John
F. Kennedy was the 35th President of the United States (1961-1963), the
youngest man elected to the office. On November 22, 1963, when he was
hardly past his first thousand days in office, JFK was assassinated in
Dallas, Texas, becoming also the youngest President to die.
On
November 22, 1963, when he was hardly past his first thousand days in
office, John Fitzgerald Kennedy was killed by an assassin’s bullets as
his motorcade wound through Dallas, Texas. Kennedy was the youngest man
elected President; he was the youngest to die.
Of Irish descent,
he was born in Brookline, Massachusetts, on May 29, 1917. Graduating
from Harvard in 1940, he entered the Navy. In 1943, when his PT boat was
rammed and sunk by a Japanese destroyer, Kennedy, despite grave
injuries, led the survivors through perilous waters to safety.
Back
from the war, he became a Democratic Congressman from the Boston area,
advancing in 1953 to the Senate. He married Jacqueline Bouvier on
September 12, 1953. In 1955, while recuperating from a back operation,
he wrote Profiles in Courage, which won the Pulitzer Prize in history.
In
1956 Kennedy almost gained the Democratic nomination for Vice
President, and four years later was a first-ballot nominee for
President. Millions watched his television debates with the Republican
candidate, Richard M. Nixon. Winning by a narrow margin in the popular
vote, Kennedy became the first Roman Catholic President.
His
Inaugural Address offered the memorable injunction: “Ask not what your
country can do for you–ask what you can do for your country.” As
President, he set out to redeem his campaign pledge to get America
moving again. His economic programs launched the country on its longest
sustained expansion since World War II; before his death, he laid plans
for a massive assault on persisting pockets of privation and poverty.
Responding
to ever more urgent demands, he took vigorous action in the cause of
equal rights, calling for new civil rights legislation. His vision of
America extended to the quality of the national culture and the central
role of the arts in a vital society.
He wished America to resume
its old mission as the first nation dedicated to the revolution of human
rights. With the Alliance for Progress and the Peace Corps, he brought
American idealism to the aid of developing nations. But the hard reality
of the Communist challenge remained.
Shortly after his
inauguration, Kennedy permitted a band of Cuban exiles, already armed
and trained, to invade their homeland. The attempt to overthrow the
regime of Fidel Castro was a failure. Soon thereafter, the Soviet Union
renewed its campaign against West Berlin. Kennedy replied by reinforcing
the Berlin garrison and increasing the Nation’s military strength,
including new efforts in outer space. Confronted by this reaction,
Moscow, after the erection of the Berlin Wall, relaxed its pressure in
central Europe.
Instead, the Russians now sought to install
nuclear missiles in Cuba. When this was discovered by air reconnaissance
in October 1962, Kennedy imposed a quarantine on all offensive weapons
bound for Cuba. While the world trembled on the brink of nuclear war,
the Russians backed down and agreed to take the missiles away. The
American response to the Cuban crisis evidently persuaded Moscow of the
futility of nuclear blackmail.
Kennedy now contended that both
sides had a vital interest in stopping the spread of nuclear weapons and
slowing the arms race–a contention which led to the test ban treaty of
1963. The months after the Cuban crisis showed significant progress
toward his goal of “a world of law and free choice, banishing the world
of war and coercion.” His administration thus saw the beginning of new
hope for both the equal rights of Americans and the peace of the world.
Assassination of John F. Kennedy
Kennedy
with his wife, Jacqueline, and Texas Governor John Connally with his
wife, Nellie, in the presidential limousine, minutes before the
assassination
Location Dealey Plaza, Dallas, Texas, USA
Coordinates 32°46′45″N 96°48′31″WCoordinates: 32°46′45″N 96°48′31″W
Date November 22, 1963; 56 years ago
12:30 PM (Central Standard Time)
Target John F. Kennedy
Attack type
Sniper assassination
Weapons 6.5×52mm Italian Carcano M91/38 bolt-action rifle
Deaths John F. Kennedy
J. D. Tippit
Injured John Connally
James Tague
Perpetrator Lee Harvey Oswald
John F. Kennedy, White House photo portrait, looking up.jpg
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John
F. Kennedy, the 35th President of the United States, was assassinated
on Friday, November 22, 1963, at 12:30 p.m. Central Standard Time in
Dallas, Texas, while riding in a presidential motorcade through Dealey
Plaza.[1] Kennedy was riding with his wife Jacqueline, Texas Governor
John Connally, and Connally's wife Nellie when he was fatally shot by
former U.S. Marine Lee Harvey Oswald firing in ambush from a nearby
building. Governor Connally was seriously wounded in the attack. The
motorcade rushed to Parkland Memorial Hospital where Kennedy was
pronounced dead about 30 minutes after the shooting; Connally recovered.
Oswald
was arrested by the Dallas Police Department 70 minutes after the
initial shooting. Oswald was charged under Texas state law with the
murder of Kennedy, as well as that of Dallas policeman J. D. Tippit, who
had been fatally shot a short time after the assassination. At 11:21
a.m. November 24, 1963, as live television cameras were covering his
transfer from the city jail to the county jail, Oswald was fatally shot
in the basement of Dallas Police Headquarters by Dallas nightclub
operator Jack Ruby. Oswald was taken to Parkland Memorial Hospital,
where he soon died. Ruby was convicted of Oswald's murder, though it was
later overturned on appeal, and Ruby died in prison in 1967 while
awaiting a new trial.
After a 10-month investigation, the Warren
Commission concluded that Oswald assassinated Kennedy, that Oswald had
acted entirely alone, and that Ruby had acted alone in killing
Oswald.[2] Kennedy was the eighth and most recent US President to die in
office, and the fourth (following Lincoln, Garfield, and McKinley) to
be assassinated. Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson automatically became
president upon Kennedy's death.[3]
A later investigation, the
United States House Select Committee on Assassinations (HSCA), agreed
with the Warren Commission that the injuries that Kennedy and Connally
sustained were caused by Oswald's three rifle shots, but they also
concluded that Kennedy was "probably assassinated as a result of a
conspiracy"[4] as analysis of a dictabelt audio recording pointed to the
existence of an additional gunshot and therefore "... a high
probability that two gunmen fired at [the] President".[5][6] The
committee was not able to identify any individuals or groups involved
with the possible conspiracy. In addition, the HSCA found that the
original federal investigations were "seriously flawed" with respect to
information-sharing and the possibility of conspiracy.[7] As recommended
by the HSCA, the dictabelt evidence suggesting conspiracy was
subsequently re-examined and rejected.[8] It was determined that the
dictabelt recorded different gunshots which were fired at another
location in Dallas and at a different time which was not related to the
assassination.[8]
In light of the investigative reports
determining that "reliable acoustic data do not support a conclusion
that there was a second gunman", the U.S. Justice Department concluded
active investigations and stated "that no persuasive evidence can be
identified to support the theory of a conspiracy" in the
assassination.[9] However, Kennedy's assassination is still the subject
of widespread debate and has spawned numerous conspiracy theories and
alternative scenarios. Polls conducted from 1966 to 2004 found that up
to 80 percent of Americans suspected that there was a plot or
cover-up.[10][11]
Contents
Timeline
See also: Timeline of the John F. Kennedy assassination
Background
Kennedy
chose to travel to Texas to smooth over frictions in the Democratic
Party between liberals Ralph Yarborough and Don Yarborough (no relation)
and conservative Texas governor John Connally.[12] The visit was first
agreed upon by Kennedy, Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson (a Texas
native), and Connally during a meeting in El Paso in June.[13]
Kennedy
later decided to embark on the trip with three basic goals in mind: 1.)
to help raise more Democratic Party presidential campaign fund
contributions;[13] 2.) begin his quest for reelection in November
1964;[14] and 3.) to help mend political fences among several leading
Texas Democratic party members who appeared to be fighting politically
amongst themselves since the Kennedy-Johnson ticket had barely won Texas
in 1960 (and had even lost in Dallas).[15] The trip was publicly
announced in September 1963;[16] the exact motorcade route was finalized
on November 18 and publicly announced a few days before November
22.[17]
Route to Dealey Plaza
Dealey Plaza showing the route of Kennedy's motorcade. In the overhead view north is at left.
Kennedy's
itinerary called for him to arrive at Dallas Love Field via a short
flight from Carswell Air Force Base in Fort Worth.[18][19] The motorcade
route through Dallas – with Kennedy, Connally, and their wives together
in a single limousine, and Johnson and his wife two cars behind – was
intended to give Kennedy maximum exposure to local crowds before his
arrival[18] for a luncheon at the Trade Mart, where he would meet with
civic and business leaders.
The Dallas Trade Mart was
preliminarily selected as the site for the luncheon, and Kenneth
O'Donnell, Kennedy's friend and appointments secretary, had selected it
as the final destination on the motorcade route.[18][19] Leaving from
Dallas Love Field, the motorcade had been allotted 45 minutes to reach
the Trade Mart at a planned arrival time of 12:15 p.m. The itinerary was
designed to serve as a meandering 10-mile (16-km) route between the two
places, and the motorcade vehicles could be driven slowly within the
allotted time.
Special Agent Winston G. Lawson, a member of the
White House detail who acted as the advance Secret Service Agent, and
Secret Service Agent Forrest V. Sorrels, special agent in charge of the
Dallas office, were the most active in planning the actual motorcade
route. On November 14, both men attended a meeting at Love Field and
drove over the route that Sorrels believed was best suited for the
motorcade. From Love Field, the route passed through a suburban section
of Dallas, through Downtown along Main Street, and finally to the Trade
Mart via a short segment of the Stemmons Freeway.[20]
Kennedy had
planned to return to Love Field to depart for a fundraising dinner in
Austin later that day. For the return trip, the agents selected a more
direct route, which was approximately four miles, or 6.4 kilometers
(some of this route would be used after the assassination). The planned
route to the Trade Mart was widely reported in Dallas newspapers several
days before the event, for the benefit of people who wished to view the
motorcade.[20]
To pass directly through Downtown Dallas, a route
west along Main Street, rather than Elm Street (one block to the north)
was chosen, since this was the traditional parade route and provided
the maximal building and crowd views. The Main Street section of the
route precluded a direct turn onto the Fort Worth Turnpike exit (which
served also as the Stemmons Freeway exit), which was the route to the
Trade Mart, as this exit was only accessible from Elm Street. Therefore,
the planned motorcade route included a short one-block turn at the end
of the downtown segment of Main Street, onto Houston Street for one
block northward, before turning again west onto Elm, that way they could
proceed through Dealey Plaza before exiting Elm onto the Stemmons
Freeway. The Texas School Book Depository was situated at the northwest
corner of the Houston and Elm Street intersection.[21]
Three
vehicles were used for Secret Service and police protection in the
Dallas motorcade. The first car, an unmarked white Ford (hardtop),
carried Dallas Police Chief Jesse Curry, Secret Service Agent Win
Lawson, Sheriff Bill Decker and Dallas Field Agent Forrest Sorrels. The
second car, a 1961 Lincoln Continental convertible, was occupied by
driver Agent Bill Greer, SAIC Roy Kellerman, Governor John Connally,
Nellie Connally, President Kennedy, and Jackie Kennedy.[22]
The
third car, a 1955 Cadillac convertible code-named "Halfback", contained
driver Agent Sam Kinney, ATSAIC Emory Roberts, presidential aides Ken
O'Donnell and Dave Powers, driver Agent George Hickey and PRS agent Glen
Bennett. Secret Service agents Clint Hill, Jack Ready, Tim McIntyre and
Paul Landis rode on the running boards.
On November 22—after a
breakfast speech in Fort Worth, where Kennedy had stayed overnight after
arriving from San Antonio, Houston, and Washington, D.C., the previous
day[23]—Kennedy boarded Air Force One, which departed at 11:10 and
arrived at Love Field 15 minutes later. At about 11:40, Kennedy's
motorcade left Love Field for the trip through Dallas, running on a
schedule about 10 minutes longer than the planned 45, due to
enthusiastic crowds estimated at 150,000 to 200,000 people, and two
unplanned stops directed by Kennedy.[24][25]
Assassination
Shooting in Dealey Plaza
Dealey
Plaza, with Elm Street on the right and the Triple Underpass in the
middle. The white concrete pergola, from which Zapruder was filming, is
at the right, and the Grassy Knoll is at left. The red brick building
partially visible at upper right is the Texas School Book Depository.
Kennedy was struck by the final bullet when he was just left of the
lamp-post in front of the pergola.
Ike Altgens's photo of Kennedy's
limousine, taken between the first and second shots that struck Kennedy.
Kennedy's left hand is in front of his throat and Mrs. Kennedy's left
hand is holding his arm.
Polaroid photo by Mary Moorman taken a fraction of a second after the fatal shot (detail).
Secret
Service Special Agent Clint Hill shields the occupants of the
presidential limousine moments after the fatal shots. (Background
blurred because the camera was panning in to follow the limousine ).
Witness
Howard Brennan sitting in the identical spot across from the Texas
School Book Depository four months after the assassination. Circle "A"
indicates where he saw Oswald firing a rifle.
In this 2008 photo,
arrows indicate the sixth-floor window of the Texas School Book
Depository and the spot on Elm Street at which Kennedy was struck in the
head. Right of the depository is the Dal-Tex Building.
Kennedy's
open-top 1961 Lincoln Continental four-door convertible limousine
entered Dealey Plaza at 12:30 p.m. CST. Nellie Connally, the First Lady
of Texas, turned to Kennedy, who was sitting behind her, and commented,
"Mr. President, you can't say Dallas doesn't love you". Kennedy's reply –
"No, you certainly can't" – were his last words.[26][27][28]
From
Houston Street, the limousine made the planned left turn onto Elm to
provide access to the Stemmons Freeway exit.[further explanation needed]
As it turned, it passed by the Texas School Book Depository, and as it
continued down Elm Street shots were fired. About 80% of the witnesses
recalled hearing three shots.[29]
A small number of witnesses
recognized the first gunshot (shortly after Kennedy began waving) for
what it was, but there was little reaction from most in the crowd or
riding in the motorcade. Many later said they imagined what they heard
to be a firecracker, or a vehicle backfiring.[30] Although some close
witnesses[31] recalled seeing the limousine slow down, nearly stop, or
completely stop, the Warren Commission—based on the Zapruder film—found
that the limousine had traveled an average speed of 11.2 miles per hour
over the 186 ft of Elm Street immediately preceding the fatal head
shot.[32]
Within one second of each other, Governor Connally and
Mrs. Kennedy turn abruptly from looking to their left to looking to
their right, beginning at Zapruder film frame 162.[33] Connally, like
Kennedy, was a World War II military veteran, and was a longtime hunter;
he testified that he immediately recognized the sound as that of a
high-powered rifle, and turned his head and torso rightward in an
attempt to see Kennedy behind him. He testified he could not see
Kennedy, so he then started to turn forward again (turning from his
right to his left), and that when his head was facing about 20 degrees
left of center,[27] he was hit in his upper right back by a bullet that
he did not hear fired. The doctor who operated on Connally estimated
that his head at the time he was hit had been 27 degrees left of
center.[27] After Connally was hit, he shouted, "Oh, no, no, no. My God.
They're going to kill us all!"[34]
Mrs. Connally testified that
just after hearing a loud, frightening noise that came from somewhere
behind her and to her right, she turned toward Kennedy and saw him raise
up his arms and elbows, with his hands in front of his face and throat.
She then heard another shot and then Governor Connally yelling. Mrs.
Connally then turned away from Kennedy toward her husband, at which
point another gunshot sounded, and both she and the limousine's rear
interior were covered with fragments of skull, blood, and brain.
According
to the Warren Commission[35] and the House Select Committee on
Assassinations,[36] Kennedy was waving to the crowds on his right with
his right arm upraised on the side of the limo when a shot entered his
upper back, penetrated his neck and slightly damaged a spinal vertebra
and the top of his right lung. The bullet exited his throat nearly
centerline just beneath his larynx and nicked the left side of his suit
tie knot. He raised his elbows and clenched his fists in front of his
face and neck, then leaned forward and left. Mrs. Kennedy, facing him,
then put her arms around him in concern.[27][37]
According to the
Warren Commission's single bullet theory, Governor Connally also
reacted after the same bullet penetrated his back just below his right
armpit. The bullet created an oval-shaped entry wound, impacted and
destroyed four inches of his right fifth rib, and exited his chest just
below his right nipple. This created a two-and-a-half inch oval-shaped
air-sucking chest wound. That same bullet then entered his arm just
above his right wrist and cleanly shattered his right radius bone into
eight pieces. The bullet exited just below the wrist at the inner side
of his right palm and finally lodged in his left inner thigh.[27][37]
The Warren Commission theorized that the "single bullet" struck sometime
between Zapruder frames 210 and 225, while the House Select Committee
theorized that it struck at approximately Zapruder frame 190.[38]
According
to the Warren Commission, a second shot that struck Kennedy was
recorded at Zapruder film frame 313. The commission made no conclusion
as to whether this was the second or third bullet fired. The limousine
then passed in front of the John Neely Bryan north pergola concrete
structure. The two investigative committees concluded that the second
shot to hit Kennedy entered the rear of his head (the House Select
Committee placed the entry wound four inches higher than the Warren
Commission placed it) and passed in fragments through his skull; this
created a large, "roughly ovular" [sic] hole on the rear, right side of
the head. Kennedy's blood and fragments of his scalp, brain, and skull
landed on the interior of the car, the inner and outer surfaces of the
front glass windshield, the raised sun visors, the front engine hood,
and the rear trunk lid. His blood and fragments also landed on the
Secret Service follow-up car and its driver's left arm, as well on the
motorcycle officers who were riding on both sides of Kennedy just behind
his vehicle.[39][40]
Secret Service Special Agent Clint Hill was
riding on the left front running board of the follow-up car, which was
immediately behind Kennedy's limousine. Hill testified that he heard one
shot, then, as documented in other films and concurrent with Zapruder
frame 308, he jumped off into Elm Street and ran forward to board the
trunk of the limousine and protect Kennedy; Hill testified to the Warren
Commission that he heard the fatal headshot as he was reaching the
limousine, "approximately five seconds" after the first shot that he
heard.[41]
After Kennedy was shot in the head, Mrs. Kennedy began
climbing out onto the back of the limousine, though she later had no
recollection of doing so.[34][42] Hill believed she was reaching for
something, perhaps a piece of Kennedy's skull.[41] He jumped onto the
back of the limousine while at the same time Mrs. Kennedy returned to
her seat, and he clung to the car as it exited Dealey Plaza and
accelerated, speeding to Parkland Memorial Hospital.
After Mrs.
Kennedy crawled back into her limousine seat, both Governor and Mrs.
Connally heard her repeatedly say, "They have killed my husband. I have
his brains in my hand."[26][27] Mrs. Kennedy recalled, "All the ride to
the hospital I kept bending over him saying, 'Jack, Jack, can you hear
me? I love you, Jack.' I kept holding the top of his head down trying to
keep the brains in."[43]
Governor Connally and a spectator wounded
Governor
Connally was riding in the same limousine in a seat directly in front
of Kennedy and three inches more to the left than Kennedy; he was also
seriously injured, but survived. Doctors later stated that after the
Governor was shot, his wife pulled him onto her lap, and the resulting
posture helped close his front chest wound, which was causing air to be
sucked directly into his chest around his collapsed right lung.
Bystander
James Tague received a minor wound to the right cheek while standing
531 feet (162 m) away from the depository's sixth floor easternmost
window, 270 feet (82 m) in front of and slightly to the right of
Kennedy's head facing direction and more than 16 feet (4.9 m) below the
top of Kennedy's head. Tague's injury occurred when a bullet or bullet
fragment with no copper casing struck the nearby Main Street south curb.
A deputy sheriff noticed some blood on Tague's cheek, and Tague
realized that something had stung his face during the shooting. When
Tague pointed to where he had been standing, the police officer noticed a
bullet smear on a nearby curb. Nine months later the FBI removed the
curb, and a spectrographic analysis revealed metallic residue consistent
with that of the lead core in Oswald's ammunition.[44] Tague testified
before the Warren Commission and initially stated that he was wounded on
his cheek by either the second or third shot of the three shots that he
remembered hearing. When the commission counsel pressed him to be more
specific, Tague testified that he was wounded by the second shot.[45]
Aftermath in Dealey Plaza
Bill and Gayle Newman dropped to the grass and shielded their children.
The
limousine was passing the grassy knoll to the north of Elm Street at
the time of the fatal head shot. As the motorcade left Dealey Plaza,
police officers and spectators ran up the grassy hill and from the
triple underpass, to the area behind a five-foot (1.5 m) high stockade
fence atop the knoll, separating it from a parking lot. No sniper was
found there.[46] S. M. Holland, who had been watching the motorcade on
the triple underpass, testified that "immediately" after the shots were
fired, he saw a puff of smoke rising from the trees right by the
stockade fence and then ran around the corner where the overpass joined
the fence, but did not see anyone running from that area.[47][48]
Lee
Bowers was in a two-story railroad switch tower[48] which gave him an
unobstructed view of the rear of the stockade fence atop the grassy
knoll.[49] He saw four men in the area between his tower and Elm Street:
two men who seemed not to know each other near the triple underpass,
some 10 to 15 feet (3 to 5 m) apart, and one or two uniformed parking
lot attendants. At the time of the shooting, he saw "something out of
the ordinary, a sort of milling around", which he could not identify.
Bowers testified that one or both of the men were still there when
motorcycle officer Clyde Haygood ran up the grassy knoll to the back of
the fence.[50] In a 1966 interview, Bowers clarified that the two men he
saw were standing in the opening between the pergola and the fence, and
that "no one" was behind the fence at the time the shots were
fired.[51][52]
Meanwhile, Howard Brennan, a steamfitter who had
been sitting across the street from the Texas School Book Depository,
approached police to say that as the motorcade passed he heard a shot
come from above, then looked up to see a man with a rifle take another
shot from a sixth-floor corner window. He said he had seen the same man
looking out the window minutes earlier.[53] Police broadcast Brennan's
description of this man at 12:45, 12:48, and 12:55 p.m.[54][55] After
the second shot, Brennan recalled,[when?] "This man ... was aiming for
his last shot ... and maybe paused for another second as though to
assure himself that he had hit his mark."[56]
As Brennan spoke to
the police in front of the building, they were joined by two Book
Depository employees who had been watching the motorcade from windows at
the southeast corner of the building's fifth floor.[57] One reported
hearing three gunshots come from directly over their heads[58] and
sounds of a bolt-action rifle and cartridges dropping on the floor
above.[59]
Dallas police sealed off the exits from the depository approximately between 12:33 and 12:50 p.m.[60][61]
There
were at least 104 earwitnesses in Dealey Plaza who were on record with
an opinion as to the direction from which the shots came. Fifty-four
(51.9%) thought that all shots came from the depository building.
Thirty-three (31.7%) thought that they came from either the grassy knoll
or the triple underpass. Nine (8.7%) thought that each shot came from a
location entirely distinct from the knoll or the depository. Five
(4.8%) believed that they heard shots from two locations, and 3 (2.9%)
thought that the shots originated from a direction consistent with both
the knoll and the depository.[29][62]
The Warren Commission
additionally concluded that three shots were fired and said that "a
substantial majority of the witnesses stated that the shots were not
evenly spaced. Most witnesses recalled that the second and third shots
were bunched together".[63]
Lee Harvey Oswald and Jack Ruby
Main article: Lee Harvey Oswald
External video Oswald professing innocence
Oswald's press conference
Jack
Ruby shooting Oswald, who was being escorted by police detective Jim
Leavelle (tan suit) for the transfer from the city jail to the county
jail.
After Oswald's supervisor at the depository reported him
missing,[64] police broadcast his description as a suspect in the
shooting at Dealey Plaza.[citation needed] Police officer J. D. Tippit
subsequently spotted Oswald walking along a sidewalk in the residential
neighborhood of Oak Cliff (three miles from Dealey Plaza) and called him
over to the patrol car. After an exchange of words, Tippit got out of
his car; Oswald shot Tippit four times, emptied the bullet casings from
his gun, and fled.[65]
Oswald was subsequently seen "ducking
into" the entrance alcove of a store by the store's manager, who then
watched Oswald continue up the street and slip into the Texas Theatre
without paying.[66] The store manager alerted the theater's ticket
clerk, who telephoned police[67] at about 1:40 p.m. Officers arrived and
arrested Oswald inside the theater. According to one of the officers,
Oswald resisted and was attempting to draw his pistol when he was struck
and restrained.[68]
Oswald was charged with the murders of
Kennedy and Tippit later that night.[69] He denied shooting anyone and
claimed he was being made a "patsy" because he had lived in the Soviet
Union.[70]
On Sunday, November 24 at 11:21 a.m. CST, as Oswald
was being escorted to a car in the basement of Dallas Police
headquarters for the transfer from the city jail to the county jail, he
was fatally shot by Dallas nightclub owner Jack Ruby. The shooting was
broadcast live on American television. Unconscious, Oswald was taken by
ambulance to Parkland Memorial Hospital, where Kennedy had died two days
earlier; he died at 1:07 p.m.[71] Oswald's death was announced on a TV
news broadcast by Dallas police chief Jesse Curry. An autopsy later that
day, by Dallas County Medical Examiner Earl Rose, found that Oswald had
been killed by a gunshot wound to the chest.[72] Arrested immediately
after the shooting, Ruby said that he had been distraught by Kennedy's
death and that killing Oswald would spare "Mrs. Kennedy the discomfiture
of coming back to trial".[73]
Carcano rifle
Main article: John F. Kennedy assassination rifle
An
Italian Carcano M91/38 bolt-action rifle (see 6.5×52mm
Mannlicher–Carcano cartridge) was found on the 6th floor of the Texas
School Book Depository by Deputy Constable Seymour Weitzman and Deputy
Sheriff Eugene Boone soon after the assassination.[74] The recovery was
filmed by Tom Alyea of WFAA-TV.[75]
This footage shows the rifle
to be a Carcano, and photographic analysis commissioned by the HSCA
verified that the rifle filmed was the one later identified as the
assassination weapon.[76] Compared to photographs taken of Oswald
holding the rifle in his backyard, "one notch in the stock at [a] point
that appears very faintly in the photograph" matched,[77] as well as the
rifle's dimensions.[78]
The rifle had been purchased,
secondhand, by Oswald the previous March under the alias "A. Hidell" and
delivered to a post-office box he had rented in Dallas.[79] According
to the Warren Report, a partial palm print belonging to Oswald was also
found on the barrel,[80][81] and fibers found in a crevice of the rifle
were consistent with the fibers from the shirt Oswald was wearing when
he was arrested.[82][83]
A bullet found on Governor Connally's
hospital gurney and two bullet fragments found in the limousine were
ballistically matched to this rifle.[84]
Kennedy declared dead in the emergency room
Cecil
Stoughton's iconic photograph of Lyndon B. Johnson being sworn in as
President as Air Force One prepares to depart Love Field in Dallas.
Jacqueline Kennedy (right), still in her blood-spattered clothes (not
visible here), looks on.
In a death certificate executed the
following day, Kennedy's personal physician, George Burkley, recited
that he arrived at the hospital some five minutes after Kennedy and –
though Secret Service personnel reported that Kennedy had been breathing
– immediately saw that survival was impossible. The certificate listed
"gunshot wound, skull" as the cause of death.[85][86]
Kennedy was
pronounced dead at 1:00 p.m., CST (19:00 UTC) after heart activity
ceased. Father Oscar Huber[87] administered the last rites of the Roman
Catholic Church. Huber[87] told The New York Times that by the time he
arrived at the hospital Kennedy had died, so that he had to draw back a
sheet covering Kennedy's face to administer the sacrament of Extreme
Unction. Kennedy's death was announced by White House Acting Press
Secretary Malcolm Kilduff at 1:33 p.m.[88][89] (Press Secretery Pierre
Salinger was traveling to Japan that day, along with much of the
Cabinet.)[90][91][92] Governor Connally, meanwhile, was taken to
emergency surgery, where he underwent two operations that day.
Members
of Kennedy's security detail were attempting to remove Kennedy's body
from the hospital when they briefly scuffled with Dallas officials,
including Dallas County Coroner Earl Rose, who believed that he was
legally obligated to perform an autopsy before Kennedy's body was
removed.[93] The Secret Service pushed through and Rose eventually
stepped aside.[94] The forensic panel of the HSCA, of which Rose was a
member, later said that Texas law made it the responsibility of the
justice of the peace to determine cause of death and to determine
whether an autopsy was needed.[95] A Dallas County justice of the peace
signed the official record of inquest[when?][95] as well as a second
certificate of death.[when?][96]
A few minutes after 2:00
p.m,[further explanation needed] Kennedy's body was taken from Parkland
Hospital to Love Field. His casket was loaded into the rear of the
passenger compartment of Air Force One in place of a removed row of
seats.
Vice-President Lyndon Johnson had accompanied Kennedy to
Dallas and been riding two cars behind Kennedy's limousine in the
motorcade. At 2:38 p.m., with Jacqueline Kennedy at his side, he was
administered the oath of office by federal judge Sarah T. Hughes aboard
Air Force One shortly before departing for Washington.[97]
Autopsy
Main article: John F. Kennedy autopsy
Kennedy's
autopsy was performed at the Bethesda Naval Hospital in Bethesda,
Maryland, between about 8 p.m. and midnight EST. It was performed at a
naval hospital at the request of Jacqueline Kennedy, on the basis that
President Kennedy had been a naval officer during World War II.[98]
Funeral
Main article: State funeral of John F. Kennedy
Kennedy's
body was flown back to Washington, D.C., and placed in the East Room of
the White House for 24 hours.[99] The following Sunday his coffin was
carried on a horse-drawn caisson to the United States Capitol to lie in
state.[100] Throughout the day and night, hundreds of thousands of
people lined up to view the guarded casket.[101] Representatives from
over 90 countries attended the state funeral on Monday, November
25.[102] After the Requiem Mass at St. Matthew's Cathedral, Kennedy was
buried at Arlington National Cemetery, just outside Washington in
Virginia.[103]
Film and audio captures of assassination events
No
radio or television stations broadcast the assassination live. Most
media crews did not ride with the motorcade, but were instead waiting at
the Dallas Trade Mart in anticipation of Kennedy's arrival there.
Members of the media who were with the motorcade were riding at the rear
of the procession.
The Dallas police were recording their radio
transmissions over two different channels. Channel One was used for
routine police communications, while Channel Two was dedicated to the
motorcade; until shots were fired, most traffic on the second channel
was Police Chief Jesse Curry's updates on the motorcade's location.
Kennedy's
last seconds of traveling through Dealey Plaza were recorded on silent 8
mm film for the 26.6 seconds before, during, and immediately following
the assassination. This famous film footage was taken by garment
manufacturer and amateur cameraman Abraham Zapruder, and became known as
the Zapruder film. Frame enlargements from the Zapruder film were
published by Life magazine shortly after the assassination. The footage
was first shown publicly as a film at the trial of Clay Shaw in 1969,
and on television in 1975.[104] According to the Guinness Book of World
Records, in 1999 an arbitration panel ordered the United States
government to pay $615,384 per second of film to Zapruder's heirs for
giving the film to the National Archives. The complete film, which lasts
for roughly over 26 seconds, was valued at $16 million.[105][106]
Including
Zapruder, 32 photographers are known to have been in Dealey Plaza that
day. Amateur movies taken by Orville Nix, Marie Muchmore (shown on
television in New York on November 26, 1963),[107][108][109] and
photographer Charles Bronson captured the fatal shot, although at a
greater distance than Zapruder did. Other motion picture films were
taken in Dealey Plaza at or around the time of the shooting by Robert
Hughes, F. Mark Bell, Elsie Dorman, John Martin Jr., Patsy Paschall,
Tina Towner, James Underwood, Dave Wiegman, Mal Couch, Thomas Atkins,
and an unknown woman in a blue dress on the south side of Elm
Street.[110]
Still photos were taken by Phillip Willis, Mary
Moorman, Hugh W. Betzner Jr., Wilma Bond, Robert Croft, and many others.
Ike Altgens, a photo editor for the Associated Press in Dallas, was the
only professional photographer in Dealey Plaza who was not in the press
cars.
Motion pictures and photographs taken by some of these
people show an unidentified woman, nicknamed by researchers Babushka
Lady, apparently filming the motorcade around the time of the
assassination.
Previously unknown color footage filmed on the
assassination day by George Jefferies was released in February
2007.[111][112] The film was shot over 90 seconds before the
assassination, several blocks away. However, it gives a clear view of
Kennedy's bunched suit jacket, just below the collar, which has led to
varying calculations of how low in the back Kennedy was first shot (see
discussion above).
Official investigations
Dallas Police
After
the Dallas Police arrested Oswald and collected physical evidence at
the crime scenes, they held Oswald at their headquarters, questioning
him all afternoon about the shootings of Kennedy and Tippit. They
intermittently questioned him for approximately 12 hours between 2:30
p.m., on November 22, and 11 a.m., on November 24.[113] Throughout,
Oswald denied any involvement with either shooting.[113] Captain Fritz
of the homicide and robbery bureau did most of the questioning; he kept
only rudimentary notes.[114][115] Days later, he wrote a report of the
interrogation from notes he made afterwards.[114] There were no
stenographic or tape recordings. Representatives of other law
enforcement agencies were also present, including the FBI and the Secret
Service, and occasionally participated in the questioning.[116] Several
of the FBI agents who were present wrote contemporaneous reports of the
interrogation.[117]
On the evening of the assassination, Dallas
Police performed paraffin tests on Oswald's hands and right cheek in an
effort to establish whether or not he had recently fired a weapon.[116]
The results were positive for the hands and negative for the right
cheek.[116] Such tests were unreliable, and the Warren Commission did
not rely on these results.[116]
Oswald provided little
information during his questioning. When confronted with evidence that
he could not explain, he resorted to statements that were found to be
false.[116][118]
FBI investigation
On December 9, 1963, the
Warren Commission received the FBI's report of its investigation,[119]
which concluded that three bullets had been fired—the first hitting
Kennedy, the second hitting Connally, and the third hitting Kennedy in
the head, killing him. The Warren Commission concluded that one of the
three shots missed, one passed through Kennedy and then struck Connally,
and a third struck Kennedy in the head.
Warren Commission
The
Warren Commission presents its report to President Johnson. From left to
right: John McCloy, J. Lee Rankin (General Counsel), Senator Richard
Russell, Congressman Gerald Ford, Chief Justice Earl Warren, President
Lyndon B. Johnson, Allen Dulles, Senator John Sherman Cooper, and
Congressman Hale Boggs.
Main article: Warren Commission
The
President's Commission on the Assassination of President Kennedy, known
unofficially as the Warren Commission, was established on November 29,
1963, by President Johnson to investigate the assassination.[120] Its
888-page final report was presented to Johnson on September 24,
1964,[121] and made public three days later.[122] It concluded that Lee
Harvey Oswald had acted alone in killing Kennedy and wounding
Connally,[123] and that Jack Ruby acted alone in killing Oswald.[124]
The commission's findings have proven controversial and been variously
criticized and supported by later studies.[125]
The commission
took its unofficial name, "The Warren Commission", from its chairman,
Chief Justice Earl Warren. According to published transcripts of
Johnson's presidential phone conversations, some major officials were
opposed to forming such a commission, and several commission members
took part only with extreme reluctance.[126] One of their chief
reservations was that a commission would ultimately create more
controversy than consensus, and those fears ultimately proved
valid.[126]
All of the Warren Commission's records were submitted
to the National Archives in 1964. The unpublished portion of those
records was initially sealed for 75 years (to 2039) under a general
National Archives policy that applied to all federal investigations by
the executive branch of government,[127] a period "intended to serve as
protection for innocent persons who could otherwise be damaged because
of their relationship with participants in the case".[128] The 75-year
rule no longer exists, supplanted by the Freedom of Information Act of
1966 and the JFK Records Act of 1992.
Ramsey Clark Panel
In
1968, a panel of four medical experts appointed by Attorney General
Ramsey Clark met to examine photographs, X-rays, documents, and other
evidence. The panel concluded that Kennedy was struck by two bullets
fired from above and behind, one traversing the base of the neck on the
right without striking bone, and the other entering the skull from
behind and destroying its upper right side. They also concluded that the
skull shot entered well above the external occipital protuberance,
which was at odds with the Warren Commission's findings.[129]
Rockefeller Commission
The
United States President's Commission on CIA activities within the
United States was set up under President Gerald Ford in 1975 to
investigate the activities of the CIA within the United States. The
commission was led by Vice President Nelson Rockefeller, and is
sometimes referred to as the Rockefeller Commission.
Part of the
commission's work dealt with the Kennedy assassination, specifically the
head snap as seen in the Zapruder film (first shown to the general
public in 1975), and the possible presence of E. Howard Hunt and Frank
Sturgis in Dallas.[130] The commission concluded that neither Hunt nor
Sturgis was in Dallas at the time of the assassination.[131]
Church Committee
The
Church Committee is the common term referring to the 1975 United States
Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect
to Intelligence Activities, a U.S. Senate committee chaired by Senator
Frank Church, to investigate the illegal intelligence gathering by the
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and Federal Bureau of Investigation
(FBI) after the Watergate incident. It also investigated the CIA and FBI
conduct relating to the JFK assassination.
Their report
concluded that the investigation on the assassination by FBI and CIA
were fundamentally deficient and that facts that may have greatly
affected the investigation had not been forwarded to the Warren
Commission by the agencies. The report hinted that there was a
possibility that senior officials in both agencies made conscious
decisions not to disclose potentially important information.[132]
United States House Select Committee on Assassinations
Main article: United States House Select Committee on Assassinations
As
a result of increasing public and congressional skepticism regarding
the Warren Commission's findings and the transparency of government
agencies, House Resolution 1540 was passed in September 1976, creating
the United States House Select Committee on Assassinations (HSCA) to
investigate the assassinations of Kennedy and Martin Luther King,
Jr..[133]
The committee investigated until 1978, and in March
1979 issued its final report, concluding that President John F. Kennedy
was probably assassinated as a result of a conspiracy.[4] The chief
reason for this conclusion was, according to the report's dissent, the
subsequently discredited[8][9] acoustic analysis of a police channel
dictabelt recording. The committee concluded that previous
investigations into Oswald's responsibility were "thorough and reliable"
but they did not adequately investigate the possibility of a
conspiracy, and that Federal agencies performed with "varying degrees of
competency".[134] Specifically, the FBI and CIA were found to be
deficient in sharing information with other agencies and the Warren
Commission. Instead of furnishing all information relevant to the
investigation, the FBI and CIA only responded to specific requests and
were still occasionally inadequate.[135] Furthermore, the Secret Service
did not properly analyze information it possessed prior to the
assassination and was inadequately prepared to protect Kennedy.[4]
Concerning
the conclusions of "probable conspiracy", four of the twelve committee
members wrote dissenting opinions.[136] In accordance with the
recommendations of the HSCA, the Dictabelt recording and acoustic
evidence of a second assassin was subsequently reexamined. In light of
investigative reports from the FBI's Technical Services Division and a
specially appointed National Academy of Sciences Committee determining
that "reliable acoustic data do not support a conclusion that there was a
second gunman",[137] the Justice Department concluded "that no
persuasive evidence can be identified to support the theory of a
conspiracy" in the Kennedy assassination.[9]
Although the final
report and supporting volumes of the HSCA was publicly released, the
working papers and primary documents were sealed until 2029 under
Congressional rules and only partially released as part of the 1992 JFK
Act.[138]
JFK Act and Assassination Records Review Board
Main article: President John F. Kennedy Assassination Records Collection Act of 1992
In
1992, the popular but controversial movie JFK had renewed public
interest in the assassination and particularly in the still-classified
documents referenced in the film's postscript. Largely in response to
the film, Congress passed the JFK Act, or "President John F. Kennedy
Assassination Records Collection Act of 1992". The goal of the
legislation was to collect at the National Archives and make publicly
available all of the assassination-related records held by federal and
state government agencies, private citizens and various other
organizations.
The JFK Act also mandated the creation of an
independent office, the Assassination Records Review Board, to review
the submitted records for completeness and continued secrecy. The Review
Board was not commissioned to make any findings or conclusions
regarding the assassination, just to collect and release all related
documents. From 1994 until 1998, the Assassination Records Review Board
gathered and unsealed about 60,000 documents, consisting of over 4
million pages.[139][140] Government agencies requested that some records
remain classified and these were reviewed under section 6 criteria of
the JFK Act. There were 29,420 such records and all of them were fully
or partially released, with stringent requirements for redaction.
A
staff report for the Assassinations Records Review Board contended that
brain photographs in the Kennedy records are not of Kennedy's brain and
show much less damage than Kennedy sustained. Boswell refuted these
allegations.[141] The board also found that, conflicting with the
photographic images showing no such defect, a number of witnesses (at
both the hospital and the autopsy) saw a large wound in the back of
Kennedy's head.[142] The board and board member, Jeremy Gunn, have also
stressed the problems with witness testimony, asking people to weigh all
of the evidence, with due concern for human error, rather than take
single statements as "proof" for one theory or another.[143][144]
All
remaining assassination-related records (approximately 5,000 pages)
were scheduled to be released by October 26, 2017, with the exception of
documents certified for continued postponement by succeeding presidents
under the following conditions: (1) "continued postponement is made
necessary by an identifiable harm to the military, defense, intelligence
operations, law enforcement, or conduct of foreign relations" and (2)
"the identifiable harm is of such gravity that it outweighs the public
interest in disclosure." There was some concern among researchers that
significant records, particularly those of the CIA, might still remain
classified after 2017.[145][146] Although these documents may include
interesting historical information, all of the records were examined by
the Review Board and were not determined to impact the facts of the
Kennedy assassination.[147] President Donald Trump said in October 2017
that he would not block the release of documents.[146] On 26 April 2018,
the deadline set by President Trump to release all JFK records, he
blocked the release of some records until October 26, 2021.[148][149]
Conspiracy theories
The wooden fence on the grassy knoll, where many conspiracy theorists believe another gunman stood
Main article: John F. Kennedy assassination conspiracy theories
Many
conspiracy theories posit that the assassination involved people or
organizations in addition to Lee Harvey Oswald. Most current theories
put forth a criminal conspiracy involving parties as varied as the FBI,
the CIA, the U.S. military,[150] the Mafia, Vice President Johnson,
Cuban President Fidel Castro, the KGB, or some combination of those
entities.[151]
Public opinion polls have consistently shown that a
majority of Americans believe there was a conspiracy to kill Kennedy.
Gallup polls have also found that only 20–30% of the population believe
that Oswald had acted alone. These polls also show that there is no
agreement on who else may have been involved.[152][153] Former Los
Angeles District Attorney Vincent Bugliosi estimated that a total of 42
groups, 82 assassins, and 214 people had been accused in various Kennedy
assassination conspiracy theories.[154]
Reactions to the assassination
Main article: Reactions to the assassination of John F. Kennedy
The
assassination evoked stunned reactions worldwide. The first hour after
the shooting was a time of great confusion before the President's death
was announced. The incident took place during the Cold War, and it was
at first unclear whether the shooting might be part of a larger attack
upon the United States. There was also concern whether Vice President
Johnson, who had been riding two cars behind in the motorcade, was safe.
The
news shocked the nation. People wept openly and gathered in department
stores to watch the television coverage, while others prayed. Traffic in
some areas came to a halt as the news spread from car to car.[155]
Schools across the United States dismissed their students early.[156]
Anger against Texas and Texans was reported from some individuals.
Various Cleveland Browns fans, for example, carried signs at the next
Sunday's home game against the Dallas Cowboys decrying the city of
Dallas as having "killed the President".[157][158]
However, there
were also instances of Kennedy's opponents cheering the assassination. A
journalist reported rejoicing in the streets of Amarillo, with a woman
crying out, "Hey, great, JFK’s croaked!"[159]
The event left a
lasting impression on many worldwide. As with the preceding attack on
Pearl Harbor of December 7, 1941, and, much later, the September 11
attacks, asking "Where were you when you heard about President Kennedy's
assassination" would become a common topic of
discussion.[160][161][162][163]
Artifacts, museums and locations today
The
plane that served as Air Force One at the time of the assassination is
on display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force in
Dayton, Ohio. The 1961 Lincoln Continental limousine is on display at
the Henry Ford Museum in Dearborn, Michigan.[164]
Jacqueline
Kennedy's pink suit, the autopsy report, the X-rays, and President
Kennedy's blood-stained clothing are in the National Archives, with
access controlled by the Kennedy family. Other items in the Archives
include equipment from Parkland Hospital trauma room; Oswald's rifle,
diary, and revolver; bullet fragments; and the windshield of Kennedy's
limousine.[164] The Lincoln Catafalque, on which Kennedy's coffin rested
in the Capitol, is on display at the United States Capitol Visitor
Center.[165]
In 1993 the three-acre park within Dealey Plaza, the
buildings facing it, the overpass, and a portion of the adjacent
railyard – including the railroad switching tower – were incorporated
into the Dealey Plaza Historic District by the National Park Service.
Much of the area is accessible by visitors, including the park and
grassy knoll. Elm Street is still an active thoroughfare; an X painted
in the road marks the approximate spot at which the shots struck Kennedy
and Connally.[166] The Texas School Book Depository and its Sixth Floor
Museum draw over 325,000 visitors annually, and contains a re-creation
of the area from which Oswald fired.[167] The Sixth Floor Museum also
manages the John Fitzgerald Kennedy Memorial located one block east of
Dealey Plaza.[168]
At the direction of the deceased president's
brother, Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy, some items were destroyed
by the United States government. The casket in which Kennedy's body was
transported from Dallas to Washington was dropped into the sea by the
Air Force, because "its public display would be extremely offensive and
contrary to public policy".[169] The Texas State Archives has the
clothes Connally was wearing when he was shot. The gun Ruby used to kill
Oswald later came into the possession of Ruby's brother Earl, and was
sold in 1991 for $220,000.[170]
Dealey Plaza and Texas School Book Depository in 1969, six years after the assassination
Plaque on the Texas School Book Depository building
Looking southeast across Elm St. in 2006, with the pergola and knoll
behind the photographer: X marks the point at which Kennedy was struck
in the head.
See also
John F. Kennedy assassination conspiracy theories
Trial of Clay Shaw, the only trial to be brought for the assassination of President Kennedy.
Assassination of Robert F. Kennedy
Assassination of John F. Kennedy in popular culture
Kennedy Curse
Assassination of Abraham Lincoln
Assassination of James A. Garfield
Assassination of William McKinley
Curse of Tippecanoe
List of United States presidential assassination attempts and plots
Notes
Stokes 1979, pp. 21.
"Report
of the President's Commission on the Assassination of President
Kennedy, Chapter 1: Summary and Conclusions". August 15, 2016.
"US Constitution, Article II, Section 1, Clause 6; plus precedent set by John Tyler's succession in 1841".[better source needed]
Stokes 1979, p. 2.
Stokes 1979, pp. 90–93.
Stokes 1979, p. 65.
Stokes 1979, pp. 241-255.
Report
of the Committee on Ballistic Acoustics. National Research Council.
1982. doi:10.17226/10264. ISBN 978-0-309-25372-7. Retrieved November 11,
2013.
"Letter from Assistant Attorney General William F. Weld to Peter W. Rodino Jr., undated" (PDF). Retrieved October 19, 2014.
Gary
Langer (November 16, 2003). "John F. Kennedy's Assassination Leaves a
Legacy of Suspicion" (PDF). ABC News. Archived (PDF) from the original
on January 26, 2011. Retrieved May 16, 2010.
Jarrett Murphy, "40
Years Later: Who Killed JFK?" Archived November 17, 2011, at the Wayback
Machine, CBS News, November 21, 2003.
Russ. "26, 2009#P12844 Life in Legacy". Lifeinlegacy.com. Archived from the original on May 12, 2011. Retrieved March 28, 2010.
Warren 1964, p. 28
White 1965, p. 3
United Press International & American Heritage 1964, p. 7
Associated Press 1963, p. 7
Warren 1964, p. 40
"Testimony
of Kenneth P. O'Donnell". Warren Commission Hearings. Assassination
Archives and Research Center. pp. 440–457. Retrieved November 26, 2012.
Warren 1964, chpt. 2, p. 31.
Warren 1964, chpt. 2, p. 40.
McAdams,
John (2012). "Changed Motorcade Route in Dallas?". The Kennedy
Assassination. Marquette University. Retrieved November 26, 2012.
Blaine, G. (2003). The Kennedy Detail. New York: Gallery Books. p. 196.
"November 22, 1963: Death of Kennedy". John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum. Retrieved November 26, 2012.
Carr,
Heather. "What time was President Kennedy shot? When was Lee Harvey
Oswald arrested?". About.com Dallas. Retrieved November 26, 2012.
John F. Kennedy by Tanya Savory chapter 12, second page. Retrieved January 14, 2016
"Testimony
of Mrs. John Bowden Connally, Jr". Warren Commission Hearings.
Assassination Archives and Research Center. pp. 146–149. Retrieved
November 26, 2012.
"Testimony of Gov. John Bowden Connally, Jr".
Warren Commission Hearings. Assassination Archives and Research Center.
pp. 129–146. Retrieved November 26, 2012.
"Testimony of Mrs. John F. Kennedy". Warren Commission. p. 179. Retrieved December 20, 2013.
McAdams, John (2012). "Dealey Plaza Earwitnesses". The Kennedy Assassination. Marquette University. Retrieved November 26, 2012.
Warren 1964, chpt. 2, p. 49
Reston, Jr, James (November 22, 2004). "That 'Damned Girdle': the Hidden Factor That Might Have Killed Kennedy" – via LA Times.
"Chapter 2". National Archives. August 15, 2016. Retrieved May 23, 2018.
"History Matters Archive - HSCA Appendix to Hearings - Volume VI, pg". www.history-matters.com.
"Testimony
of Mrs. John F. Kennedy". Warren Commission Hearings. Assassination
Archives and Research Center. June 5, 1964. pp. 178–181. Retrieved
November 26, 2012.
Warren 1964, chpt. 1, pp. 18–19.
Stokes 1979, pp. 41–46.
"Testimony
of Dr. Robert Roeder Shaw". Warren Commission Hearings. Assassination
Archives and Research Center. April 21, 1964. pp. 101–117. Retrieved
November 26, 2012.
Monroe, Monte L. (January–February 2012).
"Waggoner Carr investigates the JFK assassination". Texas Techsan.
Lubbock: Texas Tech Alumni Association: 23–31. "Texas Attorney General
Waggoner Carr attempted a state-level investigation but received no
cooperation from the Warren Commission. In the end, Carr generally
endorsed the Warren Commission's findings."
"Testimony of Bobby W.
Hargis". Warren Commission Hearings. Assassination Archives and Research
Center. April 8, 1964. pp. 293–296. Retrieved November 26, 2012.
Zapruder Film on YouTube
"Testimony
of Clinton J. Hill, Special Agent, Secret Service". Warren Commission
Hearings. Assassination Archives and Research Center. pp. 132–144.
Retrieved November 26, 2012.
Zapruder film: frames 370, 375, 380, 390.
Leaming,
Barbara (2014). Jacqueline Bouvier Kennedy Onassis: The Untold Story.
St. Martin's Press. p. 141. ISBN 978-1-250-01764-2.
The Truth Behind JFK's Assassination, by Max Holland, Newsweek, November 20, 2014.
"Testimony
of James Thomas Tague". Warren Commission Hearings. Assassination
Archives and Research Center. July 23, 1964. pp. 552–558. Retrieved
November 26, 2012.
"Testimony of Clyde A. Haygood". Warren Commission
Hearings. Assassination Archives and Research Center. April 9, 1964.
pp. 296–302. Retrieved November 26, 2012.
Warren Commission Hearings vol. 6, pp. 244–245, Testimony of S. M. Holland.
Rahn,
Kenneth A., Sr. (November 2001). "Up by the Triple Underpass 1". Ken
and Greg's Excellent Adventure: Dallas. Retrieved November 27, 2012.
"See photos 1, 4, 7, and 8."
"Commission Exhibit 2118: View From
North Tower of Union Terminal Company, Dallas, Texas". Warren Commission
Hearings. Assassination Archives and Research Center. p. 548. Retrieved
November 25, 2012.
Warren Commission Hearings, Testimony of Lee E. Bowers, Jr.
Myers,
Dale K. (2008). "The Testimony of Lee Bowers, Jr". Secrets of a
Homicide: Badge Man. Oak Cliff Press. Retrieved November 26, 2012.
Myers,
Dale K. (September 14, 2007). "Lee Bowers: The Man Behind the Grassy
Knoll". Secrets of a Homicide: JFK Assassination. Oak Cliff Press.
Retrieved November 26, 2012.
Warren Commission Hearings, vol. 3, p. 143, Testimony of Howard Brennan.
Warren Commission Hearings, vol. 3, p. 145, Testimony of Howard Brennan
McAdams,
John (November 22, 1963). "The JFK Assassination Dallas Police Tapes:
History in Real Time". The Kennedy Assassination. Marquette University.
Retrieved November 26, 2012.
Summers 2013, p. 62.
Warren
Commission Hearings, vol. 17, p. 202, CE 485, Photograph of Harold
Norman, Bonnie Ray Williams, and James Jarman, Jr. showing their
positions on the fifth floor of the Texas School Book Depository as the
motorcade passed.
"Testimony Of Bonnie Ray Williams". mu.edu.
Warren Commission Hearings, Testimony of Harold Norman.
Warren Commission Hearings, Testimony of Welcome Eugene Barnett.
Warren Commission Hearings, Testimony of Forrest V. Sorrels.
Not
included in the 51.9% are two earwitnesses who though the shots came
from the TSBD, but from a lower floor or at street level, and who are
thus included in the 8.7%. Included in the 31.7% is a witness who
thought the shots came from "the alcove near the benches".
Warren 1964, chpt. 3, p. 110.
Testimony of Roy Truly, Warren Commission Hearings and Exhibits, vol. 3, p. 230.
Testimony of Helen Markham, Warren Commission Hearings and Exhibits, vol. 3, p. 307.
Testimony of Johnny Calvin Brewer, 7 H 3–5.
Testimony of Julia Postal, 7 H 11.
Testimony of M.N. McDonald, Warren Commission Hearings and Exhibits, vol. 3, p. 300.
Tippit murder affidavit: text, cover. Kennedy murder affidavit: text, cover.
Warren
Commission Hearings, vol. 20, p. 366, Kantor Exhibit No. 3 —
Handwritten notes made by Seth Kantor concerning events surrounding the
assassination.
Bagdikian, Ben H. (December 14, 1963). Blair Jr., Clay
(ed.). "The Assassin". The Saturday Evening Post. Philadelphia, PA.
19105: The Curtis Publishing Company (44): 26.
The Nook: An
Investigation of the Assassination of John F. Kennedy, Official Autopsy
Report of Lee Harvey Oswald, November 24, 1963. Accessed January 2,
2013.
Testimony of Jack Ruby, Warren Commission Hearings, vol. 5, pp. 198–200.
"John
F. Kennedy Assassination Homepage :: Warren Commission :: Report ::
Page 645". Jfk-assassination.de. December 5, 2004. Retrieved July 31,
2010.
"Tom Alyea, "Facts and Photos"". Jfk-online.com. December 19,
1963. Archived from the original on July 25, 2010. Retrieved July 31,
2010.
"Addendum: Report on an Examination of Photographs of the Rifle
Associated with the Assassination of President John F. Kennedy". HSCA
Appendix to Hearings - Volume VI. Assassination Archives and Research
Center. pp. 66–107. Retrieved November 26, 2012.
Warren 1964, chpt. 4, pp. 125–126.
Warren 1964, chpt. 4, p. 129.
Warren 1964, chpt. 4, p. 118.
Warren 1964, chpt. 4, p. 122.
"Testimony
of Lt. J. C. Day". Warren Commission Hearings. Assassination Archives
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Mark; James Lesar; Charles Sanders (November 23, 1998). "Zapruder Film
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Pasternack,
Alex (November 23, 2012). "The Other Shooter: The Saddest and Most
Expensive 26 Seconds of Amateur Film Ever Made". Motherboard. Archived
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"Finally, in 1999, an arbitration panel ordered the government to pay
the Zapruders $16 million to keep the original film. According to the
Guinness Book of World Records, that works out to a record-breaking
$615,384 per second."
Friedman, Rick (November 30, 1963). "Pictures of the Assassination Fall to Amateurs on Street". Editor & Publisher: 17.
"A
World Listened and Watched" (PDF). Broadcasting. Washington, D.C.:
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A different person than the so-called "Babushka Lady".
"George Jefferies Film". George Jefferies Collection. Sixth Floor Museum at Dealey Plaza. Retrieved August 11, 2019.
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Warren 1964, chpt. 4, p. 180.
"Report
of Capt. J. W. Fritz, Dallas Police Department". Warren Report.
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"Captain Will Fritz's notes of LHO interrogation".
JFK Lancer Productions & Publications. Retrieved November 25, 2012.
"Captain Fritz told the Warren Commission that "I kept no notes at the
time" of his several interrogations of Oswald (4 H 209). However, many
years later, someone discovered some two and a half pages of Fritz's
contemporaneous handwritten notes at the National Archives. Fritz also
said that "several days later" he wrote more extensive notes of the
interrogations (4 H 209)."
Warren 1964, chpt. 4, pp. 180–195.
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For testimony relating to the interrogation
sessions, see 4 H 152–153, 157 (Curry); 4 H 207–211, 217, 221–231,
239–240 (Fritz); 4 H 355–357 (Winston Lawson); 4 H 466–470 (James Hosty,
Jr.); 7 H 123–127 (Elmer Boyd); 7 H 164–182 (Sims); 7 H 309–318 (James
Bookhout); 7 H 320–321 (Manning Clements); 13 H 58–62 (Sorrels); 7 H 590
(Kelley); 7 H 296–306 (Holmes); CE 1982.
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Mohr, Charles (September 25, 1964). "Johnson Gets Assassination Report". The New York Times. p. 1.
Roberts,
Chalmers M. (September 28, 1964). "Warren Report Says Oswald Acted
Alone; Raps FBI, Secret Service". The Washington Post. p. A1.
Lewis,
Anthony (September 27, 1964). "Warren Commission Finds Oswald Guilty and
Says Assassin and Ruby Acted Alone". The New York Times. p. 1.
Pomfret, John D. (September 28, 1964). "Commission Says Ruby Acted Alone in Slaying". The New York Times. p. 17.
"Findings". National Archives. August 15, 2016.
Beschloss,
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1963-1964". New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-684-80407-7.
Bugliosi 2007, pp. 136–137.
National Archives Deputy Archivist, Dr. Robert H. Bahmer, interview in New York Herald Tribune, December 18, 1964, p. 24
1968
Panel Review of Photographs, X-Ray Films, Documents and Other Evidence
Pertaining to the Fatal Wounding of President John F. Kennedy on
November 22, 1963, in Dallas, Texas. It was also the first report to
note a round fragment, measuring 6.5 mm in diameter, visible in the
X-rays.Archived July 7, 2007, at the Wayback Machine
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John. "E. Howard Hunt and Frank Sturgis: Were Watergate Conspirators
Also JFK Assassins?". The Kennedy Assassination. Marquette University.
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Agencies". Assassinations Archive and Research Center. Retrieved
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Conspiracy: Mafia, federal government top list of potential
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References
Associated Press (1963). The Torch Is Passed: The Associated Press
Story of the Death of a President. New York: Associated Press. LCCN
64001351.
Bugliosi, Vincent (2007). Reclaiming History: The
Assassination of President John F. Kennedy. New York: Norton. ISBN
978-0-393-04525-3.
Kelin, John (2007). Praise from a Future
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Generation Critics of the Warren Report. foreword by H. C. Nash. San
Antonio, Tex: Wings Press. ISBN 978-0-916727-32-1.
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William (1967). The Death of a President: November 20-November 25, 1963.
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Representatives". Washington, D.C.: United States Government Printing
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Investigation of the Kennedy Assassination. St. Paul, MN: Paragon House.
ISBN 978-1-55778-847-4.
Summers, Anthony (2013). Not in Your Lifetime. New York: Open Road. ISBN 978-1-4804-3548-3.
Thompson, Josiah (1967). Six Seconds in Dallas: A Micro-Study of the
Kennedy Assassination. New York: Bernard Geis Associates. LCCN 67023577.
Trask, Richard B. (1994). Pictures of the Pain: Photography and the
Assassination of President Kennedy. Danvers, Mass: Yeoman Press. ISBN
978-0-9638595-0-1.
Waldron, Lamar; Hartmann, Thom (2005).
Ultimate Sacrifice: John and Robert Kennedy, the Plan for a Coup in
Cuba, and the Murder of JFK. New York: Carroll & Graf. ISBN
978-0-7867-1441-4.
Warren, Earl (1964). "Report of the
President's Commission on the Assassination of President Kennedy".
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United Press International; American Heritage (1964). Four Days: The
Historical Record of the Death of President Kennedy. American Heritage
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External links
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"November 22, 1963: Death of the President". John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum.
"JFK: One PM Central Standard Time" – documentary produced by PBS
"The Assassination of President Kennedy" – radio documentary by Mike Swickey
"Weisberg Collection on the JFK Assassination" – Internet Archive
LIFE Magazine Nov. 25, 1966
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Texas at Arlington Libraries Special Collections via Texas Archival
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