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 The Holocaust (from the Greek ὁλόκαυστος holókaustos: hólos, "whole" and kaustós, "burnt")also known as the Shoah (Hebrew: השואה, HaShoah, "catastrophe"; Yiddish: חורבן, Churben or Hurban, from the Hebrew for "destruction"), was the mass murder or genocide of approximately six million Jews during World War II, a programme of systematic state-sponsored murder by Nazi Germany, led by Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party, throughout German-occupied territory.Of the nine million Jews who had resided in Europe before the Holocaust, approximately two-thirds were killed.Over one million Jewish children were killed in the Holocaust, as were approximately two million Jewish women and three million Jewish men. A network of over 40,000 facilities in Germany and German-occupied territory were used to concentrate, hold, and kill Jews and other victims.Some scholars argue that the mass murder of the Romani and people with disabilities should be included in the definition,and some use the common noun "holocaust" to describe other Nazi mass murders, including those of Soviet prisoners of war, Polish and Soviet civilians, and homosexuals.Recent estimates based on figures obtained since the fall of the Soviet Union indicates some ten to eleven million civilians and prisoners of war were intentionally murdered by the Nazi regime.The persecution and genocide were carried out in stages. Various laws to remove the Jews from civil society, most prominently the Nuremberg Laws of 1935, were enacted in Germany before the outbreak of World War II in Europe. Concentration camps were established in which inmates were subjected to slave labor until they died of exhaustion or disease. Where Germany conquered new territory in eastern Europe, specialized paramilitary units called Einsatzgruppen murdered Jews and political opponents in mass shootings. The occupiers required Jews and Romani to be confined in overcrowded ghettos before being transported by freight train to extermination camps where, if they survived the journey, most were systematically killed in gas chambers. Every arm of Germany's bureaucracy was involved in the logistics that led to the genocides, turning the Third Reich into what one Holocaust scholar has called "a genocidal state". During World War II, ghettos in Nazi-occupied Europe were set up by the Third Reich in order to confine Jews and sometimes Gypsies into tightly packed area within a city. In total, according to USHMM archives, there were at least 1,000 ghettos in German-occupied and annexed Poland and the Soviet Union alone. Therefore, the examples are intended only to illustrate their scope and living conditions across Eastern Europe. Although the common usage in Holocaust literature is 'ghetto', the Nazis most often referred to these detention facilities in documents and signage as 'Jüdischer Wohnbezirk' or 'Wohngebiet der Juden' (German); both are often translated as Jewish Quarter although the former is literally "Jewish Living/Residential Area/District/Neighborhood" and the latter is "Living Area of the Jews"). Soon after the 1939 Invasion of Poland, the German Nazis began to systematically move Polish Jews away from their homes and into designated areas of larger Polish cities and towns. The first ghetto at Piotrków Trybunalski was established in October 1939, the one in Tuliszkow was established in December 1939 – January 1940, followed by the first large scale ghetto, the Łódź Ghetto in April 1940, and the Warsaw Ghetto in October, with many other ghettos established throughout 1940 and 1941. Many ghettos were walled off or enclosed with barbed wire. In the case of sealed ghettos, any Jew found leaving them was shot. The Warsaw Ghetto was the largest ghetto in Nazi occupied Europe, with over 400,000 Jews crammed into an area of 1.3 square miles (3.4 km) located in the heart of the city. The Łódź Ghetto was the second largest, holding about 160,000 List of ghetto uprisings during the Holocaust Będzin Ghetto Uprising (also known as the Będzin-Sosnowiec Ghetto Uprising) Białystok Ghetto Uprising - organized by the Antyfaszystowska Organizacja Bojowa Częstochowa Ghetto Uprising Łachwa (Lakhva) Ghetto Uprising Mińsk Mazowiecki Ghetto Uprising Warsaw Ghetto Uprising - organised by the ŻOB and ŻZW Riga Ghetto Resistance Movement To some extent the armed struggle was also carried out during the final liquidation of Ghettos in: Kraków Ghetto Łódź Ghetto Lwów Ghetto Marcinkonys Ghetto Minsk Ghetto Pińsk Ghetto Wilno (Vilna) Ghetto - resistance of the Fareinigte Partizaner Organizacje  ****  Samuel Joseph Schweig, in Israel known as Shmuel Yosef Schweig (1905 in Tarnopol, Austria-Hungary – 19 March 1985 in Jerusalem, Israel) was an Israeli photographer.[1][2] Contents 1 Biography 2 Education 3 Titles, awards and prizes 4 Selected exhibitions 5 References 6 Articles 7 Further reading 8 External links Biography[edit] Shmuel Joseph Schweig (S.J. Schweig) was a photographer born in 1905 in Galicia, then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.[3] He showed interest in photography still while in Tarnopol and later studied it in Vienna.[3] His Zionistconvictions made him emigrate to the Land of Israel, then Mandate Palestine, already in 1922.[3] Here he started his career photographing sites and landscapes of the country.[3] Between 1925-1927 Schweig worked as a photographer for the JNF. In 1927 he established a workshop in Hanevi'im (Prophets) Street in Jerusalem. The first color photographs taken by a local photographer in Palestine were done by Schweig.[4] After specialising in archaeological photography, he became the chief photographer of the Department of Antiquities of the Mandatory administration,[3] housed from 1938 onward by the Palestine Archaeological Museum, a.k.a. the Rockefeller Museum. Beginning in the 1920s, his photographs helped shape the world's perception of the Zionist enterprise. But Shmuel Joseph Schweig is equally renowned as Israel's first artistic photographer of landscape and archaeology. Schweig is considered one of the most important of those who fashioned the image of Palestine, beginning in the 1920s, and he is identified with the Zionist enterprise and the nation-building project of the Jewish people. However, he saw himself above all as an artistic photographer; indeed, he is considered the first local art photographer of landscape and archaeology. Some of the early photographs of the Great Isaiah scroll - one of the Dead Sea Scrolls - was taken by Schweig.[5] He worked at several archaeological publications and was in charge of the illustration and layout of the Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land (editor Michael Avi-Yonah, Prentice-Hall, 1978).[3] He produced at the request of the office of the Secretary of State for the Colonies an album of Tegart forts known as "The Police Stations Plan 1940-1941", "The Wilson Brown Buildings" or "From Dan to Be'er Sheva".[6] The Schweig collection, which includes both glass and large gelatin negatives, is divided among the Israel Museum, the archive of the JNF, the Central Zionist Archives and the Rockefeller Museum. Many original prints, mostly small in size, are held by private collectors.[4] Education[edit] 1921 Photography, Vienna and London 1930 London University, languages and Photography School, London Titles, awards and prizes[edit] 1976 Honorary Fellow of the Royal Photographic Society of Great Britain 1977 Yakir Yerushalayim - "Worthy Citizen of Jerusalem" 1978 Enrique Kavlin Photography Prize, Israel Museum, Jerusalem, Israel Member of the Council of the Israel Exploration Society[3] Selected exhibitions[edit] The Open Museum for Photography, Tel Hai. 1971: a solo exhibition at the Israel Museum, Jerusalem 1985: second exhibition at the Israel Museum, Jerusalem 2010: "Shmuel Joseph Schweig: Photography as Material", at the Open Museum of Photography in the Tel Hai Industrial ParkShmuel Joseph Schweig, an Israeli photographer, was born in 1905 in Austria.  In 1923 he immigrated to the Land of Israel. From 1925-1927 he worked as a photographer for the JNF. In 1927 he established a workshop in Haneviim Street in Jerusalem and was the first local photographer to produce color photographs in the Land of Israel. He also served as the curator of the Photography Department in the Rockefeller Museum, Jerusalem.  Schweig's photographs helped shape the world's perception of the Zionist enterprise and he is equally renowned as Israel's first artistic photographer of landscape and archaeology. Some of the early photographs of the Great Isaiah scroll - one of the Dead Sea Scrolls- was taken by Schweig. However, he saw himself above all as an artistic photographer.  Shmuel Joseph Schweig died in Jerusalem in 1984. Education 1921 Photography, Vienna and London 1930 London University, languages and Photography School, London Awards And Prizes 1931 The International Colonial Exibition of Photography, Paris, Honorary Diploma 1934 Fellow, The Royal Society of Arts in the UK, United Kingdom 1975 Honorable Member, Israel Exploration Society 1976 Fellowship, The Royal Photographic Society of Great Britian, United Kingdom, for his contribution to archaeologic photography in the Middle East 1977 Worthy Citizen of Jerusalem Award, Jerusalem Municipality 1978 Enrique Kavlin Photography Prize, Israel Museum, Jerusalem ****  Nathan Rapoport (1911–1987) was a Warsaw-born Jewish sculptor and painter, later a resident of Israel and then the United States. Contents 1 Biography 2 Art career 3 Gallery 4 References 5 Further reading 6 External links Biography[edit] Natan Yaakov Rapoport was born in Warsaw, Poland. In 1936, he won a scholarship to study in France and Italy. He fled to the Soviet Union when the Nazis invaded Poland. The Soviets initially provided him with a studio, but then forced him to work as a manual laborer. When the war ended, he returned to Poland to study at the Academy of Fine Arts in Warsaw and immigrated to Israel.[1] In 1959, he moved to the United States. He lived in New York City until his death in 1987. Art career[edit] His sculptures in public places include: Liberation (Holocaust memorial), 1985, bronze, Liberty State Park, Jersey City, New Jersey Monument to the Ghetto Heroes in Warsaw, Poland. Monument to Mordechai Anielewicz at Kibbutz Yad Mordechai, Israel The Last March, bronze sculpture in Yad Vashem, Jerusalem, Israel The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, bronze sculpture in Yad Vashem, Jerusalem, Israel Monument to Six Million Jewish Martrys at the Horwitz-Wasserman Holocaust Memorial Plaza on Benjamin Franklin Parkway, Philadelphia, PA. Korczak's Last Walk at the Park Avenue Synagogue, New York, NY. ****  NATHAN RAPOPORT, SCULPTOR OF WORKS ON HOLOCAUST, DIES June 6, 1987 Credit... The New York Times Archives See the article in its original context from June 6, 1987, Section 1, Page 36Buy Reprints New York Times subscribers* enjoy full access to TimesMachine—view over 150 years of New York Times journalism, as it originally appeared. SUBSCRIBE *Does not include Crossword-only or Cooking-only subscribers. About the Archive This is a digitized version of an article from The Times’s print archive, before the start of online publication in 1996. To preserve these articles as they originally appeared, The Times does not alter, edit or update them. Occasionally the digitization process introduces transcription errors or other problems; we are continuing to work to improve these archived versions. Nathan Rapoport, a sculptor best known for his Holocaust-related monuments and edifices, died Thursday of a heart attack in St. Luke's-Roosevelt Hospital Center. He was 76 years old, and was a resident of Manhattan and Ramat Gan, Israel. Mr. Rapoport's 15-foot ''Liberation,'' a bronze memorial to the American soldiers who helped liberate Nazi concentration camps, was dedicated in Liberty State Park in May 1985. It shows a soldier carrying a death-camp victim to freedom. Last month, Mr. Rapoport's latest sculpture, ''Brotherhood of Man,'' was dedicated at the Magen David Adom Blood Center in Ramat Gan. For six months prior to its being moved to Israel, it stood in Dag Hammarskjold Plaza at the United Nations complex in Manhattan. Mr. Rapoport received the Herbert Adams Memorial Medal from the National Sculpture Society for his achievements in American sculpture. A Monument for Warsaw One of his early works, ''Warsaw Ghetto Uprising,'' was erected at the site in Warsaw where the uprising against the Nazis began. A replica of the monument stands at Yad Vashem, the Holocaust museum in Jerusalem. The sculptor was born in Warsaw, and spent most of World War II living and working in Russia. After the war he lived in Paris and Israel before coming to this country in 1959. He became a citizen in 1965. Thanks for reading The Times. Subscribe to The Times Mr. Rapoport, who was divorced, is survived by a daughter, Nina Volmark of Paris; two grandchildren, and one great-grandchild. Funeral services will be held in Israel on Monday. A memorial service is to be held later in New York City.  ****  Rapoport's Memorial to the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising – a Personal Interpretation General Articles Interviews Book Reviews Film Reviews  Liz Elsby Bravery. Sacrifice. Towering heroism. These are the lofty words that the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising memorial elicits from those who view it, either in Warsaw or at Yad Vashem. The work is a monumental tribute to the bravery and spirit of the Jewish ghetto fighters who audaciously and against all odds stood up to the Nazis in April and May 1943, in an unprecedented uprising. The memorial, created by Nathan Rapoport1 in 1948, and originally erected amidst the ruins of the Warsaw ghetto, is a product of its time: from the enormous chasm of postwar loss and chaos, from the shock and mourning of those who remained alive, there arose a desperate and immediate need to pay tribute to those who managed to fight back. Their bravery needed to be immortalized, captured in stone in order to provide a testimony that – despite claims to the opposite – the Jews did fight back and did not just meekly go like "lambs to the slaughter" to the death camps and killing pits. By studying the memorial in Warsaw, and its almost identical copy in Yad Vashem, an informed viewer can appreciate the shift Holocaust commemoration has taken over the years. To understand this shift, we can analyze the two parts of this memorial in light of the era in which they were created and the need they fulfilled then – as compared to today's understanding of the Holocaust and the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising 70 years later. "The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising", Sculptor: Nathan Rapoport Installed January 1976, Yad Vashem, Jerusalem The Uprising The memorial to the uprising depicts a tableau of seven figures, gathered around the central figure of Mordecai Anielewicz, one it's leaders. Anielewicz's head is held high, his set expression both sorrowful and determined. Of the seven, his is the only gaze that stares into the square in front of him, drawing the viewer in to come and bear witness. He appears to be striding forward, his naked upper torso covered by a cape-like coat. Although clearly emaciated and wounded (his head and right arm are bandaged), his arms and neck remain muscular, his presence is powerful and commanding. He grips a grenade tightly in his hand – despite his wounds, he carries on fighting. Framing him are three fighters bearing arms, two of whom are looking determinedly off into the distance. Their youthfulness is sharply contrasted by the bearded figure kneeling at Anielewicz's feet. This figure seems to be influenced by classical Greek sculpture – the fighter's muscular arm, hand and torso contrasting sharply with his aged face, balding head and patriarchal beard. A fallen fighter lies in the foreground at Anielewicz's feet. In the upper part of the scene a firestorm swirls, threatening to consume a mother and child. With their hands upheld in an almost theatrical gesture of despair, these two victims are on the verge of being swept away. As one's eyes rove around this sculpture and take in these other six figures, they always come to rest yet again on the central figure of Anielewicz. Mordechai Anielewicz, commander of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising Rapoport felt compelled to portray his Anielewicz as a man of monumental proportions and strength – a rather different depiction of the man than how he actually looked. If in 1948, Rapoport's sculpture was meant to serve as a roadmap for present and future commemoration of the uprising, then the figure of Anielewicz had to be portrayed as a mythical one, embodying the entire ideal of Jewish heroism and sacrifice. The symbolism and place of the other figures raises some questions with todays' viewers.  This uprising was a youthful undertaking, organized and carried out by the youth movements and young people of the ghetto. Anielewicz, who commanded the ZOB (Jewish Fighting Organization) group of fighters, was only twenty-four years old at his death. Perhaps the kneeling elderly figure in the foreground acknowledges this new leadership role of youth as opposed to the elders of the ghetto? Another question that can be asked is of the representation of women in this sculpture. The only obvious female in the memorial is the passive figure with the child standing behind Anielewicz. In the Warsaw version of the sculpture, her prominently exposed breast, while perhaps symbolizing the destruction of motherhood (i.e., the inability to nurse), seems to unnecessarily sexualize her. This detail has been covered up by clothing in the more modest version at Yad Vashem. Detail "The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising" However, Rapoport's representation of this lone woman as a passive victim is a disingenuous one. In fact, women had an active role in both the uprising and in the highly dangerous role of inter-ghetto couriers. To represent women here not as fighters but merely as passive objects is to do a great disservice to those valiant women fighters and their sacrifices during the uprising. In 1948, when the sculpture was unveiled, Holocaust research and documentation was still new – it would not be until 1984 that "women in the Holocaust" came to be regarded as its own field of research. Perhaps a memorial to the ghetto uprising done in a similar style today would give women the more prominent place they earned and deserved. "The Last March" Sculptor: Nathan Rapoport Installed January 1976,Yad Vashem, Jerusalem Lambs to the Slaughter or Spiritual Resistance? The monumental scale of the memorial leaves no doubt of the importance armed resistance had in the mind of its sculptor. However, in Warsaw, unlike in Jerusalem, the memorial is two-sided and freestanding. The depiction of the uprising faces a large square and the brand new Museum of the History of Polish Jews. However, unless one ventures to the other side of the memorial – the side facing the street and the block of apartment buildings beyond – one can easily miss Rapoport's tribute to the over 300,000 Jewish men, women and children who suffered and died so horribly in the ghetto and in the gas chambers of Treblinka. Their fate is represented in a much less impactful way than the few who were able to take up arms against their oppressors. Detail "The Last March" Indeed, this frieze can almost be mistaken as the work of another artist. Instead of the high relief of the front side, this second side is done in bas relief (a much flatter representation). Missing is the frenzied drama and details of the resistance side of the memorial. Here, rather, we see a flat depiction of a mournful group of Jewish people on the final journey to oblivion. They are utterly resigned to their fate; shoulders and heads bowed, the majority of the figures shuffle forward. In the middle of the scene, a patriarchal figure, partially clothed in almost biblical garb, a prayer shawl covering his head, is seen holding a Torah. With his outstretched hand and upturned face, this religious Jew seems to be reaching out to a divine presence, perhaps beseeching God to bear witness to the suffering of His people, perhaps begging for intervention on their behalf. At the head of this procession another bearded Jewish man is represented as powerless and cowed, heavily leaning on a walking stick. What a contrast this resigned figure is to the powerful and determined armed figures on the uprising side of the memorial. Rapoport continues the contrasts between the two sides by choosing to portray mainly woman and children on the deportation side. Unlike on the "uprising" side of the memorial, the majority of the figures on this side of the memorial are women, the first of whom is heavily pregnant; her hands are clasped in front of her try to protect a baby who will never have the chance to be born. Next to her, a veiled and stooped grandmother puts her hand on the shoulder of a young girl who leans into her quiet strength. Detail "The Last March" An elderly woman leads a reluctant a child. This child, as he glances backwards, has the only full frontal facial depiction in the sculpture. When the viewer stands in the right position, he is caught in this child's almost accusatory gaze. What does his baleful look imply? Does it ask the viewer how this was allowed to happen? Does it implicate the viewer as a bystander? Do his eyes implore the viewer not to forget the tragedy depicted here? If Mordecai Anielewicz embodies heroism, perhaps this child embodies the tragedy of the Holocaust? Is the fact that there are so few details on the figures depicted on this side of the memorial as opposed to the uprising side an attempt to show that the majority of those murdered will remain forever anonymous, unlike the glorified name of Anielewicz, and those who actively participated in revolt? Detail "The Last March" Rapoport's depiction of the Nazis in this relief is also an interesting choice. We do not see here brutish figures whipping their Jewish prisoners; indeed, there are no signs of violence whatsoever. The Nazis are depicted as mere helmets and bayonets in the background. Why? Perhaps the disproportionately small number of Nazi helmets is indicative of the judgmental notion held by some, that the Jews went "like lambs to the slaughter," passively allowing themselves to be murdered. Is this the reason for their relegation to the back of the memorial in the 1948 Warsaw version? Or by merely depicting the helmets of the Nazis rather than their faces, does Rapoport choose to put the focus solely on the Jews and their suffering, unsullied by the presence of their persecutors? A Current Interpretation Juxtaposed With the Needs of the Past In the Yad Vashem version of his memorial, the two stories represented by the back and front of the monument in Warsaw are presented side by side. With the perspective of the 70 years that have passed since the uprising, today when we commemorate resistance, heroism and bravery, we are more generous, going beyond the tiny few who were able to actively take up arms and fight. Together with the fighters, we remember other types of resistance – what we today call "spiritual resistance." Perhaps the religious figure with the Torah symbolizes those Jews who were still able to believe in God and practice Jewish ritual in the shadow of death, instilling comfort and faith in the Jews around them, even to the very doors of the gas chambers? The grandmother's comforting hand on the shoulder of the young girl, and the mother's carefully-wrapped sleeping baby, may represent those families who strove to stay together in the face of an unknown future. Although many families were torn asunder or fell apart, other families found unshakable strength in each other; many adults sacrificed their own food rations to sustain the lives of their children. Some young people who could have escaped the ghetto and attempted to reach the partisans or hide on the "Aryan side" decided to cast their lot with those who had no such option and remained with their beleaguered families unwilling to leave a beloved mother, father, or sibling alone to his or her bitter fate. This quiet resistance is also worthy of note and commemoration, and represents triumph of another kind – triumph of the human spirit, familial and comradely love, devotion to God in a seemingly godless world. These are human ideals the Nazis sought to destroy in the Jews they subjugated and murdered - and yet those ideals still managed to persevere. Thus in one memorial, we encounter both spiritual and physical resistance. When it was erected in Warsaw in 1948, Rapoport's memorial to the ghetto uprising faced the ruins of one Jewish culture and the promise of a new one in the form of the nascent state of Israel. The heroism of those who were able to fight in the ghetto would now be transferred on to those fighting to prevent another such tragedy in the new Jewish homeland. In 1948, spiritual resistance took a back seat to armed resistance. Today, 70 years later, in the state of Israel at Yad Vashem, they can complement each other, side by side.        4852