, Germany, with the outline of a Star of David
A synagogue in Karlsruhe, Germany, with the outline of a Star of David
A recruitment poster published in American Jewish magazines during WWI. Daughter of Zion (representing the Jewish people): Your Old New Land must have you! Join the Jewish regiment.
A recruitment poster published in American Jewish magazines during WWI. Daughter of Zion (representing the Jewish people): Your Old New Land must have you! Join the Jewish regiment.
Roundel displayed on Israeli Air Force aircraft, 1948–present
Roundel displayed on Israeli Air Force aircraft, 1948–present
Stained glass Star of David
Stained glass Star of David
USVA headstone emblem 3
USVA headstone emblem 3
USVA headstone emblem 44
USVA headstone emblem 44
Morocco horse cover embroidery
Morocco horse cover embroidery
See also
Judaism portal
Anahata
Chai symbol
G2 (mathematics)
Merkaba
Shatkona, an identical Hindu symbol
Kagome crest, an identical Japanese symbol
Star of Bethlehem
Star of David theorem
Star of Lakshmi
Stars of David: Prominent Jews Talk About Being Jewish, 2005 book
Unicursal hexagram
Zoigl, a make of German beer which uses ✡︎ as its symbol
Seal of Solomon
Notes
Biblical Hebrew Māḡēn Dāwīḏ [maːˈɣeːn daːˈwiːð], Tiberian [mɔˈɣen dɔˈvið], Modern Hebrew [maˈɡen daˈvid], Ashkenazi Hebrew and Yiddish Mogein Dovid [ˈmɔɡeɪn ˈdɔvid] or Mogen Dovid, Ladino: Estreya de David.
References
Jacob Newman; Gabriel Sivan; Avner Tomaschoff (1980). Judaism A–Z. World Zionist Organization. p. 116.
Berlin, ed. (2011). p. 463.
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"The Flag and the Emblem" (MFA). "The Star of David became the emblem of Zionist Jews everywhere. Non-Jews regarded it as representing not only the Zionist current in Judaism, but Jewry as a whole."
Reuveni (2017). p. 43.
"The Flag and the Emblem" (MFA). "Unlike the menora (candelabrum), the Lion of Judah, the shofar (ram's horn) and the lulav (palm frond), the Star of David was never a uniquely Jewish symbol."
"King Solomon's Seal". www.mfa.gov.il. Retrieved December 12, 2021.
Scholem 1949, p. 244:"It is not to be found at all in medieval synagogues or on medieval ceremonial objects, although it has been found in quite a number of medieval Christian churches again, not as a Christian symbol but only as a decorative motif. The appearance of the symbol in Christian churches long before its appearance in our synagogues should warn the overzealous interpreters. "
Leet, Leonora (1999). "The Hexagram and Hebraic Sacred Science" in: The Secret Doctrine of the Kabbalah, pp. 212–217. Re-accessed 5 June 2022.
Scholem 1949, p. 246:"In the beginning these designs had no special names or terms, and it is only in the Middle Ages that definite names began to be given to some of those most widely used. There is very little doubt that terms like these first became popular among the Arabs, who showed a tremendous interest in all the occult sciences, arranging and ordering them systematically long before the Practical Cabalists thought of doing so.
It is not to be wondered at, therefore, that for a long time both the five-pointed and the six-pointed stars were called by one name, the "Seal of Solomon," and that no distinction was made between them. This name is obviously related to the Jewish legend of Solomon's dominion over the spirits, and of his ring with the Ineffable Name engraved on it. These legends expanded and proliferated in a marked fashion during the Middle Ages, among Jews and Arabs alike, but the name, "Seal of Solomon," apparently originated with the Arabs. This term they did not apply to any one design exclusively; they applied it to an entire series of seven seals to which they attributed extreme potency in putting to flight the forces of the Demon."
Scholem 1949, p. 250:"From Prague this official use of the symbol spread out. In 1655 it is found on the seal of the Viennese community, and in 1690 on the seal of the community of Kremsier, in Moravia. On the wall of the old synagogue of the community of Budweis (Southern Bohemia), which was abandoned by the Jews in 1641, there are representations of Shields of David alternating with roses; apparently, this is the oldest synagogue outside of Prague on which this symbol is to be found. In his youth, R. Jonathan Eybeschuetz might have been able to see it on the seal of the community of EybeSchuetz. A number of communities in Moravia used as a seal the Shield of David alone, with the addition of the name of the community. Others had on their seals a lion holding the Shield of David, like the community of Weiskirchen at the beginning of the 18th century. In very isolated instances the figure of the Shield of David was used in southern Germany also, doubtless under the influence of the Prague community.
In other countries, we do not generally find the Shield of David in use before the beginning of the 19th century, either on community seals, or on the curtains of the Ark, or on Torah mantles."
"The Flag and the Emblem" (MFA). "According to Scholem, the motive for the widespread use of the Star of David was a wish to imitate Christianity. During the Emancipation, Jews needed a symbol of Judaism parallel to the cross, the universal symbol of Christianity."
Scholem 1949, p. 251:"Then the Zionists came, seeking to restore the ancient glories—or more correctly, to change the face of their people. When they chose it as a symbol for Zionism at the Basle Congress of 1897, the Shield of David was possessed of two virtues that met the requirements of men in quest of a symbol: on the one hand, its wide diffusion during the previous century—its appearance on every new synagogue, on the stationery of many charitable organizations, etc.—had made it known to everybody; and on the other, it was not explicitly identified with a religious association in the consciousness of their contemporaries.
This lack became its virtue. The symbol did not arouse memories of the past: it could be filled with hope for the future."
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Wiggins, David. Sport in America eBook. Vol. II. ISBN 9781450409124. Retrieved February 17, 2011.
Katz, Yossi (2010). A Voice Called: Stories of Jewish Heroism. Gefen Publishing. p. 75. ISBN 9789652294807. Retrieved February 19, 2011. star of david boxer.
"Papa Said Knock You Out: Issue 53's Zachary Wohlman Fights This Thursday". Mass Appeal. November 11, 2013. Archived from the original on March 31, 2014. Retrieved March 31, 2014.
Isaac Barrio (July 19, 2006). "Dmitriy "STAR OF DAVID" Salita in Main Event". Hardcoreboxing.net. Retrieved February 17, 2011.
Football: a sociology of the global game. Wiley-Blackwell. 1999. ISBN 9780745617695. Retrieved February 17, 2011.
"Magen Dawid", Jewish Encyclopida, retrieved May 28, 2010.
A similar term, "Shield of Abraham" appears in the first blessing of the "Amidah" prayer, which was written in early Rabbinic times (around year 1, a millennium before the first documentation of the term in reference to a sixGpoint star). That term is probably based on Genesis 15:1, where God promises to shield Abraham.
Eshkol Ha-Kofer by Judah Hadassi, 12th century CE
"Australian Heritage Database". Retrieved April 18, 2016.
"The star of David". The Trinidad Guardian Newspaper. Retrieved April 18, 2016.
Bibliography
"The Flag and the Emblem". Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFA). Archived from the original on May 13, 2019. Retrieved April 18, 2016.
Berlin, Adele, ed. (2011). "Magen David". The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 463. ISBN 9780199730049. Retrieved June 5, 2022.
Reuveni, Gideon (2017). Consumer Culture and the Making of Modern Jewish Identity. Cambridge University Press. p. 43. ISBN 9781107011304. Retrieved June 5, 2022.
Scholem, Gershom (1949). "The Curious History of the Six-Pointed Star. How the "Magen David" Became the Jewish Symbol" (PDF). Commentary. Vol. 8. pp. 243–251.
Silverman, B.P. Robert Stephen (2007). The Big Book of Jewish Sports Heroes. New York, NY: S.P.I. Books. ISBN 9781561719075. Retrieved February 17, 2011.
Further reading
Handelman, Don; Shamgar-Handelman, Lea (1990). "Shaping Time: The Choice of the National Emblem of Israel". In Emiko Ohnuki-Tierney (ed.). Culture Through Time: Anthropological Approaches. Stanford University Press. pp. 193–226. ISBN 9780804717915.
Scholem, Gershom (1971). "The Star of David: History of a Symbol". The Messianic idea in Judaism and other essays on Jewish spirituality. Schocken Books. pp. 257–281. ISBN 9780805203622.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Star of David.
Star of David Technology in Jewelry Today
1906 Jewish Encyclopedia on Jewish symbols
The Archetypal Mandala of India of the Star of David
The Mystical Significance of the Star of David
Magen David: From mystical talisman to Zionist symbol -Ynetnews
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1290
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Millennium: 2nd millennium
Centuries:
12th century13th century 14th century
Decades:
1270s1280s1290s1300s1310s
Years:
1287128812891290129112921293
1290 by topic
Leaders
Political entitiesState leadersReligious leaders
Birth and death categories
Births – Deaths
Establishments and disestablishments categories
Establishments – Disestablishments
Art and literature
1290 in poetry
vte
1290 in various calendars
Gregorian calendar 1290
MCCXC
Ab urbe condita 2043
Armenian calendar 739
ԹՎ ՉԼԹ
Assyrian calendar 6040
Balinese saka calendar 1211–1212
Bengali calendar 697
Berber calendar 2240
English Regnal year 18 Edw. 1 – 19 Edw. 1
Buddhist calendar 1834
Burmese calendar 652
Byzantine calendar 6798–6799
Chinese calendar 己丑年 (Earth Ox)
3986 or 3926
— to —
庚寅年 (Metal Tiger)
3987 or 3927
Coptic calendar 1006–1007
Discordian calendar 2456
Ethiopian calendar 1282–1283
Hebrew calendar 5050–5051
Hindu calendars
- Vikram Samvat 1346–1347
- Shaka Samvat 1211–1212
- Kali Yuga 4390–4391
Holocene calendar 11290
Igbo calendar 290–291
Iranian calendar 668–669
Islamic calendar 688–689
Japanese calendar Shōō 3
(正応３年)
Javanese calendar 1200–1201
Julian calendar 1290
MCCXC
Korean calendar 3623
Minguo calendar 622 before ROC
民前622年
Nanakshahi calendar −178
Thai solar calendar 1832–1833
Tibetan calendar 阴土牛年
(female Earth-Ox)
1416 or 1035 or 263
— to —
阳金虎年
(male Iron-Tiger)
1417 or 1036 or 264
King Andrew III (r. 1290–1301)
Year 1290 (MCCXC) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.
Events
By place
Europe
July 10 – King Ladislaus IV (the Cuman) is assassinated at the castle of Körösszeg (modern Romania). He is succeeded by Andrew III (the Venetian), after an election by Hungarian nobles, who is crowned by Archbishop Lodomer as new ruler of Hungary and Croatia in Székesfehérvár on July 23.[1][2]
December 18 – King Magnus III (Birgersson) dies after a 15-year reign. He is succeeded by his 10-year-old son Birger (Magnusson). Although, Sweden is an elective monarchy, Birger had already been appointed heir to the throne in 1284.
England
July 18 – Edict of Expulsion: King Edward I (Longshanks) orders all Jews (at this time probably numbering around 2,000) to leave the country by November 1 (All Saints' Day);[3] on the Hebrew calendar this is Tisha B'Av, a day that commemorates many calamities.
Quia Emptores, a statute passed by Edward I (Longshanks), puts an end to the practice of subinfeudations. The statute allows land to be sold according to royal approval, as long as the new owner answers directly to his lord or the king.
September – The 7-year-old Margaret (Maid of Norway), queen-designate and heir to the crown of Scotland, dies en route to the British Isles in Orkney – leading to a succession crisis known as Competitors for the crown of Scotland.
November 28 – Eleanor of Castile, wife of Edward I (Longshanks), dies while traveling in the North. She has been suffering from illness for some time, and the cold and dampness of the winter months probably aggravate her condition.
December – Edward I (Longshanks) travels with the body of Eleanor of Castile from Lincoln to London. Remembering his wife, Edward erects a series of crosses at each location that the body rests over night. These are known as the twelve Eleanor crosses.
Winter – The second of the Statutes of Mortmain are passed during the reign of Edward I (Longshanks), which prevents land from passing into the possession of the Church.
Levant
June – Genoa concludes a new commercial treaty with the Mamluks; five galleys sent by King James II (the Just) join the Venetian Crusader fleet (some 20 ships) on its way to Acre. On board of the fleet are Italian urban militias and mercenary forces under Seneschal Jean I de Grailly, who have fought for the Papal States in the so-called Italian Crusades.[4]
August – Italian Crusaders massacre Muslim merchants and peasants, and some local Christians in Acre. Some claim it began at a drunken party – others that a European husband found his wife making love to a Muslim. The barons and local knights try to rescue a few Muslims and take them to the safety of the castle, while some ringleaders are arrested.[5]
August 30 – Survivors and relatives of the massacre at Acre take bloodstained clothing to Sultan Qalawun (the Victorious) in Cairo, who demands that the leaders of the riot be handed over for trial. But the nobles refuse to send the ringleaders, Qalawun now got legal clearance from the religious authorities in Cairo to break the truce with Crusader states.[6]
October – Qalawun (the Victorious) orders a general mobilization of the Mamluk forces. In a council, is decided that a peace delegation is sent to Cairo under Guillaume de Beaujeu, Grand Master of the Knights Templar. But Qalawun demands huge compensation for those killed in Acre, and sends a Syrian army to the coast of Palestine, near Caesarea.[7]
November 10 – Qalawun (the Victorious) dies as the Egyptian Mamluk army sets out for Acre. He is succeeded by his eldest son Al-Ashraf Khalil as ruler of the Mamluk Sultanate. Kahlil orders his allies and tributaries in Syria to prepare for a campaign next spring. Governors and castle commanders are ordered to assemble siege equipment and armor.[8]
Asia
June 13 – Shamsuddin II, Mamluk ruler of the Delhi Sultanate, is murdered and succeeded by Jalal ud-Din Khalji (or Firuz Shah I), founder of the Khalji Dynasty. Ending Mamluk rule and instigating the Khalji Revolution.[9]
September 27 – The 6.8 Ms Zhili earthquake affects the province of Zhili in China, with a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (Violent), killing 7,270–100,000 people.
By topic
Art and Culture
June 8 – Beatrice Portinari, muse of the Italian poet Dante Alighieri, dies. In his Divine Comedy (La Divina Commedia), he transforms his memory of Beatrice into an allegory of divine love.[10]
Climate and Weather
Year without winter – An exceptionally rare instance of uninterrupted transition, from autumn to the following spring, in England and the mainland of Western Europe.[11]
Education
March 1 – The University of Coimbra is founded in Lisbon by Denis I (the Poet King). He decrees that Portuguese is the official language of Portugal, replacing classical Latin in that capacity.
Literature
Dnyaneshwari is written in India. This holy book is a commentary on Bhagvad Gita and is narrated by St. Dnyaneshwar.
Births
January 3 – Constance of Portugal, queen consort of Castile (d. 1313)
January 6 – Otto Bodrugan, English landowner and politician (d. 1331)
June 23 – Jakushitsu Genkō, Japanese Rinzai master and poet (d. 1367)
August 4 – Leopold I (the Glorious), German nobleman (d. 1326)
October 15 – Anne of Bohemia, queen consort of Bohemia (d. 1313)
December 24 – Khwaju Kermani, Persian poet and mystic (d. 1349)
Agnes Haakonsdatter, Norwegian noblewoman and princess (d. 1319)
Andrea Pisano (or Pontedera), Italian sculptor and architect (d. 1348)
Barlaam of Seminara, Italian cleric, scholar and theologian (d. 1348)
Beatrice of Silesia, queen of Germany (House of Piast) (d. 1322)
Buton Rinchen Drub, Tibetan Buddhist religious leader (d. 1364)
Daichi Sokei, Japanese Buddhist monk, disciple and poet (d. 1366)
Giovanni Visconti, Italian cardinal, archbishop and co-ruler (d. 1354)
Guido Gonzaga, Italian nobleman and knight (condottiero) (d. 1369)
Hugues Quiéret, French nobleman, admiral and advisor (d. 1340)
Jacob van Artevelde, Flemish merchant and statesman (d. 1345)
Jacopo Dondi dell'Orologio, Italian doctor and polymath (d. 1359)
Johannes de Muris, French mathematician and astronomer (d. 1344)
John Maltravers, English nobleman, knight and governor (d. 1364)
John Parricida, German nobleman (House of Habsburg) (d. 1312)
Jyotirishwar Thakur, Indian playwright, poet and writer (d. 1350)
Ke Jiusi, Chinese landscape painter and calligrapher (d. 1343)
Kitabatake Tomoyuki, Japanese nobleman and poet (d. 1332)
Kujō Fusazane, Japanese nobleman, official and regent (d. 1327)
Peter of Castile, Spanish nobleman and prince (infante) (d. 1319)
Pierre Bercheure, French translator and encyclopaedist (d. 1362)
Rabbenu Yerucham, French rabbi and scholar (posek) (d. 1350)
Richard de Willoughby, English landowner and politician (d. 1362)
Rudolf Hesso, German nobleman (House of Zähringen) (d. 1335)
Sesson Yūbai, Japanese Buddhist monk, priest and poet (d. 1347)
Theodore I (Palaiologos), Byzantine nobleman and writer (d. 1338)
Willem van Duvenvoorde, Dutch nobleman and knight (d. 1353)
Deaths
January 28 – Dervorguilla of Galloway, Scottish noblewoman (b. 1210)
February 3 – Henry XIII, German nobleman, co-ruler and knight (b. 1235)
March 24 – John dal Bastone, Italian monk, priest and preacher (b. 1200)
March 26 – John Kirkby, English bishop, vice-chancellor and statesman
April 26 – Gaston VII (Froissard), French nobleman and knight (b. 1225)
May 10 – Rudolf II, German nobleman (House of Habsburg) (b. 1270)
June 8 – Beatrice Portinari, Italian muse of Dante Alighieri (b. 1266)
June 13 – Shamsuddin II, Mamluk ruler of the Delhi Sultanate (b. 1285)
June 23 – Henryk IV (the Righteous), High Duke of Poland (b. 1258)
July 10 – Ladislaus IV (the Cuman), king of Hungary and Croatia (b. 1262)
September 26 – Margaret (Maid of Norway), queen of Scotland (b. 1283)
November 10 – Qalawun (the Victorious), Mamluk ruler of Egypt (b. 1222)
November 28 – Eleanor of Castile, queen consort of England (b. 1241)
December 18
Herman I, German nobleman (House of Henneberg) (b. 1224)
Magnus III (or I) (Birgersson), king of Sweden (b. 1240)
December 21 – Gerhard I, German nobleman, knight and regent (b. 1232)
Adelaide of Auxerre, French noblewoman and ruler (suo jure) (b. 1251)
Alice de Lusignan, French noblewoman (House of Lusignan) (b. 1236)
Cecilia Cesarini (or Caecilia), Italian noblewoman and nun (b. 1203)
Eison, Japanese Buddhist scholar-monk, disciple and priest (b. 1201)
Elizabeth the Cuman, queen of Hungary (House of Arpad) (b. 1244)
Fakhr al-Din Mustawfi, Persian finance minister, advisor and vizier
References
Engel, Pál (2001). The Realm of St Stephen: A History of Medieval Hungary, 895–1526. I.B. Tauris Publishers. p. 110. ISBN 1-86064-061-3.
Bartl, Július; Čičaj, Viliam; Kohútova, Mária; Letz, Róbert; Segeš, Vladimír; Škvarna, Dušan (2002). Slovak History: Chronology & Lexicon. Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers, Slovenské Pedegogické Nakladatel'stvo. p. 34. ISBN 0-86516-444-4.
Mundill, Robin R. (2002). England's Jewish Solution: Experiment and Expulsion, 1262-1290. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-52026-6.
David Nicolle (2005). Osprey: Acre 1291 - Bloody sunset of the Crusader states, p. 49. ISBN 978-1-84176-862-5.
Steven Runciman (1952). A History of The Crusades. Vol III: The Kingdom of Acre, p. 343. ISBN 978-0-241-29877-0.
David Nicolle (2005). Osprey: Acre 1291 - Bloody sunset of the Crusader states, p. 52. ISBN 978-1-84176-862-5.
Steven Runciman (1952). A History of The Crusades. Vol III: The Kingdom of Acre, p. 343. ISBN 978-0-241-29877-0.
Steven Runciman (1952). A History of The Crusades. Vol III: The Kingdom of Acre, p. 344. ISBN 978-0-241-29877-0.
Sen, Sailendra (2013). A Textbook of Medieval Indian History, p. 80. Primus Books. ISBN 978-9-38060-734-4.
Williams, Hywel (2005). Cassell's Chronology of World History, p. 151. ISBN 0-304-35730-8.
Kington, J. Climate and Weather, HarperCollins Publishers, 2010.
Muslims
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
"Muslim" redirects here. Not to be confused with muslin. For other uses, see Muslims (disambiguation).
Muslims
Prayer in Cairo (1865)
Jean-Léon Gérôme
Total population
c. 1.9 billion[1]
(25% of the global population)Increase[2][3][4]
(Worldwide, 2020 Pew Research Center)
Founder
Muhammad
Regions with significant populations
Indonesia 231,070,000[5]
Pakistan 213,161,100[6]
India 194,810,000[7]
Bangladesh 153,700,000[8]
Nigeria 99,100,000[9]
Egypt 95,000,000[10]
Iran 82,900,000[11]
Turkey 82,800,000[12]
Algeria 42,000,000[13]
China 40,000,000[14]
Religions
80–90% Sunni Islam[15][16]
10–20% Shia Islam[17][18][19]
~1% Ahmadiyya[20]
~1% Other Islamic traditions (Ibadi Islam, Quranism, etc.)[21]
Languages
Arabic (also Sacred), Persian, Urdu, Indonesian, Bengali,[22] other South Asian languages, African languages, Southeast Asian languages, Turkic languages, Iranian languages, Albanian and other Muslim world languages[23][24][25][26]
Muslims (Arabic: المسلمون, al-Muslimūn, transl. "Submitters [to God]")[27] are people who adhere to Islam, a monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God of Abraham (or Allah) as it was revealed to Muhammad, the main Islamic prophet.[28] The majority of Muslims also follow the teachings and practices of Muhammad (sunnah) as recorded in traditional accounts (hadith).[29]
With an estimated population of almost 1.9 billion followers as of 2020 year estimation, Muslims comprise around 25% of the world's total population.[1] In descending order, the percentage of people who identify as Muslims on each continental landmass stands at:[30] 45% of Africa, 25% of Asia and Oceania (collectively),[31] 6% of Europe,[32] and 1% of the Americas.[33][34][35][36] Additionally, in subdivided geographical regions, the figure stands at: 91% of the Middle East–North Africa,[37][38][39] 90% of Central Asia,[40][41][42] 65% of the Caucasus,[43][44][45][46][47][48] 42% of Southeast Asia,[49][50] 32% of South Asia,[51][52] and 42% of sub-Saharan Africa.[53][54]
While there are several Islamic schools and branches, the two largest denominations are Sunni Islam (75–90% of all Muslims)[55] and Shia Islam (10–20% of all Muslims).[17][18][19] By sheer numbers, South Asia accounts for the largest portion (31%) of the global Muslim population.[56][57] By country, Indonesia is the largest in the Muslim world, holding around 12% of all Muslims worldwide;[58][59] outside of the Muslim-majority countries, India and China are home to the largest (11%) and second-largest (2%) Muslim populations, respectively.[60][61][62] Due to high Muslim population growth, Islam is the fastest-growing religion in the world.[63][64][65]
Etymology
See also: Islam § Etymology
The word muslim (Arabic: مسلم, IPA: [ˈmʊslɪm]; English: /ˈmʌzlɪm/, /ˈmʊzlɪm/, /ˈmʊslɪm/ (MUZZ-lim, MUUZ-lim, MUUSS-lim) or moslem /ˈmɒzləm/, /ˈmɒsləm/ (MOZ-ləm, MOSS-ləm)[66]) is the active participle of the same verb of which islām is a verbal noun, based on the triliteral S-L-M "to be whole, intact".[67][68] A female adherent is a muslima (Arabic: مسلمة) (also transliterated as "Muslimah"[69] ). The plural form in Arabic is muslimūn (مسلمون) or muslimīn (مسلمين), and its feminine equivalent is muslimāt (مسلمات).
The ordinary word in English is "Muslim". In the 20th century the preferred spelling in English was "Moslem", but this has now fallen into disuse.[70][better source needed] The word Mosalman (Persian: مسلمان, alternatively Mussalman) is a common equivalent for Muslim used in Central and South Asia. In English it was sometimes spelled Mussulman and has become archaic in usage; however, cognates of this word remain the standard term for "Muslim" in various other European languages. Until at least the mid-1960s, many English-language writers used the term Mohammedans or Mahometans.[71] Although such terms were not necessarily intended to be pejorative, Muslims argue that the terms are offensive because they allegedly imply that Muslims worship Muhammad rather than God.[72] Other obsolete terms include Muslimite[73] and Muslimist.[74] In Medieval Europe, Muslims were commonly called Saracens.
The Muslim philologist Ibn al-Anbari said:
a Muslim is a person who has dedicated his worship exclusively to God, for just as we say in Arabic that something is ‘salima’ to a person, meaning that it became solely his own, so in the same way ‘Islām’ means making one's religion and faith God's alone.[75]
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To become a Muslim and to convert to Islam, it is essential to utter the Shahada, one of the Five Pillars of Islam, a declaration of faith and trust that professes that there is only one God (Allah) and that Muhammad is God's messenger.[76] It is a set statement normally recited in Arabic: ašhadu ʾan-lā ʾilāha ʾillā-llāhu wa ʾašhadu ʾanna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh (أشهد أن لا إله إلا الله وأشهد أن محمداً رسول الله) "I testify that there is no god [worthy of worship] except Allah, and Muhammad is the messenger of Allah."[77]
In Sunni Islam, the shahada has two parts: la ilaha illa'llah (there is no god but Allah), and Muhammadun rasul Allah (Muhammad is the messenger of God),[78] which are sometimes referred to as the first shahada and the second shahada.[79] The first statement of the shahada is also known as the tahlīl.[80]
In Shia Islam, the shahada also has a third part, a phrase concerning Ali, the first Shia Imam and the fourth Rashid caliph of Sunni Islam: وعليٌ وليُّ الله (wa ʿalīyyun walīyyu-llāh), which translates to "Ali is the wali of God".[81]
In Quranist Islam, the shahada is the testimony that there is no god but Allah (la ilaha illa'llah ).[citation needed]
The religious practices of Muslims are enumerated in the Five Pillars of Islam: the declaration of faith (shahadah), daily prayers (salah), almsgiving (zakat), fasting during the month of Ramadan (sawm), and the pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj) at least once in a lifetime.[82][83]
In Islamic theology
Main article: Prophets and messengers in Islam
The Qur'an describes many prophets and messengers within Judaism and Christianity, and their respective followers, as Muslim. Some of those that were mentioned are: Adam, Noah, Abraham, Ishmael, Jacob, Moses, and Jesus and his apostles are all considered to be Muslims in the Qur'an.[84] The Qur'an states that these men were Muslims because they submitted to God, preached His message and upheld His values, which included praying, charity, fasting and pilgrimage. Thus, in Surah 3:52 of the Qur'an, Jesus' disciples tell him, "We believe in God; and you be our witness that we are Muslims (wa-shahad be anna muslimūn)." In Islamic belief, before the Qur'an, God had given the Tawrat (Torah) to Moses, the Zabur (Psalms) to David and the Injil (Gospel) to Jesus, who are all considered important Muslim prophets.[85]
Demographics
Main article: Islam § Demographics
See also: List of countries by Muslim population
World Muslim population by percentage
Muslim distribution worldwide
The most populous Muslim-majority country is Indonesia, home to 12.7% of the world's Muslims,[86] followed by Pakistan (11.0%), Bangladesh (9.2%), Nigeria (5.3%) and Egypt (4.9%).[58] About 20% of the world's Muslims live in the Middle East and North Africa. Non-majority India contains 10.9% of the world's Muslims.[86][87] Arab Muslims form the largest ethnic group among Muslims in the world,[88] followed by Bengalis,[89][90] and Punjabis.[91]
Over 75–90% of Muslims are Sunni.[15][16] The second and third largest sects, Shia and Ahmadiyya, make up 10–20%,[17][18][19] and 1%[20] respectively.
With about 1.8 billion followers (2015), almost a quarter of earth's population,[92] Islam is the second-largest and the fastest-growing religion in the world,[93] primarily due to the young age and high fertility rate of Muslims,[94] with Muslims having a rate of (3.1) compared to the world average of (2.5). According to the same study, religious switching has no impact on Muslim population, since the number of people who embrace Islam and those who leave Islam are roughly equal.[95][94]
As of 2010, 49 countries countries in the world had Muslim majorities, in which Muslims comprised more than 50% of the population.[95] In 2010, 74.1% of the world's Muslim population lived in countries where Muslims are in the majority, while 25.9% of the world's Muslim population lived in countries where Muslims are in the minority.[95] A Pew Center study in 2010 found that 3% of the world's Muslims population live in non-Muslim-majority developed countries.[95] India's Muslim population is the world's largest Muslim-minority population in the world (11% of the world's Muslim population).[95] Followed by Ethiopia (28 million), China (22 million), Russia (16 million) and Tanzania (13 million).[94] Sizable minorities are also found in the Americas (5.2 million or 0.6%), Australia (714,000 or 1.9%) and parts of Europe (44 million or 6%).[95]
A Pew Center study in 2016 found that Muslims have the highest number of adherents under the age of 15 (34% of the total Muslim population) of any major religion, while only 7% are aged 60+ (the smallest percentage of any major religion). According to the same study, Muslims have the highest fertility rates (3.1) of any major religious group.[96] The study also found that Muslims (tied with Hindus) have the lowest average levels of education with an average of 5.6 years of schooling, though both groups have made the largest gains in educational attainment in recent decades among major religions.[96] About 36% of all Muslims have no formal schooling,[96] and Muslims have the lowest average levels of higher education of any major religious group, with only 8% having graduate and post-graduate degrees.[96]
Culture
Main article: Islamic culture
Muslim culture or Islamic culture are terms used to describe the cultural practices common to Muslims and historically Islamic people. The early forms of Muslim culture, from the Rashidun Caliphate to early Umayyad period, were predominantly Arab, Byzantine, Persian and Levantine. With the rapid expansion of the Islamic empires, Muslim culture has influenced and assimilated much from the Persian, Egyptian, Bengali, Caucasian, Turkic, Mongol, South Asian, Malay, Somali, Berber, Indonesian, and Moro cultures.
See also
Cultural Muslims
Islamic schools and branches
Mohammedan
Lists of Muslims
List of converts to Islam
Islamic holidays
Muslim world
Mumin
Persecution of Muslims
Islam by country
References
"Religion Information Data Explorer | GRF". www.globalreligiousfutures.org. Retrieved 13 October 2022.
"Mapping the Global Muslim Population". Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. 7 October 2009.
"Muslim Population By Country 2021". World Population Review. Archived from the original on 6 December 2020. Retrieved 22 July 2021.
Lipka, Michael, and Conrad Hackett. [2015] 6 April 2017. "Why Muslims are the world's fastest-growing religious group Archived 11 September 2018 at the Wayback Machine" (data analysis). Fact Tank. US: Pew Research Center.
"Penduduk Menurut Wilayah dan Agama yang Dianut" [Population by Region and Religion] (PDF). Sensus Penduduk 2018. Jakarta, Indonesia: Badan Pusat Statistik. 15 May 2018. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 July 2021. Retrieved 3 September 2020. Religion is belief in Almighty God that must be possessed by every human being. Religion can be divided into Muslim, Christian (Protestant), Catholic, Hindu, Buddhist, Hu Khong Chu, and Other Religions. Muslim 231,069,932 (86.7), Christian (Protestant)20,246,267 (7.6), Catholic 8,325,339 (3.12), Hindu 4,646,357 (1.74), Buddhist 2,062,150 (0.72), Confucianism 71,999 (0.03), Other Religions/no answer 112,792 (0.04), Total 266,534,836
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See:
Eastern Europe Russia and Central Asia Archived 4 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine "some 80% of the world's Muslims are Sunni"
Sue Hellett;U.S. should focus on sanctions against Iran Archived 17 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine "Sunnis make up over 75 percent of the world's Muslim population"
Iran, Israel and the United States Archived 4 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine "Sunni, accounts for over 75% of the Islamic population"
"Sunnite". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 9 August 2010. Retrieved 26 August 2010. They numbered about 900 million in the late 20th century and constituted nine-tenths of all the adherents of Islām.
Islamic Beliefs, Practices, and Cultures. Marshall Cavendish. 2010. p. 352. ISBN 978-0-7614-7926-0. Retrieved 19 December 2011. A common compromise figure ranks Sunnis at 90 percent.
"Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population". Pew Research Center. 7 October 2009. Archived from the original on 25 December 2018. Retrieved 24 August 2010. Of the total Muslim population, 10–13% are Shia Muslims and 87–90% are Sunni Muslims.
"Quick guide: Sunnis and Shias". BBC News. 6 December 2011. Archived from the original on 6 December 2011. Retrieved 18 December 2011. The great majority of Muslims are Sunnis – estimates suggest the figure is somewhere between 85% and 90%.
"Sunni and Shia Islam". Library of Congress Country Studies. Archived from the original on 16 February 2013. Retrieved 17 December 2011. Sunni constitute 85 percent of the world's Muslims.
"Tension between Sunnis, Shiites emerging in USA". USA Today. 24 September 2007. Archived from the original on 10 December 2011. Retrieved 18 December 2011. Among the world's estimated 1.4 billion Muslims, about 85% are Sunni and about 15% are Shiite.
"Religions". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Archived from the original on 9 June 2011. Retrieved 25 August 2010. Sunni Islam accounts for over 75% of the world's Muslim population... Shia Islam represents 10–20% of Muslims worldwide...
Sunni Islam: Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide Archived 4 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine "Sunni Islam is the dominant division of the global Muslim community, and throughout history it has made up a substantial majority (85 to 90 percent) of that community."
Inside Muslim minds Archived 4 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine "around 80% are Sunni"
Who Gets To Narrate the World Archived 4 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine "The Sunnis (approximately 80%)"
A world theology Archived 4 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine N. Ross Reat "80% being the Sunni"
Islam and the Ahmadiyya jama'at Archived 4 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine "The Sunni segment, accounting for at least 80% of the world's Muslim population"
A dictionary of modern politics Archived 4 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine "probably 80% of the world's Muslims are Sunni"
From Sunni Islam: See:
Eastern Europe Russia and Central Asia Archived 4 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine "some 80% of the world's Muslims are Sunni"
"Religions". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). Archived from the original on 9 June 2011. Retrieved 8 December 2011. Sunni Islam accounts for over 75% of the world's Muslim population
Sue Hellett;U.S. should focus on sanctions against Iran Archived 17 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine "Sunnis make up over 75 percent of the world's Muslim population"
Iran, Israel and the United States Archived 4 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine "Sunni, accounts for over 75% of the Islamic population"
A dictionary of modern politics Archived 4 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine "probably 80% of the world's Muslims are Sunni"
"Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population". Pew Research Center. 7 October 2009. Archived from the original on 25 December 2018. Retrieved 24 August 2010. Of the total Muslim population, 10–13% are Shia Muslims and 87–90% are Sunni Muslims.
"Quick guide: Sunnis and Shias". BBC News. 6 December 2011. Archived from the original on 24 November 2011. Retrieved 18 December 2011. The great majority of Muslims are Sunnis – estimates suggest the figure is somewhere between 85% and 90%.
"Tension between Sunnis, Shiites emerging in USA". USA Today. 24 September 2007. Archived from the original on 10 December 2011. Retrieved 18 December 2011. Among the world's estimated 1.4 billion Muslims, about 85% are Sunni and about 15% are Shiite.
Sunni Islam: Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide Archived 4 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine "Sunni Islam is the dominant division of the global Muslim community, and throughout history it has made up a substantial majority (85 to 90 percent) of that community."
"Shiʿi, Islam". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 17 January 2022. In the early 21st century some 10–13 percent of the world's 1.6 billion Muslims were Shiʿi.
"Religions". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Archived from the original on 27 March 2010. Retrieved 25 August 2010. Sunni Islam accounts for over 75% of the world's Muslim population... Shia Islam represents 10–20% of Muslims worldwide...
Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population (PDF). Pew Research Center (Report). October 2009. p. 1. Retrieved 17 January 2022. Of the total Muslim population, 10-13% are Shia Muslims and 87-90% are Sunni Muslims. Most Shias (between 68% and 80%) live in just four countries: Iran, Pakistan, India and Iraq.
See:
Breach of Faith. Human Rights Watch. June 2005. p. 8. Archived from the original on 14 March 2017. Retrieved 29 March 2014. Estimates of around 20 million would be appropriate
DeVries, Larry; Baker, Don & Overmyer, Dan (1 January 2011). Asian Religions in British Columbia. University of Columbia Press. ISBN 978-0-7748-1662-5. Archived from the original on 14 March 2017. Retrieved 29 March 2014. The community currently numbers around 15 million spread around the world
Juan Eduardo Campo (2009). Encyclopedia of Islam. Infobase. p. 24. ISBN 978-0-8160-5454-1. Archived from the original on 14 March 2017. Retrieved 29 March 2014. The total size of the Ahmadiyya community in 2001 was estimated to be more than 10 million
"Ahmadiyya Muslims". pbs.org. 20 January 2012. Archived from the original on 6 October 2013. Retrieved 6 October 2013.
A figure of 10–20 million represents approximately 1% of the Muslim population. See also Ahmadiyya by country.
"Chapter 1: Religious Affiliation". The World's Muslims: Unity and Diversity. Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. 9 August 2012. Archived from the original on 26 December 2016. Retrieved 4 September 2013.
Khan, Muhammad Mojlum (2013). The Muslim Heritage of Bengal: The Lives, Thoughts and Achievements of Great Muslim Scholars, Writers and Reformers of Bangladesh and West Bengal. England: Kube Publishing. p. 2. Bengali-speaking Muslims... one of the largest linguistic groups... second only to the Arabs
Talbot & Singh 2009, p. 27, footnote 3.
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The Qurʼan and Sayings of Prophet Muhammad: Selections Annotated & Explained. SkyLight Paths Publishing. 2007. pp. 21–. ISBN 978-1-59473-222-5. Retrieved 31 August 2013.
"Center of Muslim Population Studies (CoMPS)". Retrieved 23 June 2023.
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* "Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population". Pew Research Center. 7 October 2009. Archived from the original on 25 December 2018. Retrieved 24 September 2013. Of the total Muslim population, 10–13% are Shia Muslims and 87–90% are Sunni Muslims.
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"Sunni". Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs. Archived from the original on 12 October 2014. Retrieved 20 December 2012. Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam, comprising about 85% of the world's over 1.5 billion Muslims.
"Religions". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Archived from the original on 27 March 2010. Retrieved 25 August 2010. Sunni Islam accounts for over 75% of the world's Muslim population...
Pechilis, Karen; Raj, Selva J. (2013). South Asian Religions: Tradition and Today. Routledge. p. 193. ISBN 9780415448512.
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"Muslim" Archived 20 February 2016 at the Wayback Machine. Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary: /ˈmʌzlɪm/, /ˈmʊzlɪm/, /ˈmʊslɪm/; moslem Archived 15 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine /ˈmɒzləm/, /ˈmɒsləm/
Burns & Ralph, World Civilizations, 5th ed., p. 371.
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"Moslem or Muslim". Archived from the original on 17 April 2021. Retrieved 12 December 2021.
See for instance the second edition of A Dictionary of Modern English Usage by H. W. Fowler, revised by Ernest Gowers (Oxford, 1965).
Gibb, Sir Hamilton (1969). Mohammedanism: an historical survey. Oxford University Press. p. 1. Modern Muslims dislike the terms Mohammedan and Mohammedanism, which seem to them to carry the implication of worship of Mohammed, as Christian and Christianity imply the worship of Christ.
"Muslimite". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
Abbas, Tahir (2005). Muslim Britain: Communities Under Pressure. pp. 50.
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Lindsay, p. 140–141
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External links
Look up مسلمان in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Look up Wikisaurus:Muslim in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Muslims.
Wikiquote has quotations related to Muslims.
Ritual Prayer: Its Meaning and Manner – The Islamic Supreme Council of America.
Muhammad and the First Muslim Ummah – University of Chicago
Islamophobia Today Newspaper – An Islamophobia news clearing house
Sammy Aziz Rahmatti, Understanding and Countering Islamophobia
WikiSaurus:Muslim
"Understanding Islam". Susan Headden. 7 April 2008. Retrieved 25 August 2010.
"Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents". Adherents.com. Archived from the original on 16 August 2000. Retrieved 3 July 2007.
vte
People and things in the Quran
Characters
Non-humans
Allāh ('The God') Names of Allah found in the Quran, such as Karīm (Generous)
Animals
Related
The baqarah (cow) of IsraelitesThe dhiʾb (wolf) that Jacob feared could attack JosephThe fīl (elephant) of the AbyssiniansḤimār (Domesticated donkey)The hud-hud (hoopoe) of SolomonThe kalb (dog) of the sleepers of the caveThe namlah (female ant) of SolomonThe nūn (fish or whale) of JonahThe nāqat (she-camel) of Ṣāliḥ
Non-related
ʿAnkabūt (Female spider)Dābbat al-Arḍ (Beast of the Earth)Ḥimār (Wild ass)Naḥl (Honey bee)Qaswarah ('Lion', 'beast of prey' or 'hunter')
Malāʾikah (Angels)
Angels of Hell MālikZabāniyahBearers of the ThroneHarut and MarutKirāman Kātibīn (Honourable Scribes) RaqibAtidMunkar and Nakir
Muqarrabun
Jibrīl (Gabriel, chief) Ar-Rūḥ ('The Spirit') Ar-Rūḥ al-Amīn ('The Trustworthy Spirit')Ar-Rūḥ al-Qudus ('The Holy Spirit')Angel of the Trumpet (Isrāfīl or Raphael)Malakul-Mawt (Angel of Death, Azrael)Mīkāil (Michael)
Jinn (Genies)
JannʿIfrītSakhr (Asmodeus)Qarīn
Shayāṭīn (Demons)
Iblīs ash-Shayṭān (the (chief) Devil)Mārid ('Rebellious one')
Others
Ghilmān or WildānḤūr
Prophets
Mentioned
Ādam (Adam)Al-Yasaʿ (Elisha)Ayyūb (Job)Dāwūd (David)Dhūl-Kifl (Ezekiel?)Hārūn (Aaron)Hūd (Eber?)Idrīs (Enoch?)Ilyās (Elijah)ʿImrān (Joachim the father of Maryam)Isḥāq (Isaac)Ismāʿīl (Ishmael) Dhabih UllahLūṭ (Lot)ṢāliḥShuʿayb (Jethro, Reuel or Hobab?)Sulaymān ibn Dāwūd (Solomon son of David)ʿUzair (Ezra?)Yaḥyā ibn Zakariyyā (John the Baptist the son of Zechariah)Yaʿqūb (Jacob) Isrāʾīl (Israel)Yūnus (Jonah) Dhūn-Nūn ('He of the Fish (or Whale)' or 'Owner of the Fish (or Whale)')Ṣāḥib al-Ḥūt ('Companion of the Whale')Yūsuf ibn Ya‘qūb (Joseph son of Jacob)Zakariyyā (Zechariah)
Ulul-ʿAzm
('Those of the
Perseverance
and Strong Will')
Muḥammad AḥmadOther names and titles of MuhammadʿĪsā (Jesus) Al-Masīḥ (The Messiah)Ibn Maryam (Son of Mary)Mūsā Kalīmullāh (Moses He who spoke to God)Ibrāhīm Khalīlullāh (Abraham Friend of God)Nūḥ (Noah)
Debatable ones
Dhūl-QarnainLuqmānMaryam (Mary)Ṭālūt (Saul or Gideon?)
Implied
Irmiyā (Jeremiah)Ṣamūʾīl (Samuel)Yūshaʿ ibn Nūn (Joshua, companion and successor of Moses)
People of Prophets
Good ones
Adam's immediate relatives Martyred sonWifeBeliever of Ya-SinFamily of Noah Father LamechMother Shamkhah bint Anush or BetenosLuqman's sonPeople of Abraham Mother Abiona or Amtelai the daughter of KarneboIshmael's motherIsaac's motherPeople of Jesus Disciples (including Peter)Mary's motherZechariah's wifePeople of Solomon MotherQueen of ShebaVizierZayd (Muhammad's adopted son)
People of
Joseph
Brothers (including Binyāmin (Benjamin) and Simeon)Egyptians ʿAzīz (Potiphar, Qatafir or Qittin)Malik (King Ar-Rayyān ibn Al-Walīd))Wife of ʿAzīz (Zulaykhah)Mother
People of
Aaron and Moses
Egyptians Believer (Hizbil or Hizqil ibn Sabura)Imraʾat Firʿawn (Āsiyá bint Muzāḥim the Wife of Pharaoh, who adopted Moses)Magicians of the PharaohWise, pious manMoses' wifeMoses' sister-in-lawMotherSister
Evil ones
Āzar (possibly Terah)Firʿawn (Pharaoh of Moses' time)HāmānJālūt (Goliath)Qārūn (Korah, cousin of Moses)As-SāmirīAbū LahabSlayers of Ṣāliḥ's she-camel (Qaddar ibn Salif and Musda' ibn Dahr)
Implied or
not specified
AbrahaAbu BakrBal'am/BalaamBarṣīṣāCaleb or Kaleb the companion of JoshuaLuqman's sonNebuchadnezzar IINimrodRahmah the wife of AyyubShaddad
Groups
Mentioned
Aṣḥāb al-Jannah People of ParadisePeople of the Burnt GardenAṣḥāb as-Sabt (Companions of the Sabbath)Jesus' apostles Ḥawāriyyūn (Disciples of Jesus)Companions of Noah's ArkAṣḥāb al-Kahf war-Raqīm (Companions of the Cave and Al-Raqaim?Companions of the ElephantPeople of al-UkhdūdPeople of a township in Surah Ya-SinPeople of Yathrib or MedinaQawm Lūṭ (People of Sodom and Gomorrah)Nation of Noah
Tribes,
ethnicities
or families
‘AjamAr-Rūm (literally 'The Romans')Banī Isrāʾīl (Children of Israel)Muʾtafikāt (Sodom and Gomorrah)People of IbrahimPeople of IlyasPeople of NuhPeople of Shuaib Ahl Madyan People of Madyan)Aṣḥāb al-Aykah ('Companions of the Wood')Qawm Yūnus (People of Jonah)Ya'juj and Ma'juj/Gog and MagogPeople of Fir'aunCurrent Ummah of Islam (Ummah of Muhammad) Aṣḥāb Muḥammad (Companions of Muhammad) Anṣār (literally 'Helpers')Muhajirun (Emigrants from Mecca to Medina)People of Mecca Wife of Abu LahabChildren of AyyubSons of AdamWife of NuhWife of LutYaʾjūj wa Maʾjūj (Gog and Magog)Son of Nuh
Aʿrāb (Arabs
or Bedouins)
ʿĀd (people of Hud)Companions of the RassQawm Tubbaʿ (People of Tubba) People of Sabaʾ or ShebaQurayshThamūd (people of Ṣāliḥ) Aṣḥāb al-Ḥijr ('Companions of the Stoneland')
Ahl al-Bayt
('People of the
Household')
Household of Abraham Brothers of YūsufLot's daughtersProgeny of ImranHousehold of MosesHousehold of Muhammad ibn Abdullah ibn Abdul-Muttalib ibn HashimDaughters of MuhammadMuhammad's wivesHousehold of Salih
Implicitly
mentioned
AmalekAhl as-Suffa (People of the Verandah)Banu NadirBanu QaynuqaBanu QurayzaIranian peopleUmayyad DynastyAus and KhazrajPeople of Quba
Religious
groups
Ahl al-DhimmahKāfirūn disbelieversMajūs ZoroastriansMunāfiqūn (Hypocrites)Muslims BelieversAhl al-Kitāb (People of the Book) Naṣārā (Christian(s) or People of the Injil) Ruhban (Christian monks)Qissis (Christian priest)Yahūd (Jews) Ahbār (Jewish scholars)Rabbani/RabbiSabiansPolytheists Meccan polytheists at the time of MuhammadMesopotamian polytheists at the time of Abraham and Lot
Locations
Mentioned
Al-Arḍ Al-Muqaddasah ('The Holy Land') 'Blessed' Land'Al-Jannah (Paradise, literally 'The Garden')Jahannam (Hell)Door of HittahMadyan (Midian)Majmaʿ al-BaḥraynMiṣr (Mainland Egypt)Salsabīl (A river in Paradise)
In the
Arabian Peninsula
(excluding Madyan)
Al-Aḥqāf ('The Sandy Plains,' or 'the Wind-curved Sand-hills') Iram dhāt al-ʿImād (Iram of the Pillars)Al-Madīnah (formerly Yathrib)ʿArafāt and Al-Mashʿar Al-ḤarāmAl-Ḥijr (Hegra)BadrḤunaynMakkah (Mecca) BakkahḤaraman Āminan ('Sanctuary (which is) Secure')Kaʿbah (Kaaba)Maqām Ibrāhīm (Station of Abraham)Safa and MarwaSabaʾ (Sheba) ʿArim Sabaʾ (Dam of Sheba)Rass
Sinai Region
or Tīh Desert
Al-Wād Al-Muqaddas Ṭuwan (The Holy Valley of Tuwa) Al-Wādil-Ayman (The valley on the 'righthand' side of the Valley of Tuwa and Mount Sinai) Al-Buqʿah Al-Mubārakah ('The Blessed Place')Mount Sinai or Mount Tabor
In Mesopotamia
Al-Jūdiyy Munzalanm-Mubārakan ('Place-of-Landing Blessed')Bābil (Babylon)Qaryat Yūnus ('Township of Jonah,' that is Nineveh)
Religious
locations
Bayʿa (Church)MiḥrābMonasteryMasjid (Mosque, literally 'Place of Prostration') Al-Mashʿar Al-Ḥarām ('The Sacred Grove')Al-Masjid Al-Aqṣā (Al-Aqsa, literally 'The Farthest Place-of-Prostration')Al-Masjid Al-Ḥarām (The Sacred Mosque of Mecca)Masjid al-DirarA Mosque in the area of Medina, possibly: Masjid Qubāʾ (Quba Mosque)The Prophet's MosqueSalat (Synagogue)
Implied
Antioch AntakyaArabia Al-Ḥijāz (literally 'The Barrier') Al-Ḥajar al-Aswad (Black Stone) & Al-Hijr of Isma'ilCave of HiraGhār ath-Thawr (Cave of the Bull)HudaybiyyahTa'ifAylaBarrier of Dhul-QarnaynBayt al-Muqaddas & 'ArihaBilād ar-Rāfidayn (Mesopotamia)CanaanCave of Seven SleepersDār an-NadwaJordan RiverNile RiverPalestine RiverParadise of Shaddad
Events, incidents, occasions or times
Incident of IfkLaylat al-Qadr (Night of Decree)Event of MubahalaSayl al-ʿArim (Flood of the Great Dam of Ma'rib in Sheba)The Farewell PilgrimageTreaty of Hudaybiyyah
Battles or
military expeditions
Battle of al-Aḥzāb ('the Confederates')Battle of BadrBattle of HunaynBattle of KhaybarBattle of UhudExpedition of TabukConquest of Mecca
Days
Al-Jumuʿah (The Friday)As-Sabt (The Sabbath or Saturday)Days of battlesDays of HajjDoomsday
Months of the
Islamic calendar
12 months: Four holy months Ash-Shahr Al-Ḥarām (The Sacred or Forbidden Month)Ramaḍān
Pilgrimages
Al-Ḥajj (literally 'The Pilgrimage', the Greater Pilgrimage)Al-ʿUmrah (The Lesser Pilgrimage)
Times for prayer
or remembrance
Times for Duʿāʾ ('Invocation'), Ṣalāh and Dhikr ('Remembrance', including Taḥmīd ('Praising'), Takbīr and Tasbīḥ):
Al-ʿAshiyy (The Afternoon or the Night)Al-Ghuduww ('The Mornings') Al-Bukrah ('The Morning')Aṣ-Ṣabāḥ ('The Morning')Al-Layl ('The Night') Al-ʿIshāʾ ('The Late-Night')Aẓ-Ẓuhr ('The Noon')Dulūk ash-Shams ('Decline of the Sun') Al-Masāʾ ('The Evening')Qabl al-Ghurūb ('Before the Setting (of the Sun)') Al-Aṣīl ('The Afternoon')Al-ʿAṣr ('The Afternoon')Qabl ṭulūʿ ash-Shams ('Before the rising of the Sun') Al-Fajr ('The Dawn')
Implied
Ghadir KhummLaylat al-MabitFirst Pilgrimage
Other
Holy books
Al-Injīl (The Gospel of Jesus)Al-Qurʾān (The Book of Muhammad)Ṣuḥuf-i Ibrāhīm (Scroll(s) of Abraham)At-Tawrāt (The Torah) Ṣuḥuf-i-Mūsā (Scroll(s) of Moses)Tablets of StoneAz-Zabūr (The Psalms of David)Umm al-Kitāb ('Mother of the Book(s)')
Objects
of people
or beings
Heavenly food of Jesus' apostlesNoah's ArkStaff of MusaTābūt as-Sakīnah (Casket of Shekhinah)Throne of BilqisTrumpet of Israfil
Mentioned idols
(cult images)
'AnsābJibt and Ṭāghūt (False god)
Of Israelites
BaʿalThe ʿijl (golden calf statue) of Israelites
Of Noah's people
NasrSuwāʿWaddYaghūthYaʿūq
Of Quraysh
Al-LātAl-ʿUzzāManāt
Celestial
bodies
Maṣābīḥ (literally 'lamps'):
Al-Qamar (The Moon)Kawākib (Planets) Al-Arḍ (The Earth)Nujūm (Stars) Ash-Shams (The Sun)
Plant matter
Baṣal (Onion)Fūm (Garlic or wheat)Shaṭʾ (Shoot)Sūq (Plant stem)Zarʿ (Seed)
Fruits
ʿAdas (Lentil)Baql (Herb)Qith-thāʾ (Cucumber)Rummān (Pomegranate)Tīn (Fig)Zaytūn (Olive)In Paradise Forbidden fruit of Adam
Bushes, trees
or plants
Plants of Sheba Athl (Tamarisk)Sidr (Lote-tree)Līnah (Tender Palm tree)Nakhl (Date palm)Sidrat al-MuntahāZaqqūm
Liquids
Māʾ (Water or fluid) Nahr (River)Yamm (River or sea)Sharāb (Drink)
Note: Names are sorted alphabetically. Standard form: Islamic name / Biblical name (title or relationship)
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