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Remembrance Day
Military memorial day on 11 November
Remembrance Day
Official name Remembrance Day
Also called Poppy Day
Observed by Commonwealth of Nations
Type International
Significance Commemorates Commonwealth war dead
Observances Parades, silences
Date 11 November
Next time 11 November 2022
Frequency Annual
Related to Armistice Day, Veterans Day, Memorial Day, Anzac Day
Remembrance
Day (also known as Poppy Day owing to the tradition of wearing a
remembrance poppy) is a memorial day observed in Commonwealth member
states since the end of the First World War to honour armed forces
members who have died in the line of duty. Following a tradition
inaugurated by King George V in 1919,[1] the day is also marked by war
remembrances in many non-Commonwealth countries. In most countries,
Remembrance Day is observed on 11 November to recall the end of First
World War hostilities. Hostilities formally ended "at the 11th hour of
the 11th day of the 11th month" of 1918, in accordance with the
armistice signed by representatives of Germany and the Entente between
5:12 and 5:20 that morning. ("At the 11th hour" refers to the passing of
the 11th hour, or 11:00 am.) The First World War officially ended with
the signing of the Treaty of Versailles on 28 June 1919.[2]
The
tradition of Remembrance Day evolved out of Armistice Day. The initial
Armistice Day was observed at Buckingham Palace, commencing with King
George V hosting a "Banquet in Honour of the President of the French
Republic"[3] during the evening hours of 10 November 1919. The first
official Armistice Day was subsequently held on the grounds of
Buckingham Palace the following morning. During the Second World War,
many countries changed the name of the holiday. Member states of the
Commonwealth of Nations adopted Remembrance Day, while the US chose
Veterans Day.[4]
Observance in the Commonwealth
Canadian Poppy pins adorn a memorial at McCrae House in Guelph, Ontario
The
common British, Canadian, South African, and ANZAC tradition includes a
one- or two-minute silence at the eleventh hour of the eleventh day of
the eleventh month (11:00 am, 11 November), as that marks the time (in
the United Kingdom) when the armistice became effective.[5]
The
Service of Remembrance in many Commonwealth countries generally includes
the sounding of the "Last Post", followed by the period of silence,
followed by the sounding of "Reveille" or sometimes just "The Rouse"
(often confused for each other. The Service of Remembrance is finished
by a recitation of the "Ode of Remembrance". The "Flowers of the
Forest", "O Valiant Hearts", "I Vow to Thee, My Country" and "Jerusalem"
are often played during the service. Services also include wreaths laid
to honour the fallen, blessings, and national anthems.[6]
The
central ritual at cenotaphs throughout the Commonwealth is a stylised
night vigil. "The Last Post" was the common bugle call at the close of
the military day, and "The Rouse" was the first call of the morning. For
military purposes, the traditional night vigil over the slain was not
just to ensure they were indeed dead and not unconscious or in a coma,
but also to guard them from being mutilated or despoiled by the enemy,
or dragged off by scavengers. This makes the ritual more than just an
act of remembrance but also a pledge to guard the honour of war dead.
The act is enhanced by the use of dedicated cenotaphs (literally Greek
for "empty tomb") and the laying of wreaths—the traditional means of
signalling high honours in ancient Greece and Rome.[7]
Australia
The
Governor of Western Australia, Malcolm McCusker, laying a wreath at the
Eternal flame, Kings Park, Western Australia, 11 November 2011
In
Australia, Remembrance Day is always observed on 11 November, regardless
of the day of the week, and is not a public holiday; it is a time when
people can pay their respects to the substantial number of soldiers who
died in battle. Some institutions observe two-minutes' silence at 11 am
through a programme named Read 2 Remember,[8] children read the Pledge
of Remembrance by Rupert McCall, and teachers deliver specially
developed resources to help children understand the significance of the
day and the resilience of those who have fought for their country and
call on children to also be resilient when facing difficult times.
Services are held at 11 am at war memorials and schools in suburbs and
cities across the country, at which the "Last Post" is sounded by a
bugler and a one-minute silence is observed. Some institutions observe
this solemn occasion at 1111h on the day, adding two more soldiers to
the ranks. When Remembrance Day falls on a normal working day in
Melbourne and other major cities, buglers from the Australian Defence
Force often play the "Last Post" at major street corners in the CBD.
While this occurs, the majority of passers-by stop and observe a moment
of silence while waiting for the bugler to finish the recital.[9]
In
interwar Australia, Remembrance Day (then often referred to as
Armistice Day) was a popular public commemoration. But from 1946 to the
1970s, Australians observed Remembrance Sunday following the British
pattern.[10] It is only in the 1980s and 1990s that Remembrance Day was
once again systematically observed on 11 November. The resurgence of
Remembrance Day became official on 30 October 1997, when the
Governor-General, under the Howard government, proclaimed that "(a) 11
November in each year shall be known and observed as Remembrance Day;
and (b) all Australians are urged to observe, unless impractical, a
minute’s silence at 11:00 on Remembrance Day each year".[11]
In
recent decades, Remembrance Day has been largely eclipsed as the
national day of war commemoration by ANZAC Day (25 April), which is a
public holiday in all states.[12] Attendance at Anzac Day services
boomed, while that of Remembrance Day services continued to decline.
Historian Romain Fathi explains, "In Australia, Anzac Day has addressed
the question of the meaning of the war far better than Remembrance Day
or Remembrance Sunday. It can acknowledge loss and suffering with a nod
to the sacred, while simultaneously representing imagined distinct
national values such as mateship, laconic humour and stoicism. This
capacity to connect the national community to the numinous explains
Anzac Day’s primacy over Remembrance Day."[12]
Barbados
In
Barbados, Remembrance Day is not a public holiday. It is recognised as
11 November, but the parade and ceremonial events are carried out on
Remembrance Sunday.[13] The day is celebrated to recognise the Barbadian
soldiers who died fighting in the First and Second World Wars. The
parade is held at National Heroes' Square, where an interdenominational
service is held.[14] The Governor-General and Barbadian Prime Minister
are among those who attend, along with other government dignitaries and
the heads of the police and military forces. During the main ceremony a
gun salute, wreaths, and prayers are also performed at the war memorial
Cenotaph at the heart of Heroes' Square in Bridgetown.[15]
Belize
In Belize, Remembrance Day is observed on 11 November.[16] It is not a public holiday.
Bermuda
Remembrance Day Parade, Hamilton, Bermuda, 1991
In
Bermuda, which sent the first colonial volunteer unit to the Western
Front in 1915, and which had more people per capita in uniform during
the Second World War than any other part of the Empire, Remembrance Day
is still an important holiday. The parade in Hamilton had historically
been a large and colourful one, as contingents from the Royal Navy,
British Regular Army and Territorial Army units of the Bermuda Garrison,
the Canadian Forces, the US Army, Air Force, and Navy, and various
cadet corps and other services all at one time or another marched with
the veterans. Since the closing of British, Canadian, and American bases
in 1995, the parade has barely grown smaller. In addition to the
ceremony held in the City of Hamilton on Remembrance Day itself,
marching to the Cenotaph (a smaller replica of the one in London), where
wreaths are laid and orations made, the Royal Navy and the Bermuda Sea
Cadet Corps held a parade the same day at the HMS Jervis Bay memorial in
Hamilton, and a smaller military parade is also held in St. George's on
the nearest Sunday to Remembrance Day.[17]
Canada
William Lyon Mackenzie King lays a wreath at the future location of the National War Memorial in Canada on Remembrance Day, 1937
In
Canada, Remembrance Day (Jour du Souvenir) is a statutory holiday in
all three territories and in six of the ten provinces. Nova Scotia
recognizes the day separately under their provincial Remembrance Day
act;[18] but Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec do not treat the day as an
official holiday in any capacity.[19][20][21][22] From 1921 to 1930, the
Armistice Day Act provided that Thanksgiving would be observed on
Armistice Day, which was fixed by statute on the Monday of the week in
which 11 November fell. The Conservative MP for Nanaimo Charles Dickie,
moved to change the name from Armistice Day to Remembrance Day.[23] This
renaming placed the emphasis more upon the soldiers whose deaths were
being remembered. In 1931, the federal parliament adopted an act to
amend the Armistice Day Act, providing that the day should be observed
on 11 November and that the day should be known as Remembrance Day.[24] A
bill (C-597) intended to make Remembrance Day a federal statutory
holiday was tabled in the House of Commons during the 41st parliament,
but died on the order paper when parliament was dissolved for a federal
election.[25] As it is, the Royal Canadian Legion (RCL), Canada's major
veterans' association, is officially against making the day a national
statutory holiday in part because the day-off aspect would eventually
overtake the memorial purpose of the occasion, whereas having schools in
regular session on that day would be an opportunity for children to be
taught the day's true significance in a mandatory fashion.[26] In a more
informal manner, there has been the opinion voiced against the
marketing trend called Christmas creep that the conclusion of
Remembrance Day should be the earliest acceptable time in which to mark
the Christmas holidays.[27][28]
The federal department of
Veterans Affairs Canada states that the date is of "remembrance for the
men and women who have served, and continue to serve our country during
times of war, conflict and peace"; particularly the First and Second
World Wars, the Korean War, and all conflicts since then in which
members of the Canadian Armed Forces have participated.[29] The
department runs a program called Canada Remembers with the mission of
helping young and new Canadians, most of whom have never known war,
"come to understand and appreciate what those who have served Canada in
times of war, armed conflict and peace stand for and what they have
sacrificed for their country."[30]
Members of the Canadian Armed Forces march during a Remembrance Day parade in Ottawa, 2017
The
official national ceremonies are held at the National War Memorial in
Ottawa. These are presided over by the Governor General of Canada and
attended by the prime minister, other dignitaries, the Silver Cross
Mother, and public observers. Occasionally, a member of the Canadian
Royal Family may also be present (such as Prince Charles in 2009[31] and
Princess Anne in 2014[32]).
Before the start of the event, four
sentries and three sentinels (two flag sentinels and one nursing sister)
are posted at the foot of the cenotaph. The commemoration then
typically begin with the tolling of the carillon in the Peace Tower,
during which current members of the armed forces arrive at Confederation
Square, followed by the Ottawa diplomatic corps, ministers of the
Crown, special guests, the RCL, the royal party (if present), and the
viceregal party. The arrival of the governor general is announced by a
trumpeter sounding the "Alert", whereupon the viceroy is met by the
Dominion President of the RCL and escorted to a dais to receive "The
Viceregal Salute", after which the national anthem, "O Canada", is
played and sung in English and French.
The moment of silence in Canada is preceded by the bugling of Last Post immediately before 11:00 am
The
moment of remembrance begins with the bugling of "Last Post"
immediately before 11:00 am, at which time the gun salute fires and the
bells of the Peace Tower toll the hour. Another gun salute signals the
end of the two minutes of silence, and cues the playing of a lament, the
bugling of "The Rouse", and the reading of the Act of Remembrance. A
flypast of Royal Canadian Air Force craft then occurs at the start of a
21-gun salute, upon the completion of which a choir sings "In Flanders
Fields".[33]
The various parties then lay their wreaths at the
base of the memorial; one wreath is set by the Silver Cross Mother (a
recent recipient of the Memorial Cross) on behalf of all mothers whose
children died in conflicts in which Canada participated. The viceregal
and/or royal group return to the dais to receive the playing of the
Canadian Royal Anthem, "God Save the Queen", prior to the assembled
armed forces personnel and veterans performing a march past in front of
the viceroy and any royal guest, bringing about the end of the official
ceremonies.[34] A tradition of paying more personal tribute has emerged
since erection of the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier at the War Memorial in
2000: after the official ceremony the general public place their
poppies atop the tomb.[35]
Remembrance poppies distributed by the Royal Canadian Legion atop the Canadian Tomb of the Unknown Soldier
Similar
ceremonies take place in provincial capitals across the country,
officiated by the relevant lieutenant governor, as well as in other
cities, towns, and even hotels or corporate headquarters. Schools will
usually hold special assemblies for the first half of the day, or on the
school day prior, with various presentations concerning the remembrance
of the war dead. The ceremony participants include veterans, current
members of the Canadian forces, and sea, army, and air cadet units.[33]
In
1994, National Aboriginal Veterans Day was inaugurated to recognise the
contribution of Aboriginal soldiers.[36] In 2001, Merchant Navy
Remembrance Day was created by the Canadian parliament, designating 3
September as a day to recognise the contributions and sacrifice of
Canadian merchant mariners.[37]
India
Chief of the Air Staff, Air Chief Marshal N. A. K. Browne leads a Remembrance Day tribute in New Delhi, 13 November 2011.
In
India, the day is usually marked by tributes and ceremonies in army
cantonments. There are memorial services in some churches such as St.
Mark's Cathedral and St. John's Church in Bangalore.[38] At Kohima and
Imphal in the remote hillsides of Northeast India, services of
remembrance supported by the Indian Army are observed at Kohima and
Imphal War Cemeteries (maintained by the Commonwealth War Graves
Commission). The day is also marked at the Delhi War Cemetery.[39] In
other places in India this event is not observed. In 2013, Prince
Charles and Camilla, Duchess of Cornwall, marked the day in Mumbai's St.
John the Evangelist Church.[40]
Kenya
In Kenya, the Kenya
Armed Forces Old Comrades Association (KAFOCA) was established in Kenya
immediately in 1945 to cater for the welfare of the Ex-servicemen of the
First and the Second World Wars. The KAFOCA and Kenyan government
recognise Remembrance Day.[41]
New Zealand
New Zealand's
national day of remembrance is Anzac Day, 25 April.[42] "Poppy Day"
usually occurs on the Friday before Anzac Day.[43] The reason for New
Zealand having their remembrance on Anzac Day happened in 1921. The
paper Poppies for Armistice that year arrived by ship too late for 11
November 1921, so an RSA branch distributed them at the next
commemoration date (25 April 1922, which happened to be Anzac Day) and
that date stuck as the new Poppy Day in New Zealand.[44]
Armistice
Day was observed in New Zealand between the World Wars, although it was
always secondary to Anzac Day. As in other countries, New Zealand's
Armistice Day was converted to Remembrance Day after World War II, but
this was not a success. By the mid-1950s the day was virtually ignored,
even by churches and veterans' organisations.[45]
Saint Lucia
Like
Barbados, St. Lucia does not recognise Remembrance day as a public
holiday. Instead, ceremonial events such as parades and other activities
are held on Remembrance Sunday. The parade is held at the central
square, namely the Derek Walcott Square, where the Cenotaph is located.
There, members of the Royal St Lucia Police Force and other uniformed
groups such as the St Lucia Cadet Corps pay tribute through
commemoration of St. Lucian men and women who fought in the war.[46]
South Africa
In
South Africa, Remembrance Day is not a public holiday. Commemoration
ceremonies are usually held on the nearest Sunday, at which the "Last
Post" is played by a bugler followed by the observation of a two-minute
silence. Ceremonies to mark the event in South Africa are held at the
Cenotaph in Cape Town,[47] and in Pretoria at the Voortrekker Monument
cenotaph and the War Memorial at the Union Buildings. Many high schools
hold Remembrance Day services to honour the past pupils who died in the
two World Wars and the Border War. In addition, the South African Legion
of Military Veterans holds a street collection on the nearest Saturday
to gather funds to assist in welfare work among military veterans.[48]
United Kingdom
Memorials in the Field of Remembrance outside London's Westminster Abbey for Remembrance Day, 2002
Remembrance Day ceremonies
Wreath-laying
ceremonies, usually organised by local branches of the Royal British
Legion, are observed on Remembrance Day at most war memorials across the
UK at 11 am on 11 November, with two minutes of silence observed; a
custom which had lapsed before a campaign for its revival began in the
early 1990s.[49] The silence is also broadcast as a special programme on
BBC with a voice over usually saying "This is BBC One. Now on the 11th
hour, of the 11th day of the 11th month. The traditional two minute
silence for Armistice Day." The programme starts with a close up of the
Big Ben clock chiming 11 and then the programme shows different parts of
the world observing the silence. The programme ends with a bugler
sounding "The Rouse" and then normal programming is resumed.[50]
Many
employers and businesses invite their staff and customers to observe
the two minutes' silence at 11:00 am.[51] The beginning and end of the
two minutes' silence is often marked in large towns and cities by the
firing of field artillery gun, often provided by the local Royal
Artillery battery.[52]
The first two-minute silence held in London (11 November 1919) was reported in The Manchester Guardian on 12 November 1919:
The first stroke of eleven produced a magical effect.
The
tram cars glided into stillness, motors ceased to cough and fume, and
stopped dead, and the mighty-limbed dray horses hunched back upon their
loads and stopped also, seeming to do it of their own volition.
Someone
took off his hat, and with a nervous hesitancy the rest of the men
bowed their heads also. Here and there an old soldier could be detected
slipping unconsciously into the posture of 'attention'. An elderly
woman, not far away, wiped her eyes, and the man beside her looked white
and stern. Everyone stood very still ... The hush deepened. It had
spread over the whole city and become so pronounced as to impress one
with a sense of audibility. It was a silence which was almost pain ...
And the spirit of memory brooded over it all.[53]
Remembrance Sunday
Remembrance Service at Trinity College, Cambridge in 2018
Main article: Remembrance Sunday
In
the United Kingdom, the main observance is Remembrance Sunday, held on
the Sunday nearest to 11 November. There is a National Service of
Remembrance in London, as well as other services and ceremonies in the
regions. Typically, poppy wreaths are laid by representatives of the
Crown, the armed forces, and local civic leaders, as well as by local
organisations including ex-servicemen organisations, cadet forces, the
Scouts, Guides, Boys' Brigade, St John Ambulance and the Salvation
Army.[54][55] A minute's or two minutes' silence is also frequently
incorporated into church services.[56]
Royal British Legion poppy
Commemorative coins and exhibitions
In
2014 the Royal Mint issued a colour-printed Alderney £5 coin, designed
by engraver Laura Clancy, to commemorate Remembrance Day.[57]
Also
in 2014, to commemorate the outbreak of World War I a huge display
called Blood Swept Lands and Seas of Red, consisting of 888,246 ceramic
poppies was installed in the moat of the Tower of London, each poppy
representing a British Empire fatality.[58]
On 5 November 2018
and set to continue for 4 months, about 10,000 torches were lit at the
foot of the Tower's walls, in its dry moat to mark the centenary of the
end of the World War I.[59]
Northern Ireland
Remembrance Day
is officially observed in Northern Ireland in the same way as in the
rest of United Kingdom, although it tends to be associated more with the
unionist community. Most Irish nationalists and republicans do not take
part in the public commemoration of British soldiers organised by the
Royal British Legion. This is mainly due to the actions of the British
Army during The Troubles. However, some moderate nationalists began to
attend Remembrance Day events as a way to connect with the unionist
community. In 1987 a bomb was detonated by the Provisional Irish
Republican Army (IRA) just before a Remembrance Sunday ceremony in
Enniskillen, killing eleven people. The bombing was widely condemned and
attendance at Remembrance events, by both nationalists and unionists,
rose in the following years.[60] The Republic of Ireland has a National
Day of Commemoration in July for all Irish people who have died in
war.[61]
Similar observances outside the Commonwealth
France and Belgium
Bleuet de France, circa 1950
Remembrance
Day (11 November) is a national holiday in France and Belgium. It
commemorates the armistice signed between the Allies and Germany at
Compiègne, France, for the cessation of hostilities on the Western
Front, which took effect at 11:00 am—the "eleventh hour of the eleventh
day of the eleventh month." Armistice Day is one of the most important
military celebrations in France, since it was a major French victory and
the French paid a heavy price in blood to achieve it. The First World
War was considered in France as the "Great Patriotic War".[62] Almost
all French villages feature memorials dedicated to those fallen during
the conflict.[63] In France the blue cornflower (Bleuet de France) is
used symbolically rather than the poppy.[64]
Denmark
In 2009
the Danish government established Veterans' Day with early events on 5
September where past and present members of the armed forces, who have
done service in armed conflict, are remembered.[65]
Germany
The
German national day of mourning is the secular public holiday of
Volkstrauertag,[66] which since 1952 has been observed two Sundays
before the first Sunday of Advent;[67] in practice this is the Sunday
closest to 16 November. The anniversary of the Armistice itself is not
observed in Germany.[68]
Hong Kong
The Hong Kong Police Band at the memorial service by the Cenotaph in Central, Hong Kong
Though
not a public holiday since July 1997, Remembrance Sunday is observed in
Hong Kong,[69] and is marked by a multi-faith memorial service at the
Cenotaph in Central, Hong Kong.[70] The service is organised by the Hong
Kong ex-servicemen Association, and is attended by various Government
officials and the representatives of various religious traditions such
as the Anglican Church, the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox
Church, the Buddhist community, the Taoist community, the Muslim
community and the Sikh community.[71]
Although Hong Kong ceased
to be part of the Commonwealth of Nations in 1997, the memorial service
still resembles those in many other Commonwealth countries.[72] The
service includes the sounding of "Last Post", two minutes of silence,
the sounding of "Reveille", the laying of wreaths, and prayers, and ends
with a recitation of the "Ode of Remembrance". The Hong Kong Police
Band continues to perform their ceremonial duty at the service. Members
of the Hong Kong Air Cadet Corps (including the Ceremonial Squadron),
Hong Kong Adventure Corps, Hong Kong Sea Cadet Corps and scouting
organisations are also in attendance.[73]
Ireland
The Republic of Ireland holds a National Day of Commemoration in July for Irish men and women who have died in war.
Remembrance
Sunday itself is marked by a ceremony in St Patrick's Cathedral,
Dublin, which the President of Ireland attends.[74][75][76] It is
estimated that some 200,000 Irish soldiers fought on the British side in
the First World War with up to 35,000 killed.[77] Additionally, some
70,000 citizens of the then independent state of Ireland served in the
British armed services during the Second World War and the Roll of
Honour in Trinity College Dublin lists 3617 of those who died on active
service.[78][79]
Israel
In Israel there are two ceremonies,
the first being in Jerusalem, at the British War Cemetery on the
Saturday before Remembrance Sunday, organised by the British Consul in
Jerusalem. The second ceremony is in Ramleh on the Sunday itself,
organised by the British embassy in Tel Aviv. The Ramleh ceremony is the
larger, and is also attended by veterans of the Second World War.[80]
Italy
In
Italy, soldiers who died for the nation are remembered on 4 November,
when the ceasefire that followed the Armistice of Villa Giusti in 1918
began. The Day is known as the Day of National Unity Day of the Armed
Forces, Giorno dell'Unità Nazionale Giornata delle Forze Armate in
Italian.[81] Since 1977, this day has not been a public holiday; now,
many services are held on the first Sunday in November.[82]
Netherlands
Main article: Remembrance of the Dead
In
the Netherlands, Remembrance Day is commemorated annually on 4 May. It
is not a public holiday. Throughout the country, military personnel and
civilians fallen in various conflicts since World War II are remembered.
The main ceremonies are at the Waalsdorpervlakte near The Hague, the
Grebbeberg near Wageningen and Dam Square in Amsterdam. Two minutes of
silence are observed at 8:00 pm. Remembrance Day is followed by
Liberation Day on 5 May.[83]
Norway
Main article: Veterans Day (Norway)
In
Norway the Norwegian Armed Forces commemorate Veteran's Day. The
Norwegian Parliament, the Storting, decreed that Veteran's Day would be
observed on the same day as Victory in Europe Day, in Norway known as
"Frigjøringsdagen", or Liberation Day. The ceremonies are held annually
in Akershus Fortress, with the King of Norway, Harald V, present. The
first of such ceremonies was held on 8 May 2011, with two Norwegian
Special Forces Operators being awarded the War Cross for deployments in
the recent War in Afghanistan. The ceremonies are observed with
memorials and military salutes.[84]
Poland
Main article: Polish Independence Day
11
November is a public holiday in Poland called Independence Day, as the
ending of First World War allowed Polish people to regain the freedom
and unity of their country after 123 years of partition. Major events
include laying flowers on the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier by members of
the government and highest authorities, other public ceremonies and
church services and school celebrations.[85][86]
Russia
In
Russia, Remembrance Day is celebrated on August 1 since 2012, in memory
of the declaration of the war of Russia by the German Empire at the same
day in 1914.[87]
Serbia
It has been a statutory holiday in
Serbia since 2012. Serbia is an Allied force that suffered the biggest
casualty rate in World War I. To commemorate their victims, people in
Serbia wear Natalie's ramonda as a symbol of remembrance.[88]
United States
Veterans
Day is observed in the United States on 11 November, and is both a
federal holiday and a state holiday in all states. However, the function
of the observance elsewhere is more closely matched by Memorial Day in
May. In the United States, and some other allied nations, 11 November
was formerly known as Armistice Day; in the United States it was given
its new name in 1954 at the end of the Korean War to honor all veterans.
Veterans Day is observed with memorial ceremonies, salutes at military
cemeteries, and parades.[4]
See also
icon Holidays portal
flag United Kingdom portal
War portal
flag Canada portal
flag Military of Australia portal
Armistice Day
Armed Forces Day
American Gathering of Jewish Holocaust Survivors and their Descendants
Earl Haig Fund
Heroes' Day
Remembrance Day bombing
Remembrance of the Dead (The Netherlands)
Remembrance Poppy
Remembrance Sunday
Returned and Services League of Australia
Royal New Zealand Returned and Services' Association
The Soldier
Two-minute silence
The Unknown Warrior
Veterans' Bill of Rights
Victory Day
Victory Day (Eastern Front)
Volkstrauertag
White poppy (symbol)
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"Serbia to mark Armistice Day as state holiday". 9 November 2012. Retrieved 18 November 2018.
General references
Royal New Zealand Returned and Services Association
Commemoration – Red poppies Archived
Royal Canadian Legion
Returned & Services League of Australia
South African Legion
Canadian Poppy Coin
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Remembrance Day.
Annual Sikh Remembrance Day Service
Remembrance Day Single Remember Poppy Day by Olly Wedgwood
Remembrance Day For All – Towards discussion that includes everyone in our Remembrance of Canada’s wars.
The Poppy Appeal (Royal British Legion)
Memorable Order of Tin Hats (South Africa)
Free On-line Remembrance Day and Remembrance Week Lessons for Canadian Educators (Reading and Remembrance)
Jonathan
F. Vance: Commemoration and Cult of the Fallen (Canada), in:
1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War.
Articles related to Remembrance Day
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Holidays in Canada
Nationwide statutory holidays
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federal employees
Easter MondayVictoria DayNational Day for Truth and ReconciliationThanksgivingRemembrance DayBoxing Day
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Categories:
1919 establishments in the British EmpireAftermath of World War I in
the United KingdomArmistice DayHolidays related to World War INovember
1919 eventsNovember observancesObservances honoring victims of warPublic
holidays in CanadaPublic holidays in the United KingdomRecurring events
established in 1919Veterans' affairs in AustraliaVeterans' affairs in
CanadaVeterans' affairs in the United KingdomVeterans days
World War I
The
road to Bapaume in the aftermath of the Battle of the Somme,
1916British Mark V tanks crossing the Hindenburg Line, 1918HMS
Irresistible sinking after hitting a mine in the Dardanelles, 1915A
British Vickers machine gun crew wearing gas masks during the Battle of
the Somme, 1916German Albatros D.III biplane fighters near Douai,
France, 1917
Date 28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918
(4 years, 3 months and 2 weeks)
Peace treaties
Location
Europe, Africa, the Middle East, the Pacific Islands, China, Indian Ocean, North and South Atlantic Ocean
Result
Allied victory
Fall of all continental empires in Europe (including the German Empire, Russian Empire, Ottoman Empire and Austria-Hungary)
Russian Revolution and Russian Civil War, with the subsequent formation of the Soviet Union
Collapse of the German Empire and the establishment of the Weimar Republic
Turkish War of Independence following the occupation of the Ottoman Empire
Widespread unrest and revolutions throughout Europe and Asia
Creation of the League of Nations
(see Aftermath of World War I)
Japan gains Tsingtao and other German colonies in the Pacific including Palau, the Marshal Islands, and The Caroline Islands.
Territorial
changes
Formation of new countries in Europe and the Middle East
Transfer of German colonies and territories to other countries, partition of the Ottoman Empire, dissolution of Austria-Hungary
Belligerents
Allied Powers:
France
British Empire
Russian Empire[a]
(until 1917)
Serbia
Belgium
Japan
Montenegro
Italy (from 1915)
United States
(from 1917)
Romania (from 1916)
Portugal (from 1916)
Hejaz (from 1916)
Greece (from 1917)
Siam (from 1917)
Republic of China (1912–1949) China (from 1917)
... and others
Central Powers:
German Empire
Austria-Hungary
Ottoman Empire
Bulgaria (from 1915)
... and others
Commanders and leaders
French Third Republic Raymond Poincaré
French Third Republic Georges Clemenceau
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland George V
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland Herbert Henry Asquith
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland David Lloyd George
Nicholas II Executed
Russian Republic Georgy Lvov
Russian Republic Alexander Kerensky
Kingdom of Italy Victor Emmanuel III
Kingdom of Italy Vittorio Orlando
United States Woodrow Wilson
Empire of Japan Emperor Taishō
Belgium Albert I
Kingdom of Serbia Peter I
Kingdom of Romania Ferdinand I
and others ...
German Empire Wilhelm II
Austria-Hungary Franz Joseph I[j]
Austria-Hungary Karl I
Ottoman Empire Mehmed V[k]
Ottoman Empire Mehmed VI
Ottoman Empire Three Pashas
Kingdom of Bulgaria Ferdinand I
and others ...
Strength
Total: 42,928,000[1] Total: 25,248,000[1]
68,176,000 (Total all)
Casualties and losses
Military dead: 5,525,000
Military wounded: 12,832,000
Total: 18,357,000 KIA, WIA and MIA
Civilian dead: 4,000,000
further details ...
Military dead: 4,386,000
Military wounded: 8,388,000
Total: 12,774,000 KIA, WIA and MIA
Civilian dead: 3,700,000
further details ...
vte
Theaters of World War I
Events leading to World War I
Bloqueo de Venezuela por las potencias europeas 1902.jpg
Franco-Prussian War 1870–1871
Second Concert of Europe 1871
Russo-Turkish War 1877–1878
Congress of Berlin 1878
Campaign in Bosnia 1878
Dual Alliance 1879
Triple Alliance 1882
Franco-Russian Alliance 1894
Anglo-German naval arms race 1898–1912
Entente Cordiale 1904
Russo-Japanese War 1904–1905
First Moroccan Crisis 1905–1906
Pig War 1906–1908
Anglo-Russian Convention 1907
Bosnian Crisis 1908–1909
Agadir Crisis 1911
Italo-Turkish War 1911–1912
Balkan Wars 1912–1913
Assassination of Franz Ferdinand 1914
July Crisis 1914
vte
World
War I or the First World War, often abbreviated as WWI or WW1, began on
28 July 1914 and ended on 11 November 1918. Referred to by
contemporaries as the "Great War", its belligerents included much of
Europe, the Russian Empire, the United States, and the Ottoman Empire,
with fighting also expanding into the Middle East, Africa, and parts of
Asia. One of the deadliest conflicts in history, an estimated 9 million
people were killed in combat, while over 5 million civilians died from
military occupation, bombardment, hunger, and disease.[2] Millions of
additional deaths resulted from genocides within the Ottoman Empire and
the 1918 influenza pandemic, which was exacerbated by the movement of
combatants during the war.[3][4]
By 1914, the European great
powers were divided into the Triple Entente of France, Russia, and
Britain; and the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy.
Tensions in the Balkans came to a head on 28 June 1914 following the
assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the Austro-Hungarian heir, by
Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian Serb. Austria-Hungary blamed Serbia, which
led to the July Crisis, an unsuccessful attempt to avoid conflict
through diplomacy. Russia came to Serbia's defense following
Austria-Hungary's declaration of war on the latter on 28 July, and by 4
August, the system of alliances drew in Germany, France, and Britain,
along with their respective colonies. In November, the Ottoman Empire,
Germany, and Austria-Hungary formed the Central Powers, while in April
1915, Italy switched sides to join Britain, France, Russia, and Serbia
in forming the Allies of World War I.
Facing a war on two fronts,
German strategy in 1914 was to first defeat France, then shift its
forces to Eastern Europe and knock out Russia in what was known as the
Schlieffen Plan.[5] However, Germany's advance into France failed, and
by the end of 1914, the two sides faced each other along the Western
Front, a continuous series of trench lines stretching from the English
Channel to Switzerland that changed little until 1917. By contrast, the
Eastern Front was far more fluid, with Austria-Hungary and Russia
gaining and then losing large swathes of territory. Other significant
theatres included the Middle Eastern Theatre, the Italian Front, and the
Balkans Theatre, drawing Bulgaria, Romania, and Greece into the war.
By
early 1915 Russia had been seeing defeat after defeat in the twin
Battle of Tannenberg and the Battle of the Masurian Lakes. The Russians
had suffered around 450,000 casualties in all of those battles, by then
their armies were demoralized and the Germans had sent the bulk of their
armies towards the Eastern Front. The siege of Przemyśl had been a
success for the Russians but by April the Germans had begun drawing up
plans to liberate Galicia. By May the Germans had launched the
Gorlice–Tarnów offensive, an offensive which eventually turned into a
Russian retreat.[6] By the 5th of August, Warsaw had been occupied by
the Germans. The battle finally ended in September 1915 with the
entirety of Poland and parts of Minsk being occupied.
Shortages
caused by the Allied naval blockade led Germany to initiate unrestricted
submarine warfare in early 1917, bringing the previously-neutral United
States into the war on 6 April 1917. In Russia, the Bolsheviks seized
power in the October Revolution of 1917, and made peace in the Treaty of
Brest-Litovsk on 3 March 1918, freeing up a large number of German
troops. By transferring these forces to the Western Front, the German
General Staff hoped to win a decisive victory before American
reinforcements could impact the war, and launched the German spring
offensive in March 1918. Despite initial success, it was soon halted by
heavy casualties and ferocious defence; in August, the Allies launched
the Hundred Days Offensive and although the Imperial German Army
continued to fight hard, it could no longer halt their advance.[7]
Towards
the end of 1918, the Central Powers began to collapse; Bulgaria signed
an armistice on 29 September, followed by the Ottomans on 31 October,
then Austria-Hungary on 3 November. Isolated, facing the German
Revolution at home and a military on the verge of mutiny, Kaiser Wilhelm
abdicated on 9 November, and the new German government signed the
Armistice of 11 November 1918, bringing the conflict to a close. The
Paris Peace Conference of 1919–1920 imposed various settlements on the
defeated powers, with the best-known of these being the Treaty of
Versailles. The dissolution of the Russian, German, Ottoman, and
Austro-Hungarian empires led to numerous uprisings and the creation of
independent states, including Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia.
For reasons that are still debated, failure to manage the instability
that resulted from this upheaval during the interwar period ended with
the outbreak of World War II in September 1939.
Names
The term
world war was first coined in September 1914 by German biologist and
philosopher Ernst Haeckel. He claimed that "there is no doubt that the
course and character of the feared 'European War' ... will become the
first world war in the full sense of the word,"[8] in The Indianapolis
Star on 20 September 1914.
The term "First World War" had been
used by Lt-Col. Charles à Court Repington, as a title for his memoirs
(published in 1920); he had noted his discussion on the matter with a
Major Johnstone of Harvard University in his diary entry of 10 September
1918.[9][10] Prior to World War II, the events of 1914–1918 were
generally known as the Great War or simply the World War.[11][12] In
August 1914, The Independent magazine wrote "This is the Great War. It
names itself".[13] In October 1914, the Canadian magazine Maclean's
similarly wrote, "Some wars name themselves. This is the Great War."[14]
Contemporary Europeans also referred to it as "the war to end
war"[citation needed] and it was also described as "the war to end all
wars" due to their perception of its then-unparalleled scale,
devastation, and loss of life.[15] After World War II began in 1939, the
terms became more standard, with British Empire historians, including
Canadians, favouring "The First World War" and Americans "World War
I".[16][failed verification]
Background
Main article: Causes of World War I
Political and military alliances
Map
of Europe focusing on Austria-Hungary and marking the central location
of ethnic groups in it including Slovaks, Czechs, Slovenes, Croats,
Serbs, Romanians, Ukrainians, Poles.
Rival military coalitions in
1914: Triple Entente in green; Triple Alliance in brown. Only the Triple
Alliance was a formal "alliance"; the others listed were informal
patterns of support.
For much of the 19th century, the major European
powers maintained a tenuous balance of power among themselves, known as
the Concert of Europe.[17] After 1848, this was challenged by a variety
of factors, including Britain's withdrawal into so-called splendid
isolation, the decline of the Ottoman Empire and the rise of Prussia
under Otto von Bismarck. The 1866 Austro-Prussian War established
Prussian hegemony in Germany, while victory in the 1870–1871
Franco-Prussian War allowed Bismarck to consolidate the German states
into a German Empire under Prussian leadership. Avenging the defeat of
1871, or revanchism, and recovering the provinces of Alsace-Lorraine
became the principal objects of French policy for the next forty
years.[18]
In order to isolate France and avoid a war on two
fronts, Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors (German:
Dreikaiserbund) between Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany. After
Russian victory in the 1877–1878 Russo-Turkish War, the League was
dissolved due to Austrian concerns over Russian influence in the
Balkans, an area they considered of vital strategic interest. Germany
and Austria-Hungary then formed the 1879 Dual Alliance, which became the
Triple Alliance when Italy joined in 1882.[19] For Bismarck, the
purpose of these agreements was to isolate France by ensuring the three
Empires resolved any disputes between themselves; when this was
threatened in 1880 by British and French attempts to negotiate directly
with Russia, he reformed the League in 1881, which was renewed in 1883
and 1885. After the agreement lapsed in 1887, he replaced it with the
Reinsurance Treaty, a secret agreement between Germany and Russia to
remain neutral if either were attacked by France or Austria-Hungary.[20]
Bismarck
viewed peace with Russia as the foundation of German foreign policy but
after becoming Kaiser in 1890, Wilhelm II forced him to retire and was
persuaded not to renew the Reinsurance Treaty by Leo von Caprivi, his
new Chancellor.[21] This provided France an opportunity to counteract
the Triple Alliance, by signing the Franco-Russian Alliance in 1894,
followed by the 1904 Entente Cordiale with Britain, and the Triple
Entente was completed by the 1907 Anglo-Russian Convention. While these
were not formal alliances, by settling long-standing colonial disputes
in Africa and Asia, British entry into any future conflict involving
France or Russia became a possibility.[22] British and Russian support
for France against Germany during the Agadir Crisis in 1911 reinforced
their relationship and increased Anglo-German estrangement, deepening
the divisions that would erupt in 1914.[23]
Arms race
SMS Rheinland, a Nassau-class battleship, Germany's first response to the British Dreadnought
After
1871, the creation of a unified Reich, supported by French indemnity
payments and the annexation of Alsace-Lorraine, led to a huge increase
in German industrial strength. Backed by Wilhelm II, Admiral Alfred von
Tirpitz sought to exploit this to build a Kaiserliche Marine, or
Imperial German Navy, able to compete with the British Royal Navy for
world naval supremacy.[24] He was greatly influenced by US naval
strategist Alfred Thayer Mahan, who argued possession of a blue-water
navy was vital for global power projection; Tirpitz had his books
translated into German, while Wilhelm made them required reading for his
advisors and senior military personnel.[25]
However, it was also
an emotional decision, driven by Wilhelm's simultaneous admiration for
the Royal Navy and desire to outdo it. Bismarck calculated Britain would
not interfere in Europe so long as its maritime supremacy remained
secure but his dismissal in 1890 led to a change in policy and an
Anglo-German naval arms race.[26] Despite the vast sums spent by
Tirpitz, the launch of HMS Dreadnought in 1906 gave the British a
technological advantage over their German rival which they never
lost.[24] Ultimately, the race diverted huge resources to creating a
German navy large enough to antagonise Britain, but not defeat it; in
1911, Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg acknowledged defeat,
leading to the Rüstungswende or 'armaments turning point', when he
switched expenditure from the navy to the army.[27]
This was
driven by concern over Russia's recovery from defeat in the 1905
Russo-Japanese War and the subsequent revolution. Economic reforms
backed by French funding led to a significant post-1908 expansion of
railways and infrastructure, particularly in its western border
regions.[28] Germany and Austria-Hungary relied on faster mobilisation
to compensate for fewer numbers and it was the potential threat posed by
the closing of this gap that led to the end of the naval race, rather
than a reduction in tensions. When Germany expanded its standing army by
170,000 men in 1913, France extended compulsory military service from
two to three years; similar measures taken by the Balkan powers and
Italy, which led to increased expenditure by the Ottomans and
Austria-Hungary. Absolute figures are hard to calculate due to
differences in categorising expenditure, since they often omit civilian
infrastructure projects with a military use, such as railways. However,
from 1908 to 1913, defence spending by the six major European powers
increased by over 50% in real terms.[29]
Conflicts in the Balkans
Photo
of large white building with one signs saying "Moritz Schiller" and
another in Arabic; in front is a cluster of people looking at poster on
the wall.
Sarajevo citizens reading a poster with the proclamation of the Austrian annexation in 1908
The
years before 1914 were marked by a series of crises in the Balkans as
other powers sought to benefit from Ottoman decline. While Pan-Slavic
and Orthodox Russia considered itself the protector of Serbia and other
Slav states, they preferred the strategically vital Bosporus straits be
controlled by a weak Ottoman government, rather than an ambitious Slav
power like Bulgaria. Since Russia had its own ambitions in Eastern
Turkey and their clients had over-lapping claims in the Balkans,
balancing them divided Russian policy makers and added to regional
instability.[30]
Austrian statesmen viewed the Balkans as
essential for the continued existence of their Empire and Serbian
expansion as a direct threat. The 1908–1909 Bosnian Crisis began when
Austria annexed the former Ottoman territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina,
which it had occupied since 1878. Timed to coincide with the Bulgarian
Declaration of Independence from the Ottoman Empire, this unilateral
action was denounced by the European powers but accepted as there was no
consensus on how to reverse it. Some historians see this as a
significant escalation, ending any chance of Austria co-operating with
Russia in the Balkans while damaging relations with Serbia and Italy,
both of whom had their own expansionist ambitions in the area.[31]
Tensions
increased after the 1911 to 1912 Italo-Turkish War demonstrated Ottoman
weakness and led to the formation of the Balkan League, an alliance of
Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro, and Greece.[32] The League quickly
over-ran most of European Turkey in the 1912 to 1913 First Balkan War,
much to the surprise of outside observers.[33] The Serbian capture of
ports on the Adriatic resulted in partial Austrian mobilisation on 21
November 1912, including units along the Russian border in Galicia. In a
meeting the next day, the Russian government decided not to mobilise in
response, unwilling to precipitate a war for which they were not yet
prepared.[34]
The Great Powers sought to re-assert control
through the 1913 Treaty of London, which created an independent Albania,
while enlarging the territories of Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro and
Greece. However, disputes between the victors sparked the 33-day Second
Balkan War, when Bulgaria attacked Serbia and Greece on 16 June 1913; it
was defeated, losing most of Macedonia to Serbia and Greece, and
Southern Dobruja to Romania.[35] The result was that even countries
which benefited from the Balkan Wars, such as Serbia and Greece, felt
cheated of their "rightful gains", while for Austria it demonstrated the
apparent indifference with which other powers viewed their concerns,
including Germany.[36] This complex mix of resentment, nationalism and
insecurity helps explain why the pre-1914 Balkans became known as the
"powder keg of Europe".[37]
Prelude
For a chronological guide, see Timeline of World War I.
Sarajevo assassination
Main article: Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand
Traditionally
thought to show the arrest of Gavrilo Princip (right), historians now
believe this photo depicts an innocent bystander, Ferdinand Behr [38]
[39]
On 28 June 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir
presumptive to Emperor Franz Joseph, visited Sarajevo, capital of the
recently annexed provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Six assassins [l]
from the movement known as Young Bosnia, or Mlada Bosna, took up
positions along the route taken by the Archduke's motorcade, with the
intention of assassinating him. Supplied with arms by extremists within
the Serbian Black Hand intelligence organisation, they hoped his death
would free Bosnia from Austrian rule, although there was little
agreement on what would replace it.[41]
Nedeljko Čabrinović threw
a grenade at the Archduke's car and injured two of his aides, who were
taken to hospital while the convoy carried on. The other assassins were
also unsuccessful but an hour later, as Ferdinand was returning from
visiting the injured officers, his car took a wrong turn into a street
where Gavrilo Princip was standing. He stepped forward and fired two
pistol shots, fatally wounding Ferdinand and his wife Sophie, who both
died shortly thereafter.[42] Although Emperor Franz Joseph was shocked
by the incident, political and personal differences meant the two men
were not close; allegedly, his first reported comment was "A higher
power has re-established the order which I, alas, could not
preserve".[43]
According to historian Zbyněk Zeman, his reaction
was reflected more broadly in Vienna, where "the event almost failed to
make any impression whatsoever. On Sunday 28 June and Monday 29th, the
crowds listened to music and drank wine, as if nothing had
happened."[44][45] Nevertheless, the impact of the murder of the heir to
the throne was significant, and has been described by historian
Christopher Clark as a "9/11 effect, a terrorist event charged with
historic meaning, transforming the political chemistry in Vienna".[46]
Expansion of violence in Bosnia and Herzegovina
Crowds on the streets in the aftermath of the anti-Serb riots in Sarajevo, 29 June 1914
The
Austro-Hungarian authorities encouraged the subsequent anti-Serb riots
in Sarajevo, in which Bosnian Croats and Bosniaks killed two Bosnian
Serbs and damaged numerous Serb-owned buildings.[47][48] Violent actions
against ethnic Serbs were also organised outside Sarajevo, in other
cities in Austro-Hungarian-controlled Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia
and Slovenia. Austro-Hungarian authorities in Bosnia and Herzegovina
imprisoned and extradited approximately 5,500 prominent Serbs, 700 to
2,200 of whom died in prison. A further 460 Serbs were sentenced to
death. A predominantly Bosniak special militia known as the Schutzkorps
was established and carried out the persecution of
Serbs.[49][50][51][52]
July Crisis
Main articles: July Crisis,
German entry into World War I, Austro-Hungarian entry into World War I,
and Russian entry into World War I
The assassination initiated the
July Crisis, a month of diplomatic manoeuvring between Austria-Hungary,
Germany, Russia, France and Britain. Believing Serbian intelligence
helped organise Franz Ferdinand's murder, Austrian officials wanted to
use the opportunity to end their interference in Bosnia and saw war as
the best way of achieving this.[53] However, the Foreign Ministry had no
solid proof of Serbian involvement and a dossier used to make its case
was riddled with errors.[54] On 23 July, Austria delivered an ultimatum
to Serbia, listing ten demands made intentionally unacceptable to
provide an excuse for starting hostilities.[55]
Ethno-linguistic map of Austria-Hungary, 1910. Bosnia-Herzegovina was annexed in 1908.
Serbia
ordered general mobilisation on 25 July, but accepted all the terms,
except for those empowering Austrian representatives to suppress
"subversive elements" inside Serbia, and take part in the investigation
and trial of Serbians linked to the assassination.[56][57] Claiming this
amounted to rejection, Austria broke off diplomatic relations and
ordered partial mobilisation the next day; on 28 July, they declared war
on Serbia and began shelling Belgrade. Having initiated war
preparations on 25 July, Russia now ordered general mobilisation in
support of Serbia on 30th.[58]
Anxious to ensure backing from the
SDP political opposition by presenting Russia as the aggressor,
Bethmann-Hollweg delayed commencement of war preparations until 31
July.[59] That afternoon the Russian government were handed a note
requiring them to "cease all war measures against Germany and
Austria-Hungary" within 12 hours.[60] A further German demand for
neutrality was refused by the French who ordered general mobilisation
but delayed declaring war.[61] The German General Staff had long assumed
they faced a war on two fronts; the Schlieffen Plan envisaged using 80%
of the army to defeat France in the west, then switch to Russia. Since
this required them to move quickly, mobilisation orders were issued that
afternoon.[62]
Cheering crowds in London and Paris on the day war was declared.
At
a meeting on 29 July, the British cabinet had narrowly decided its
obligations to Belgium under the 1839 Treaty of London did not require
it to oppose a German invasion with military force. However, this was
largely driven by Prime Minister Asquith's desire to maintain unity; he
and his senior Cabinet ministers were already committed to support
France, the Royal Navy had been mobilised and public opinion was
strongly in favour of intervention.[63] On 31 July, Britain sent notes
to Germany and France, asking them to respect Belgian neutrality; France
pledged to do so, Germany did not reply.[64]
Once the German
ultimatum to Russia expired on the morning of 1 August, the two
countries were at war. Later the same day, Wilhelm was informed by his
Ambassador in London, Prince Lichnowsky, that Britain would remain
neutral if France was not attacked, and in any case might be stayed by a
crisis in Ireland.[65] Jubilant at this news, he ordered General
Moltke, the German chief of staff, to "march the whole of the ... army
to the East". Moltke protested that "it cannot be done. The deployment
of millions cannot be improvised."[66] Lichnowsky, in any case, quickly
realised he was mistaken. Although Wilhelm insisted on waiting for a
telegram from his cousin George V, once received, it confirmed there had
been a misunderstanding and he told Moltke "Now do what you want."[67]
Aware
of German plans to attack through Belgium, French Commander-in-Chief
Joseph Joffre asked his government for permission to cross the border
and pre-empt such a move. To avoid a violation of Belgian neutrality, he
was told any advance could come only after a German invasion.[68] On 2
August, Germany occupied Luxembourg and exchanged fire with French
units; on 3 August, they declared war on France and demanded free
passage across Belgium, which was refused. Early on the morning of 4
August, the Germans invaded and Albert I of Belgium called for
assistance under the Treaty of London.[69][70] Britain sent Germany an
ultimatum demanding they withdraw from Belgium; when this expired at
midnight without a response, the two empires were at war.[71]
Progress of the war
Further information: Diplomatic history of World War I
Opening hostilities
Confusion among the Central Powers
The
strategy of the Central Powers suffered from miscommunication. Germany
had promised to support Austria-Hungary's invasion of Serbia, but
interpretations of what this meant differed. Previously tested
deployment plans had been replaced early in 1914, but those had never
been tested in exercises. Austro-Hungarian leaders believed Germany
would cover its northern flank against Russia.[72] Germany, however,
envisioned Austria-Hungary directing most of its troops against Russia,
while Germany dealt with France. This confusion forced the
Austro-Hungarian Army to divide its forces between the Russian and
Serbian fronts.
Serbian campaign
Main article: Serbian campaign
Serbian Army Blériot XI "Oluj", 1915
Beginning
on 12 August, the Austrian and Serbs clashed at the battles of the Cer
and Kolubara; over the next two weeks, Austrian attacks were repulsed
with heavy losses, dashing their hopes of a swift victory and marking
the first major Allied victories of the war. As a result, Austria had to
keep sizeable forces on the Serbian front, weakening its efforts
against Russia.[73] Serbia's defeat of the 1914 invasion has been called
one of the major upset victories of the twentieth century.[74] In
spring 1915, the campaign saw the first use of anti-aircraft warfare
after an Austrian plane was shot down with ground-to-air fire, as well
as the first medical evacuation by the Serbian army in autumn
1915.[75][76]
German Offensive in Belgium and France
Main article: Western Front (World War I)
German soldiers on the way to the front in 1914; at this stage, all sides expected the conflict to be a short one.
Upon
mobilisation in 1914, 80% of the German Army was located on the Western
Front, with the remainder acting as a screening force in the East;
officially titled Aufmarsch II West, it is better known as the
Schlieffen Plan after its creator, Alfred von Schlieffen, head of the
German General Staff from 1891 to 1906. Rather than a direct attack
across their shared frontier, the German right wing would sweep through
the Netherlands and Belgium, then swing south, encircling Paris and
trapping the French army against the Swiss border. Schlieffen estimated
this would take six weeks, after which the German army would transfer to
the East and defeat the Russians.[77]
The plan was substantially
modified by his successor, Helmuth von Moltke the Younger. Under
Schlieffen, 85% of German forces in the west were assigned to the right
wing, with the remainder holding along the frontier. By keeping his left
wing deliberately weak, he hoped to lure the French into an offensive
into the "lost provinces" of Alsace-Lorraine, which was in fact the
strategy envisaged by their Plan XVII.[77] However, Moltke grew
concerned the French might push too hard on his left flank and as the
German Army increased in size from 1908 to 1914, he changed the
allocation of forces between the two wings from 85:15 to 70:30.[78] He
also considered Dutch neutrality essential for German trade and
cancelled the incursion into the Netherlands, which meant any delays in
Belgium threatened the entire viability of the plan.[79] Historian
Richard Holmes argues these changes meant the right wing was not strong
enough to achieve decisive success and thus led to unrealistic goals and
timings.[80]
French bayonet charge during the Battle of the
Frontiers; by the end of August, French casualties exceeded 260,000,
including 75,000 dead.
The initial German advance in the West was
very successful and by the end of August the Allied left, which included
the British Expeditionary Force, or "BEF", was in full retreat. At the
same time, the French offensive in Alsace-Lorraine was a disastrous
failure, with casualties exceeding 260,000, including 27,000 killed on
22 August during the Battle of the Frontiers.[81] German planning
provided broad strategic instructions, while allowing army commanders
considerable freedom in carrying them out at the front; this worked well
in 1866 and 1870 but in 1914, von Kluck used this freedom to disobey
orders, opening a gap between the German armies as they closed on
Paris.[82] The French and British exploited this gap to halt the German
advance east of Paris at the First Battle of the Marne from 5 to 12
September and push the German forces back some 50 km (31 mi).
In
1911, the Russian Stavka had agreed with the French to attack Germany
within fifteen days of mobilisation, ten days before the Germans had
anticipated, although it meant the two Russian armies that entered East
Prussia on 17 August did so without many of their support elements.[83]
Although the Russian Second Army was effectively destroyed at the Battle
of Tannenberg on 26–30 August, their advance caused the Germans to
re-route their 8th Field Army from France to East Prussia, a factor in
Allied victory on the Marne.[citation needed]
By the end of 1914,
German troops held strong defensive positions inside France, controlled
the bulk of France's domestic coalfields and had inflicted 230,000 more
casualties than it lost itself. However, communications problems and
questionable command decisions cost Germany the chance of a decisive
outcome, while it had failed to achieve the primary objective of
avoiding a long, two-front war.[84] As was apparent to a number of
German leaders, this amounted to a strategic defeat; shortly after the
Marne, Crown Prince Wilhelm told an American reporter; "We have lost the
war. It will go on for a long time but lost it is already."[85]
Asia and the Pacific
Main article: Asian and Pacific theatre of World War I
World empires and colonies around 1914
On
30 August 1914, New Zealand occupied German Samoa, now the independent
state of Samoa. On 11 September, the Australian Naval and Military
Expeditionary Force landed on the island of New Britain, then part of
German New Guinea. On 28 October, the German cruiser SMS Emden sank the
Russian cruiser Zhemchug in the Battle of Penang. Japan declared war on
Germany prior to seizing territories in the Pacific which later became
the South Seas Mandate, as well as German Treaty ports on the Chinese
Shandong peninsula at Tsingtao. After Vienna refused to withdraw its
cruiser SMS Kaiserin Elisabeth from Tsingtao, Japan declared war on
Austria-Hungary as well, and the ship was sunk at Tsingtao in November
1914.[86] Within a few months, Allied forces had seized all German
territories in the Pacific, leaving only isolated commerce raiders and a
few holdouts in New Guinea.[87][88]
African campaigns
Main article: African theatre of World War I
Some
of the first clashes of the war involved British, French, and German
colonial forces in Africa. On 6–7 August, French and British troops
invaded the German protectorate of Togoland and Kamerun. On 10 August,
German forces in South-West Africa attacked South Africa; sporadic and
fierce fighting continued for the rest of the war. The German colonial
forces in German East Africa, led by Colonel Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck,
fought a guerrilla warfare campaign during World War I and only
surrendered two weeks after the armistice took effect in Europe.[89]
Indian support for the Allies
Main article: Indian Army during World War I
Further information: Hindu–German Conspiracy, Niedermayer–Hentig Expedition, and Third Anglo-Afghan War
The British Indian infantry divisions were withdrawn from France in December 1915, and sent to Mesopotamia.
Germany
attempted to use Indian nationalism and pan-Islamism to its advantage,
instigating uprisings in India, and sending a mission that urged
Afghanistan to join the war on the side of Central Powers. However,
contrary to British fears of a revolt in India, the outbreak of the war
saw an unprecedented outpouring of loyalty and goodwill towards
Britain.[90][91] Indian political leaders from the Indian National
Congress and other groups were eager to support the British war effort
since they believed that strong support for the war effort would further
the cause of Indian Home Rule.[citation needed] The Indian Army in fact
outnumbered the British Army at the beginning of the war; about 1.3
million Indian soldiers and labourers served in Europe, Africa, and the
Middle East, while the central government and the princely states sent
large supplies of food, money, and ammunition. In all, 140,000 men
served on the Western Front and nearly 700,000 in the Middle East.
Casualties of Indian soldiers totalled 47,746 killed and 65,126 wounded
during World War I.[92] The suffering engendered by the war, as well as
the failure of the British government to grant self-government to India
after the end of hostilities, bred disillusionment and fuelled the
campaign for full independence that would be led by Mohandas K. Gandhi
and others.[93]
Western Front 1914 to 1916
Main article: Western Front (World War I)
Trench warfare begins
Trenches of the 11th Cheshire Regiment at Ovillers-la-Boisselle, on the Somme, July 1916
Pre-war
military tactics that emphasised open warfare and the individual
rifleman proved obsolete when confronted with conditions prevailing in
1914. Technological advances allowed the creation of strong defensive
systems largely impervious to massed infantry advances, such as barbed
wire, machine guns and above all far more powerful artillery, which
dominated the battlefield and made crossing open ground extremely
difficult.[94] Both sides struggled to develop tactics for breaching
entrenched positions without suffering heavy casualties. In time,
however, technology began to produce new offensive weapons, such as gas
warfare and the tank.[95]
After the First Battle of the Marne in
September 1914, Allied and German forces unsuccessfully tried to
outflank each other, a series of manoeuvres later known as the "Race to
the Sea". By the end of 1914, the opposing forces confronted each other
along an uninterrupted line of entrenched positions from the Channel to
the Swiss border.[96] Since the Germans were normally able to choose
where to stand, they generally held the high ground; in addition, their
trenches tended to be better built, since Anglo-French trenches were
initially intended as "temporary," and would only be needed until the
breaking of German defences.[97]
Both sides tried to break the
stalemate using scientific and technological advances. On 22 April 1915,
at the Second Battle of Ypres, the Germans (violating the Hague
Convention) used chlorine gas for the first time on the Western Front.
Several types of gas soon became widely used by both sides, and though
it never proved a decisive, battle-winning weapon, poison gas became one
of the most-feared and best-remembered horrors of the war.[98][99]
Continuation of trench warfare
Mud stained British soldiers at rest
Royal Irish Rifles in a communications trench, first day on the Somme, 1916
Neither
side proved able to deliver a decisive blow for the next two years.
Throughout 1915–17, the British Empire and France suffered more
casualties than Germany, because of both the strategic and tactical
stances chosen by the sides. Strategically, while the Germans mounted
only one major offensive, the Allies made several attempts to break
through the German lines.
In February 1916 the Germans attacked
French defensive positions at the Battle of Verdun, lasting until
December 1916. The Germans made initial gains, before French
counter-attacks returned matters to near their starting point.
Casualties were greater for the French, but the Germans bled heavily as
well, with anywhere from 700,000[100] to 975,000[101] casualties
suffered between the two combatants. Verdun became a symbol of French
determination and self-sacrifice.[102]
Dead German soldiers at Somme 1916
The
Battle of the Somme was an Anglo-French offensive of July to November
1916. The opening day of the offensive (1 July 1916) was the bloodiest
day in the history of the British Army, suffering 57,470 casualties,
including 19,240 dead. The entire Somme offensive cost the British Army
some 420,000 casualties. The French suffered another estimated 200,000
casualties and the Germans an estimated 500,000.[103] Gun fire was not
the only factor taking lives; the diseases that emerged in the trenches
were a major killer on both sides. The living conditions made it so that
countless diseases and infections occurred, such as trench foot, shell
shock, blindness/burns from mustard gas, lice, trench fever, "cooties"
(body lice) and the 'Spanish flu'.[104][unreliable source?]
Naval war
Main article: Naval warfare of World War I
King George V (front left) and a group of officials inspect a British munitions factory in 1917.
At
the start of the war, the German Empire had cruisers scattered across
the globe, some of which were subsequently used to attack Allied
merchant shipping. The British Royal Navy systematically hunted them
down, though not without some embarrassment from its inability to
protect Allied shipping. Before the beginning of the war, it was widely
understood that Britain held the position of strongest, most influential
navy in the world.[105][unreliable source?] The publishing of the book
The Influence of Sea Power upon History by Alfred Thayer Mahan in 1890
was intended to encourage the United States to increase its naval power.
Instead, this book made it to Germany and inspired its readers to try
to over-power the British Royal Navy.[106] For example, the German
detached light cruiser SMS Emden, part of the East Asia Squadron
stationed at Qingdao, seized or destroyed 15 merchantmen, as well as
sinking a Russian cruiser and a French destroyer. However, most of the
German East-Asia squadron—consisting of the armoured cruisers SMS
Scharnhorst and Gneisenau, light cruisers Nürnberg and Leipzig and two
transport ships—did not have orders to raid shipping and was instead
underway to Germany when it met British warships. The German flotilla
and Dresden sank two armoured cruisers at the Battle of Coronel, but was
virtually destroyed at the Battle of the Falkland Islands in December
1914, with only Dresden and a few auxiliaries escaping, but after the
Battle of Más a Tierra these too had been destroyed or interned.[107]
Battleships of the Hochseeflotte, 1917
U-155 exhibited near Tower Bridge in London, after the 1918 Armistice
Soon
after the outbreak of hostilities, Britain began a naval blockade of
Germany. The strategy proved effective, cutting off vital military and
civilian supplies, although this blockade violated accepted
international law codified by several international agreements of the
past two centuries.[108] Britain mined international waters to prevent
any ships from entering entire sections of ocean, causing danger to even
neutral ships.[109] Since there was limited response to this tactic of
the British, Germany expected a similar response to its unrestricted
submarine warfare.[110]
The Battle of Jutland (German:
Skagerrakschlacht, or "Battle of the Skagerrak") in May/June 1916
developed into the largest naval battle of the war. It was the only
full-scale clash of battleships during the war, and one of the largest
in history. The Kaiserliche Marine's High Seas Fleet, commanded by Vice
Admiral Reinhard Scheer, fought the Royal Navy's Grand Fleet, led by
Admiral Sir John Jellicoe. The engagement was a stand off, as the
Germans were outmanoeuvred by the larger British fleet, but managed to
escape and inflicted more damage to the British fleet than they
received. Strategically, however, the British asserted their control of
the sea, and the bulk of the German surface fleet remained confined to
port for the duration of the war.[111]
German U-boats attempted
to cut the supply lines between North America and Britain.[112] The
nature of submarine warfare meant that attacks often came without
warning, giving the crews of the merchant ships little hope of
survival.[112][113] The United States launched a protest, and Germany
changed its rules of engagement. After the sinking of the passenger ship
RMS Lusitania in 1915, Germany promised not to target passenger liners,
while Britain armed its merchant ships, placing them beyond the
protection of the "cruiser rules", which demanded warning and movement
of crews to "a place of safety" (a standard that lifeboats did not
meet).[114] Finally, in early 1917, Germany adopted a policy of
unrestricted submarine warfare, realising the Americans would eventually
enter the war.[112][115] Germany sought to strangle Allied sea lanes
before the United States could transport a large army overseas, but
after initial successes eventually failed to do so.[112]
The
U-boat threat lessened in 1917, when merchant ships began travelling in
convoys, escorted by destroyers. This tactic made it difficult for
U-boats to find targets, which significantly lessened losses; after the
hydrophone and depth charges were introduced, accompanying destroyers
could attack a submerged submarine with some hope of success. Convoys
slowed the flow of supplies since ships had to wait as convoys were
assembled. The solution to the delays was an extensive program of
building new freighters. Troopships were too fast for the submarines and
did not travel the North Atlantic in convoys.[116] The U-boats had sunk
more than 5,000 Allied ships, at a cost of 199 submarines.[117]
World
War I also saw the first use of aircraft carriers in combat, with HMS
Furious launching Sopwith Camels in a successful raid against the
Zeppelin hangars at Tondern in July 1918, as well as blimps for
antisubmarine patrol.[118]
Southern theatres
War in the Balkans
Main articles: Balkans theatre, Bulgaria during World War I, Serbian campaign, and Macedonian front
Refugee transport from Serbia in Leibnitz, Styria, 1914
Bulgarian soldiers in a trench, preparing to fire against an incoming aeroplane
Austro-Hungarian
troops executing captured Serbians, 1917. Serbia lost about 850,000
people during the war, a quarter of its pre-war population.[119]
Faced
with Russia in the east, Austria-Hungary could spare only one-third of
its army to attack Serbia. After suffering heavy losses, the Austrians
briefly occupied the Serbian capital, Belgrade. A Serbian counter-attack
in the Battle of Kolubara succeeded in driving them from the country by
the end of 1914. For the first ten months of 1915, Austria-Hungary used
most of its military reserves to fight Italy. German and
Austro-Hungarian diplomats, however, scored a coup by persuading
Bulgaria to join the attack on Serbia.[120] The Austro-Hungarian
provinces of Slovenia, Croatia and Bosnia provided troops for
Austria-Hungary in the fight with Serbia, Russia and Italy. Montenegro
allied itself with Serbia.[121]
Bulgaria declared war on Serbia
on 14 October 1915 and joined in the attack by the Austro-Hungarian army
under Mackensen's army of 250,000 that was already underway. Serbia was
conquered in a little more than a month, as the Central Powers, now
including Bulgaria, sent in 600,000 troops total. The Serbian army,
fighting on two fronts and facing certain defeat, retreated into
northern Albania. The Serbs suffered defeat in the Battle of Kosovo.
Montenegro covered the Serbian retreat towards the Adriatic coast in the
Battle of Mojkovac in 6–7 January 1916, but ultimately the Austrians
also conquered Montenegro. The surviving Serbian soldiers were evacuated
by ship to Greece.[122] After conquest, Serbia was divided between
Austro-Hungary and Bulgaria.[123]
In late 1915, a Franco-British
force landed at Salonica in Greece to offer assistance and to pressure
its government to declare war against the Central Powers. However, the
pro-German King Constantine I dismissed the pro-Allied government of
Eleftherios Venizelos before the Allied expeditionary force
arrived.[124] The friction between the King of Greece and the Allies
continued to accumulate with the National Schism, which effectively
divided Greece between regions still loyal to the king and the new
provisional government of Venizelos in Salonica. After intense
negotiations and an armed confrontation in Athens between Allied and
royalist forces (an incident known as Noemvriana), the King of Greece
resigned and his second son Alexander took his place; Greece officially
joined the war on the side of the Allies in June 1917.
The
Macedonian front was initially mostly static. French and Serbian forces
retook limited areas of Macedonia by recapturing Bitola on 19 November
1916 following the costly Monastir offensive, which brought
stabilisation of the front.[125]
Serbian and French troops
finally made a breakthrough in September 1918 in the Vardar offensive,
after most of the German and Austro-Hungarian troops had been withdrawn.
The Bulgarians were defeated at the Battle of Dobro Pole, and by 25
September British and French troops had crossed the border into Bulgaria
proper as the Bulgarian army collapsed. Bulgaria capitulated four days
later, on 29 September 1918.[126] The German high command responded by
despatching troops to hold the line, but these forces were far too weak
to re-establish a front.[127]
The disappearance of the Macedonian
front meant that the road to Budapest and Vienna was now opened to
Allied forces. Hindenburg and Ludendorff concluded that the strategic
and operational balance had now shifted decidedly against the Central
Powers and, a day after the Bulgarian collapse, insisted on an immediate
peace settlement.[128]
Ottoman Empire
Main article: Ottoman Empire in World War I
See also: Middle Eastern theatre of World War I
Australian troops charging near a Turkish trench during the Gallipoli Campaign
The
Ottomans threatened Russia's Caucasian territories and Britain's
communications with India via the Suez Canal. As the conflict
progressed, the Ottoman Empire took advantage of the European powers'
preoccupation with the war and conducted large-scale ethnic cleansing of
the indigenous Armenian, Greek, and Assyrian Christian populations,
known as the Armenian genocide, Greek genocide, and Assyrian
genocide.[129][130][131]
The British and French opened overseas
fronts with the Gallipoli (1915) and Mesopotamian campaigns (1914). In
Gallipoli, the Ottoman Empire successfully repelled the British, French,
and Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZACs). In Mesopotamia, by
contrast, after the defeat of the British defenders in the siege of Kut
by the Ottomans (1915–16), British Imperial forces reorganised and
captured Baghdad in March 1917. The British were aided in Mesopotamia by
local Arab and Assyrian tribesmen, while the Ottomans employed local
Kurdish and Turcoman tribes.[132]
Mehmed V greeting Wilhelm II on his arrival at Constantinople
Further
to the west, the Suez Canal was defended from Ottoman attacks in 1915
and 1916; in August, a German and Ottoman force was defeated at the
Battle of Romani by the ANZAC Mounted Division and the 52nd (Lowland)
Infantry Division. Following this victory, an Egyptian Expeditionary
Force advanced across the Sinai Peninsula, pushing Ottoman forces back
in the Battle of Magdhaba in December and the Battle of Rafa on the
border between the Egyptian Sinai and Ottoman Palestine in January
1917.[133]
Russian armies generally had success in the Caucasus
campaign. Enver Pasha, supreme commander of the Ottoman armed forces,
was ambitious and dreamed of re-conquering central Asia and areas that
had been lost to Russia previously. He was, however, a poor
commander.[134] He launched an offensive against the Russians in the
Caucasus in December 1914 with 100,000 troops, insisting on a frontal
attack against mountainous Russian positions in winter. He lost 86% of
his force at the Battle of Sarikamish.[135]
Kaiser Wilhelm II
inspecting Turkish troops of the 15th Corps in East Galicia,
Austria-Hungary (now Poland). Prince Leopold of Bavaria, the Supreme
Commander of the German Army on the Eastern Front, is second from the
left.
The Ottoman Empire, with German support, invaded Persia (modern
Iran) in December 1914 in an effort to cut off British and Russian
access to petroleum reservoirs around Baku near the Caspian Sea.[136]
Persia, ostensibly neutral, had long been under the spheres of British
and Russian influence. The Ottomans and Germans were aided by Kurdish
and Azeri forces, together with a large number of major Iranian tribes,
such as the Qashqai, Tangistanis, Lurs, and Khamseh, while the Russians
and British had the support of Armenian and Assyrian forces. The Persian
campaign was to last until 1918 and end in failure for the Ottomans and
their allies. However, the Russian withdrawal from the war in 1917 led
to Armenian and Assyrian forces, who had hitherto inflicted a series of
defeats upon the forces of the Ottomans and their allies, being cut off
from supply lines, outnumbered, outgunned and isolated, forcing them to
fight and flee towards British lines in northern Mesopotamia.[137]
Russian forest trench at the Battle of Sarikamish, 1914–1915
General
Yudenich, the Russian commander from 1915 to 1916, drove the Turks out
of most of the southern Caucasus with a string of victories.[135] During
the 1916 campaign, the Russians defeated the Turks in the Erzurum
offensive, also occupying Trabzon. In 1917, Russian Grand Duke Nicholas
assumed command of the Caucasus front. Nicholas planned a railway from
Russian Georgia to the conquered territories so that fresh supplies
could be brought up for a new offensive in 1917. However, in March 1917
(February in the pre-revolutionary Russian calendar), the Tsar abdicated
in the course of the February Revolution, and the Russian Caucasus Army
began to fall apart.
The Arab Revolt, instigated by the Arab
bureau of the British Foreign Office, started June 1916 with the Battle
of Mecca, led by Sharif Hussein of Mecca, and ended with the Ottoman
surrender of Damascus. Fakhri Pasha, the Ottoman commander of Medina,
resisted for more than two and half years during the siege of Medina
before surrendering in January 1919.[138]
The Senussi tribe,
along the border of Italian Libya and British Egypt, incited and armed
by the Turks, waged a small-scale guerrilla war against Allied troops.
The British were forced to dispatch 12,000 troops to oppose them in the
Senussi campaign. Their rebellion was finally crushed in mid-1916.[139]
Total
Allied casualties on the Ottoman fronts amounted 650,000 men. Total
Ottoman casualties were 725,000 (325,000 dead and 400,000 wounded).[140]
Italian participation
Main articles: Italian front (World War I) and Military history of Italy during World War I
Isonzo Offensives 1915-1917
Although
Italy joined the Triple Alliance in 1882, a treaty with its traditional
Austrian enemy was so controversial that subsequent governments denied
its existence and the terms were only made public in 1915.[141] This
arose from nationalist designs on Austro-Hungarian territory in
Trentino, the Austrian Littoral, Rijeka and Dalmatia, which were
considered vital to secure the borders established in 1866.[142] In
1902, Rome secretly agreed with France to remain neutral if the latter
was attacked by Germany, effectively nullifying its role in the Triple
Alliance.[143]
When the war began in 1914, Italy argued the
Triple Alliance was defensive in nature and it was not obliged to
support an Austrian attack on Serbia. Opposition to joining the Central
Powers increased when Turkey became a member in September, since in 1911
Italy had occupied Ottoman possessions in Libya and the Dodecanese
islands.[144] To secure Italian neutrality, the Central Powers offered
them the French protectorate of Tunisia, while in return for an
immediate entry into the war, the Allies agreed to their demands for
Austrian territory and sovereignty over the Dodecanese.[145] Although
they remained secret, these provisions were incorporated into the April
1915 Treaty of London; Italy joined the Triple Entente and on 23 May
declared war on Austria-Hungary,[146] followed by Germany fifteen months
later.
The pre-1914 Italian army was the weakest in Europe,
short of officers, trained men, adequate transport and modern weapons;
by April 1915, some of these deficiencies had been remedied but it was
still unprepared for the major offensive required by the Treaty of
London.[147] The advantage of superior numbers was offset by the
difficult terrain; much of the fighting took place at altitudes of over
3000 metres in the Alps and Dolomites, where trench lines had to be cut
through rock and ice and keeping troops supplied was a major challenge.
These issues were exacerbated by unimaginative strategies and
tactics.[148] Between 1915 and 1917, the Italian commander, Luigi
Cadorna, undertook a series of frontal assaults along the Isonzo which
made little progress and cost many lives; by the end of the war, total
Italian combat deaths totalled around 548,000.[149]
Austro-Hungarian trench at 3,850 metres in the Ortler Alps, one of the most challenging fronts of the war
Although
an Italian corps occupied southern Albania in May 1916, their main
focus was the Isonzo front which after the capture of Gorizia in August
1916 remained static until October 1917. After a combined Austro-German
force won a major victory at Caporetto, Cadorna was replaced by Armando
Diaz who retreated more than 100 kilometres (62 mi) before holding
positions along the Piave River.[150] A second Austrian offensive was
repulsed in June 1918 and by October it was clear the Central Powers had
lost the war. On 24 October, Diaz launched the Battle of Vittorio
Veneto and initially met stubborn resistance, [151] but with
Austria-Hungary collapsing, Hungarian divisions in Italy now demanded
they be sent home.[152] When this was granted, many others followed and
the Imperial army disintegrated, the Italians taking over 300,000
prisoners.[153] On 3 November, the Armistice of Villa Giusti ended
hostilities between Austria-Hungary and Italy which occupied Trieste and
areas along the Adriatic Sea awarded to it in 1915.[154]
Romanian participation
Main article: Romania in World War I
World
War I is located in RomaniaBucharestBucharestTimișoara (Banat)Timișoara
(Banat)Cluj (Transylvania)Cluj (Transylvania)Chișinău (Moldova)Chișinău
(Moldova)Constanța (Dobruja)Constanța
(Dobruja)BulgariaBulgariaHungaryHungaryMărășeștiMărășeștiOituzOituz
Romania key locations 1916-1918 (note; using 2022 borders)
Despite
secretly agreeing to support the Triple Alliance in 1883, Romania
increasingly found itself at odds with the Central Powers over their
support for Bulgaria in the 1912 to 1913 Balkan Wars and the status of
ethnic Romanian communities in Hungarian-controlled Transylvania,[155]
which comprised an estimated 2.8 million of the 5.0 million
population.[156] With the ruling elite split into pro-German and
pro-Entente factions, Romania remained neutral in 1914, arguing like
Italy that because Austria-Hungary had declared war on Serbia, it was
under no obligation to join them.[157] They maintained this position for
the next two years, while allowing Germany and Austria to transport
military supplies and advisors across Romanian territory.[158]
In
September 1914, Russia had acknowledged Romanian rights to
Austro-Hungarian territories including Transylvania and Banat, whose
acquisition had widespread popular support, [156] and Russian success
against Austria led Romania to join the Entente in the August 1916
Treaty of Bucharest.[158] Under the strategic plan known as Hypothesis
Z, the Romanian army planned an offensive into Transylvania, while
defending Southern Dobruja and Giurgiu against a possible Bulgarian
counterattack.[159] On 27 August 1916, they attacked Transylvania and
occupied substantial parts of the province before being driven back by
the recently formed German 9th Army, led by former Chief of Staff
Falkenhayn.[160] A combined German-Bulgarian-Turkish offensive captured
Dobruja and Giurgiu, although the bulk of the Romanian army managed to
escape encirclement and retreated to Bucharest, which surrendered to the
Central Powers on 6 December 1916.[161]
Approximately 16% of the
pre-war Austro-Hungarian population consisted of ethnic Romanians,
whose loyalty faded as the war progressed; by 1917, they made up more
than 50% of the 300,000 deserters from the Imperial army.[162] Prisoners
of war held by the Russian Empire formed the Romanian Volunteer Corps
who were repatriated to Romania in 1917.[163] [164] [m] Many fought in
the battles of Mărăști, Mărășești and Oituz, where with Russian support
the Romanian army managed to defeat an offensive by the Central Powers
and even take back some territory.[167] Left isolated after the October
Revolution forced Russia out of the war, Romania signed an armistice on 9
December 1917.[168] Shortly afterwards, fighting broke out in the
adjacent Russian territory of Bessarabia between Bolsheviks and Romanian
nationalists, who requested military assistance from their compatriots.
Following their intervention, the independent Moldavian Democratic
Republic was formed in February 1918, which voted for union with Romania
on 27 March.[169]
Romanian troops during the Battle of Mărășești, 1917
On
7 May 1918 Romania signed the Treaty of Bucharest with the Central
Powers, which recognised Romanian sovereignty over Bessarabia in return
for ceding control of passes in the Carpathian Mountains to
Austria-Hungary and granting oil concessions to Germany.[170] Although
approved by Parliament, Ferdinand I refused to sign the treaty, hoping
for an Allied victory; Romania re-entered the war on 10 November 1918 on
the side of the Allies and the Treaty of Bucharest was formally
annulled by the Armistice of 11 November 1918.[171] [n] Between 1914 to
1918, an estimated 400,000 to 600,000 ethnic Romanians served with the
Austro-Hungarian army, of whom up to 150,000 were killed in action;
total military and civilian deaths within contemporary Romanian borders
are estimated at around 748,000.[173]
Eastern Front
Main article: Eastern Front (World War I)
Initial actions
Emperor
Nicholas II and Commander-in-Chief Nikolai Nikolaevich in the captured
Przemysl. The Russian siege of Przemyśl was the longest siege of the
war.
Russian plans for the start of the war called for simultaneous
invasions of Austrian Galicia and East Prussia. Although Russia's
initial advance into Galicia was largely successful, it was driven back
from East Prussia by Hindenburg and Ludendorff at the battles of
Tannenberg and the Masurian Lakes in August and September
1914.[174][175] Russia's less developed industrial base and ineffective
military leadership were instrumental in the events that unfolded. By
the spring of 1915, the Russians had retreated from Galicia, and, in
May, the Central Powers achieved a remarkable breakthrough on Poland's
southern frontiers with their Gorlice–Tarnów offensive.[176] On 5
August, they captured Warsaw and forced the Russians to withdraw from
Poland.
Despite Russia's success in the June 1916 Brusilov
offensive against the Austrians in eastern Galicia,[177] the offensive
was undermined by the reluctance of other Russian generals to commit
their forces to support the victory. Allied and Russian forces were
revived only briefly by Romania's entry into the war on 27 August and
initial gains in Transylvania, as Romania was rapidly pushed back by a
combined Central Powers offensive until only the region of Moldavia was
left. Meanwhile, unrest grew in Russia as the Tsar remained at the
front. The increasingly incompetent rule of Empress Alexandra drew
protests and resulted in the murder of her favourite, Rasputin, at the
end of 1916.
Central Powers peace overtures
"They shall not pass", a phrase typically associated with the defence of Verdun
On
12 December 1916, after ten brutal months of the Battle of Verdun and a
successful offensive against Romania, Germany attempted to negotiate a
peace with the Allies.[178] However, this attempt was rejected out of
hand as a "duplicitous war ruse".[178]
Soon after, the US
president, Woodrow Wilson, attempted to intervene as a peacemaker,
asking in a note for both sides to state their demands. Lloyd George's
War Cabinet considered the German offer to be a ploy to create divisions
amongst the Allies. After initial outrage and much deliberation, they
took Wilson's note as a separate effort, signalling that the United
States was on the verge of entering the war against Germany following
the "submarine outrages". While the Allies debated a response to
Wilson's offer, the Germans chose to rebuff it in favour of "a direct
exchange of views". Learning of the German response, the Allied
governments were free to make clear demands in their response of 14
January. They sought restoration of damages, the evacuation of occupied
territories, reparations for France, Russia and Romania, and a
recognition of the principle of nationalities.[179] This included the
liberation of Italians, Slavs, Romanians, Czecho-Slovaks, and the
creation of a "free and united Poland".[179] On the question of
security, the Allies sought guarantees that would prevent or limit
future wars, complete with sanctions, as a condition of any peace
settlement.[180] The negotiations failed and the Entente powers rejected
the German offer on the grounds that Germany had not put forward any
specific proposals.
1917; Timeline of Major Developments
March to November 1917; Russian Revolution
Main article: Russian Revolution
By
the end of 1916, Russian casualties totalled nearly five million
killed, wounded or captured, with major urban areas affected by food
shortages and high prices. In March 1917, Tsar Nicholas ordered the
military to forcibly suppress a wave of strikes in Petrograd but the
troops refused to fire on the crowds.[181] Revolutionaries set up the
Petrograd Soviet and fearing a left-wing takeover, the State Duma forced
Nicholas to abdicate and established the Russian Provisional
Government, which confirmed Russia's willingness to continue the war.
However, the Petrograd Soviet refused to disband, creating competing
power centres and caused confusion and chaos, with frontline soldiers
becoming increasingly demoralised and unwilling to fight on.[182]
In
the summer of 1917 a Central Powers offensive began in Romania under
the command of August von Mackensen to knock Romania out of the war.
Resulting in the battles of Oituz, Mărăști and Mărășești where up to
1,000,000 Central Powers troops were present. The battles lasted from 22
July to 3 September and eventually the Romanian army was victorious.
August von Mackensen could not plan for another offensive as he had to
transfer troops to the Italian Front.[183]
Following the Tsar's
abdication, Vladimir Lenin—with the help of the German government—was
ushered by train from Switzerland into Russia 16 April 1917. Discontent
and the weaknesses of the Provisional Government led to a rise in the
popularity of the Bolshevik Party, led by Lenin, which demanded an
immediate end to the war. The Revolution of November was followed in
December by an armistice and negotiations with Germany. At first, the
Bolsheviks refused the German terms, but when German troops began
marching across Ukraine unopposed, the new government acceded to the
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk on 3 March 1918. The treaty ceded vast
territories, including Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, parts of
Poland and Ukraine to the Central Powers.[184] Despite this enormous
German success, the manpower required by the Germans to occupy the
captured territory may have contributed to the failure of their Spring
Offensive, and secured relatively little food or other materiel for the
Central Powers war effort.
With the Russian Empire out of the
war, Romania found itself alone on the Eastern Front and signed the
Treaty of Bucharest with the Central Powers in May 1918, ending the
state of war between Romania and the Central Powers. Under the terms of
the treaty, Romania had to give territory to Austria-Hungary and
Bulgaria, and lease its oil reserves to Germany. However, the terms also
included the Central Powers recognition of the union of Bessarabia with
Romania.[185][186]
April 1917: the United States enters the war
Main article: American entry into World War I
President Wilson asking Congress to declare war on Germany, 2 April 1917
The
United States was a major supplier of war materiel to the Allies but
remained neutral in 1914; many opposed the idea of involvement in
"foreign wars", while German Americans made up over 10% of the total
population in 1913.[187] On 7 May 1915, 128 Americans died when the
British Passenger ship Lusitania was sunk by a German submarine.
President Woodrow Wilson demanded an apology and warned the United
States would not tolerate unrestricted submarine warfare but refused to
be drawn into the war.[188] When more Americans died after the sinking
of SS Arabic in August, Bethman-Hollweg ordered an end to such
attacks.[189] Wilson argued he was "too proud to fight", although former
president Theodore Roosevelt denounced the idea of "setting a spiritual
example [to others] by sitting idle, uttering cheap platitudes and
picking up their trade".[190] Despite growing pro-war sentiment, Wilson
was narrowly re-elected as president in 1916.[191]
By the end of
1916, the British naval blockade was causing serious shortages in
Germany and Wilhelm approved the resumption of unrestricted submarine
warfare [o] on 1 February 1917.[193] While the German government
recognised this action was likely to bring America into the war, the
navy claimed they could starve Britain into submission in less than six
months.[194] The military position also appeared stable, at least for
the foreseeable future. Despite heavy losses at Verdun and the Somme
during 1916, withdrawal to the newly created Hindenburg Line would
enable the Westheer to conserve its troops, while it was clear Russia
was on the brink of revolution. The combination meant Germany was
willing to gamble it could force the Allies to make peace before the US
could intervene in any meaningful way.[195]
Although Wilson
severed diplomatic relations on 2 February, he was reluctant to start
hostilities without overwhelming public support. On 24 February, he was
presented with the Zimmermann Telegram; drafted in January by German
Foreign Secretary Arthur Zimmermann, it was intercepted and decoded by
British intelligence, who shared it with their American counterparts.
Already financing Russian Bolsheviks and anti-British Irish
nationalists, Zimmermann hoped to exploit nationalist feelings in Mexico
caused by American incursions during the Pancho Villa Expedition. He
promised President Carranza support for a war against the United States
and help in recovering Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona, although this
offer was promptly rejected.[196] Publication of the telegram on 1 March
caused an upsurge in support for war but this quickly subsided.[192]
The
Allied Avenue, 1917 painting by Childe Hassam, that depicts Manhattan's
Fifth Avenue decorated with flags from Allied nations
The most
significant factor in creating the support Wilson needed was the German
submarine offensive, which not only cost American lives, but paralysed
trade as ships were reluctant to put to sea. This caused food shortages
in cities along the East Coast and on 22 March, Congress approved the
arming of merchant ships.[197] Now committed to war, in his speech to
Congress on 2 April Wilson presented it as a crusade "against human
greed and folly, against Germany, and for justice, peace and
civilisation".[198] On 6 April, Congress declared war on Germany as an
"Associated Power" of the Allies.[199] At this stage they were not at
war with the other Central Powers.[192]
The United States Navy
sent a battleship group to Scapa Flow to join the Grand Fleet and
provided convoy escorts. In April 1917, the United States Army had fewer
than 300,000 men, including National Guard units, compared to British
and French armies of 4.1 and 8.3 million respectively. The Selective
Service Act of 1917 drafted 2.8 million men, although training and
equipping such numbers was a huge logistical challenge. By June 1918,
over 667,000 members of the American Expeditionary Forces, or AEF, had
been transported to France, a figure which reached 2 million by the end
of November.[200] However, American tactical doctrine was still based on
pre-1914 principles, a world away from the combined arms approach used
by the French and British in 1918.[201] US commanders were initially
slow to accept such ideas, leading to heavy casualties and it was not
until the last month of the war that these failings were rectified.[202]
Despite
his conviction Germany must be defeated, Wilson went to war to ensure
the US played a leading role in shaping the peace, which meant
preserving the AEF as a separate military force, rather than being
absorbed into British or French units as his Allies wanted.[203] He was
strongly supported by AEF commander General John J. Pershing, a
proponent of pre-1914 "open warfare" who considered the French and
British emphasis on artillery as misguided and incompatible with
American "offensive spirit".[204] Much to the frustration of his Allies,
who had suffered heavy losses in 1917, he insisted on retaining control
of American troops and refused to commit them to the front line until
able to operate as independent units. As a result, the first significant
US involvement was the Meuse–Argonne offensive in late September
1918.[205]
April to June; Nivelle Offensive and French Army mutinies
French infantry advance on the Chemin des Dames, April 1917
Verdun
cost the French nearly 400,000 casualties, while the horrific
conditions severely impacted morale, leading to a number of incidents of
indiscipline. Although relatively minor, they reflected a belief among
the rank and file that their sacrifices were not appreciated by their
government or senior officers.[206] Combatants on both sides claimed the
battle was the most psychologically exhausting of the entire war;
recognising this, Philippe Pétain frequently rotated divisions, a
process known as the noria system. While this ensured units were
withdrawn before their ability to fight was significantly eroded, it
meant a high proportion of the French army was affected by the
battle.[207] By the beginning of 1917, morale was brittle, even in
divisions with good combat records.[208]
In December 1916, Robert
Nivelle replaced Pétain as commander of French armies on the Western
Front and began planning a spring attack in Champagne, part of a joint
Franco-British operation. Nivelle claimed the capture of his main
objective, the Chemin des Dames, would achieve a massive breakthrough
and cost no more than 15,000 casualties.[209] Poor security meant German
intelligence was well informed on tactics and timetables, but despite
this, when the attack began on 16 April the French made substantial
gains, before being brought to a halt by the newly built and extremely
strong defences of the Hindenburg Line. Nivelle persisted with frontal
assaults and by 25 April the French had suffered nearly 135,000
casualties, including 30,000 dead, most incurred in the first two
days.[210]
Concurrent British attacks at Arras were more
successful, although ultimately of little strategic value.[211]
Operating as a separate unit for the first time, the Canadian Corps
capture of Vimy Ridge during the battle is viewed by many Canadians as a
defining moment in creating a sense of national identity.[212][213]
Although Nivelle continued the offensive, on 3 May the 21st Division,
which had been involved in some of the heaviest fighting at Verdun,
refused orders to go into battle, initiating the French Army mutinies;
within days, acts of "collective indiscipline" had spread to 54
divisions, while over 20,000 deserted.[214] Unrest was almost entirely
confined to the infantry, whose demands were largely non-political,
including better economic support for families at home, and regular
periods of leave, which Nivelle had ended.[215]
Files of soldiers with rifles slung follow close behind a tank, there is a dead body in the foreground
Canadian Corps troops at the Battle of Vimy Ridge, 1917
Although
the vast majority remained willing to defend their own lines, they
refused to participate in offensive action, reflecting a complete
breakdown of trust in the army leadership.[216] Nivelle was removed from
command on 15 May and replaced by Pétain, who resisted demands for
drastic punishment and set about restoring morale by improving
conditions. While exact figures are still debated, only 27 men were
actually executed, with another 3,000 sentenced to periods of
imprisonment; however, the psychological effects were long-lasting, one
veteran commenting "Pétain has purified the unhealthy atmosphere...but
they have ruined the heart of the French soldier".[217]
The last
large-scale offensive of this period was a British attack (with French
support) at Passchendaele (July–November 1917). This offensive opened
with great promise for the Allies, before bogging down in the October
mud. Casualties, though disputed, were roughly equal, at some
200,000–400,000 per side.
The victory of the Central Powers at
the Battle of Caporetto led the Allies to convene the Rapallo conference
at which they formed the Supreme War Council to co-ordinate planning.
Previously, British and French armies had operated under separate
commands.
In December, the Central Powers signed an armistice
with Russia, thus freeing large numbers of German troops for use in the
west. With German reinforcements and new American troops pouring in, the
outcome was to be decided on the Western Front. The Central Powers knew
that they could not win a protracted war, but they held high hopes for
success based on a final quick offensive. Furthermore, both sides became
increasingly fearful of social unrest and revolution in Europe. Thus,
both sides urgently sought a decisive victory.[218]
In 1917,
Emperor Charles I of Austria secretly attempted separate peace
negotiations with Clemenceau, through his wife's brother Sixtus in
Belgium as an intermediary, without the knowledge of Germany. Italy
opposed the proposals. When the negotiations failed, his attempt was
revealed to Germany, resulting in a diplomatic catastrophe.[219][220]
Ottoman Empire conflict, 1917–1918
Main article: Sinai and Palestine campaign
10.5 cm Feldhaubitze 98/09 and Ottoman artillerymen at Hareira in 1917 before the Southern Palestine offensive
British
artillery battery on Mount Scopus in the Battle of Jerusalem, 1917.
Foreground, a battery of 16 heavy guns. Background, conical tents and
support vehicles.
In March and April 1917, at the First and Second
Battles of Gaza, German and Ottoman forces stopped the advance of the
Egyptian Expeditionary Force, which had begun in August 1916 at the
Battle of Romani.[221][222] At the end of October, the Sinai and
Palestine campaign resumed, when General Edmund Allenby's XXth Corps,
XXI Corps and Desert Mounted Corps won the Battle of Beersheba.[223] Two
Ottoman armies were defeated a few weeks later at the Battle of Mughar
Ridge and, early in December, Jerusalem was captured following another
Ottoman defeat at the Battle of Jerusalem.[224][225][226] About this
time, Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein was relieved of his
duties as the Eighth Army's commander, replaced by Djevad Pasha, and a
few months later the commander of the Ottoman Army in Palestine, Erich
von Falkenhayn, was replaced by Otto Liman von Sanders.[227][228]
In
early 1918, the front line was extended and the Jordan Valley was
occupied, following the First Transjordan and the Second Transjordan
attacks by British Empire forces in March and April 1918.[229] In March,
most of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force's British infantry and
Yeomanry cavalry were sent to the Western Front as a consequence of the
Spring Offensive. They were replaced by Indian Army units. During
several months of reorganisation and training of the summer, a number of
attacks were carried out on sections of the Ottoman front line. These
pushed the front line north to more advantageous positions for the
Entente in preparation for an attack and to acclimatise the newly
arrived Indian Army infantry. It was not until the middle of September
that the integrated force was ready for large-scale operations.
Ottoman troops during the Mesopotamian campaign
The
reorganised Egyptian Expeditionary Force, with an additional mounted
division, broke Ottoman forces at the Battle of Megiddo in September
1918. In two days the British and Indian infantry, supported by a
creeping barrage, broke the Ottoman front line and captured the
headquarters of the Eighth Army (Ottoman Empire) at Tulkarm, the
continuous trench lines at Tabsor, Arara, and the Seventh Army (Ottoman
Empire) headquarters at Nablus. The Desert Mounted Corps rode through
the break in the front line created by the infantry. During virtually
continuous operations by Australian Light Horse, British mounted
Yeomanry, Indian Lancers, and New Zealand Mounted Rifle brigades in the
Jezreel Valley, they captured Nazareth, Afulah and Beisan, Jenin, along
with Haifa on the Mediterranean coast and Daraa east of the Jordan River
on the Hejaz railway. Samakh and Tiberias on the Sea of Galilee were
captured on the way northwards to Damascus. Meanwhile, Chaytor's Force
of Australian light horse, New Zealand mounted rifles, Indian, British
West Indies and Jewish infantry captured the crossings of the Jordan
River, Es Salt, Amman and at Ziza most of the Fourth Army (Ottoman
Empire). The Armistice of Mudros, signed at the end of October, ended
hostilities with the Ottoman Empire when fighting was continuing north
of Aleppo.
15 August 1917: Peace offer by the Pope
See also: Pope Benedict XV § Peace efforts
On or shortly before 15 August 1917 Pope Benedict XV made a peace proposal[230] suggesting:
No annexations
No indemnities, except to compensate for severe war damage in Belgium and parts of France and of Serbia
A solution to the problems of Alsace-Lorraine, Trentino and Trieste
Restoration of the Kingdom of Poland
Germany to pull out of Belgium and France
Germany's overseas colonies to be returned to Germany
General disarmament
A Supreme Court of arbitration to settle future disputes between nations
The freedom of the seas
Abolish all retaliatory economic conflicts
No point in ordering reparations, because so much damage had been caused to all belligerents
July to November; British offensive at Passchendaele
Section to be continued.
1918; Timeline of Major Developments
German Spring Offensive
Main article: German spring offensive
French soldiers under General Gouraud, with machine guns amongst the ruins of a cathedral near the Marne, 1918
Ludendorff
drew up plans (codenamed Operation Michael) for the 1918 offensive on
the Western Front. The Spring Offensive sought to divide the British and
French forces with a series of feints and advances. The German
leadership hoped to end the war before significant US forces arrived.
The operation commenced on 21 March 1918 with an attack on British
forces near Saint-Quentin. German forces achieved an unprecedented
advance of 60 kilometres (37 mi).[231]
British and French
trenches were penetrated using novel infiltration tactics, also named
Hutier tactics after General Oskar von Hutier, by specially trained
units called stormtroopers. Previously, attacks had been characterised
by long artillery bombardments and massed assaults. In the Spring
Offensive of 1918, however, Ludendorff used artillery only briefly and
infiltrated small groups of infantry at weak points. They attacked
command and logistics areas and bypassed points of serious resistance.
More heavily armed infantry then destroyed these isolated positions.
This German success relied greatly on the element of surprise.[citation
needed]
British 55th (West Lancashire) Division soldiers blinded by tear gas during the Battle of Estaires, 10 April 1918
The
front moved to within 120 kilometres (75 mi) of Paris. Three heavy
Krupp railway guns fired 183 shells on the capital, causing many
Parisians to flee. The initial offensive was so successful that Kaiser
Wilhelm II declared 24 March a national holiday. Many Germans thought
victory was near. After heavy fighting, however, the offensive was
halted. Lacking tanks or motorised artillery, the Germans were unable to
consolidate their gains. The problems of re-supply were also
exacerbated by increasing distances that now stretched over terrain that
was shell-torn and often impassable to traffic.[232]
Following
Operation Michael, Germany launched Operation Georgette against the
northern English Channel ports. The Allies halted the drive after
limited territorial gains by Germany. The German Army to the south then
conducted Operations Blücher and Yorck, pushing broadly towards Paris.
Germany launched Operation Marne (Second Battle of the Marne) on 15
July, in an attempt to encircle Reims. The resulting counter-attack,
which started the Hundred Days Offensive, marked the first successful
Allied offensive of the war. By 20 July, the Germans had retreated
across the Marne to their starting lines,[233] having achieved little,
and the German Army never regained the initiative. German casualties
between March and April 1918 were 270,000, including many highly trained
stormtroopers.
Meanwhile, Germany was falling apart at home.
Anti-war marches became frequent and morale in the army fell. Industrial
output was half the 1913 levels.
Hundred Days Offensive
Main articles: Hundred Days Offensive and Weimar Republic
Between April and November 1918, the Allies increased their front-line rifle strength while German strength fell by half.[234]
Aerial view of ruins of Vaux-devant-Damloup, France, 1918
The
Allied counteroffensive, known as the Hundred Days Offensive, began on 8
August 1918, with the Battle of Amiens. The battle involved over 400
tanks and 120,000 British, Dominion, and French troops, and by the end
of its first day a gap 24 kilometres (15 mi) long had been created in
the German lines. The defenders displayed a marked collapse in morale,
causing Ludendorff to refer to this day as the "Black Day of the German
army".[235][236][237] After an advance as far as 23 kilometres (14 mi),
German resistance stiffened, and the battle was concluded on 12 August.
Rather
than continuing the Amiens battle past the point of initial success, as
had been done so many times in the past, the Allies shifted attention
elsewhere. Allied leaders had now realised that to continue an attack
after resistance had hardened was a waste of lives, and it was better to
turn a line than to try to roll over it. They began to undertake
attacks in quick order to take advantage of successful advances on the
flanks, then broke them off when each attack lost its initial
impetus.[238]
The day after the Offensive began, Ludendorff said:
"We cannot win the war any more, but we must not lose it either." On 11
August he offered his resignation to the Kaiser, who refused it,
replying, "I see that we must strike a balance. We have nearly reached
the limit of our powers of resistance. The war must be ended."[citation
needed] On 13 August, at Spa, Hindenburg, Ludendorff, the Chancellor,
and Foreign Minister Hintz agreed that the war could not be ended
militarily and, on the following day, the German Crown Council decided
that victory in the field was now most improbable. Austria and Hungary
warned that they could continue the war only until December, and
Ludendorff recommended immediate peace negotiations. Prince Rupprecht
warned Prince Maximilian of Baden: "Our military situation has
deteriorated so rapidly that I no longer believe we can hold out over
the winter; it is even possible that a catastrophe will come
earlier."[239]
Battle of Albert
16th Bn (Canadian Scottish), advancing during the Battle of the Canal du Nord, 1918
British
and Dominion forces launched the next phase of the campaign with the
Battle of Albert on 21 August.[240] The assault was widened by
French[239] and then further British forces in the following days.
During the last week of August, the Allied pressure along a
110-kilometre (68 mi) front against the enemy was heavy and unrelenting.
From German accounts, "Each day was spent in bloody fighting against an
ever and again on-storming enemy, and nights passed without sleep in
retirements to new lines."[238]
Faced with these advances, on 2
September the German Oberste Heeresleitung ("Supreme Army Command")
issued orders to withdraw in the south to the Hindenburg Line. This
ceded without a fight the salient seized the previous April.[241]
According to Ludendorff, "We had to admit the necessity ... to withdraw
the entire front from the Scarpe to the Vesle."[242][page needed] In
nearly four weeks of fighting beginning on 8 August, over 100,000 German
prisoners were taken. The German High Command realised that the war was
lost and made attempts to reach a satisfactory end. On 10 September
Hindenburg urged peace moves to Emperor Charles of Austria, and Germany
appealed to the Netherlands for mediation. On 14 September Austria sent a
note to all belligerents and neutrals suggesting a meeting for peace
talks on neutral soil, and on 15 September Germany made a peace offer to
Belgium. Both peace offers were rejected.[239]
Allied advance to the Hindenburg Line
An American major, piloting an observation balloon near the front, 1918
In
September the Allies advanced to the Hindenburg Line in the north and
centre. The Germans continued to fight strong rear-guard actions and
launched numerous counterattacks, but positions and outposts of the Line
continued to fall, with the BEF alone taking 30,441 prisoners in the
last week of September. On 24 September an assault by both the British
and French came within 3 kilometres (2 mi) of St. Quentin. The Germans
had now retreated to positions along or behind the Hindenburg Line. That
same day, Supreme Army Command informed the leaders in Berlin that
armistice talks were inevitable.[239]
The final assault on the
Hindenburg Line began with the Meuse-Argonne offensive, launched by
French and American troops on 26 September. The following week,
co-operating French and American units broke through in Champagne at the
Battle of Blanc Mont Ridge, forcing the Germans off the commanding
heights, and closing towards the Belgian frontier.[243] On 8 October the
line was pierced again by British and Dominion troops at the Battle of
Cambrai.[244] The German army had to shorten its front and use the Dutch
frontier as an anchor to fight rear-guard actions as it fell back
towards Germany.
When Bulgaria signed a separate armistice on 29
September, Ludendorff, having been under great stress for months,
suffered something similar to a breakdown. It was evident that Germany
could no longer mount a successful defence. The collapse of the Balkans
meant that Germany was about to lose its main supplies of oil and food.
Its reserves had been used up, even as US troops kept arriving at the
rate of 10,000 per day.[245][246][247] The Americans supplied more than
80% of Allied oil during the war, and there was no shortage.[248]
German Revolution 1918–1919
German Revolution, Kiel, 1918
Main article: German Revolution of 1918–1919
News
of Germany's impending military defeat spread throughout the German
armed forces. The threat of mutiny was rife. Admiral Reinhard Scheer and
Ludendorff decided to launch a last attempt to restore the "valour" of
the German Navy.
In northern Germany, the German Revolution of
1918–1919 began at the end of October 1918. Units of the German Navy
refused to set sail for a last, large-scale operation in a war they
believed to be as good as lost, initiating the uprising. The sailors'
revolt, which then ensued in the naval ports of Wilhelmshaven and Kiel,
spread across the whole country within days and led to the proclamation
of a republic on 9 November 1918, shortly thereafter to the abdication
of Kaiser Wilhelm II, and to German surrender.[249][250][251][247]
New German government surrenders
With
the military faltering and with widespread loss of confidence in the
Kaiser leading to his abdication and fleeing of the country, Germany
moved towards surrender. Prince Maximilian of Baden took charge of a new
government on 3 October as Chancellor of Germany to negotiate with the
Allies. Negotiations with President Wilson began immediately, in the
hope that he would offer better terms than the British and French.
Wilson demanded a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary control over
the German military.[252] There was no resistance when the Social
Democrat Philipp Scheidemann on 9 November declared Germany to be a
republic. The Kaiser, kings and other hereditary rulers all were removed
from power and Wilhelm fled to exile in the Netherlands. It was the end
of Imperial Germany; a new Germany had been born as the Weimar
Republic.[253]
Armistices and capitulations
Main article: Armistice of 11 November 1918
Italian
troops reach Trento during the Battle of Vittorio Veneto, 1918. Italy's
victory marked the end of the war on the Italian Front and secured the
dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
The collapse of the
Central Powers came swiftly. Bulgaria was the first to sign an
armistice, the Armistice of Salonica on 29 September 1918.[254] German
Emperor Wilhelm II in his telegram to Bulgarian Tsar Ferdinand I
described situation: "Disgraceful! 62,000 Serbs decided the
war!".[255][256] On the same day, the German Supreme Army Command
informed Kaiser Wilhelm II and the Imperial Chancellor Count Georg von
Hertling, that the military situation facing Germany was hopeless.[257]
On
24 October, the Italians began a push that rapidly recovered territory
lost after the Battle of Caporetto. This culminated in the Battle of
Vittorio Veneto, which marked the end of the Austro-Hungarian Army as an
effective fighting force. The offensive also triggered the
disintegration of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. During the last week of
October, declarations of independence were made in Budapest, Prague, and
Zagreb. On 29 October, the imperial authorities asked Italy for an
armistice, but the Italians continued advancing, reaching Trento, Udine,
and Trieste. On 3 November, Austria-Hungary sent a flag of truce to ask
for an armistice (Armistice of Villa Giusti). The terms, arranged by
telegraph with the Allied Authorities in Paris, were communicated to the
Austrian commander and accepted. The Armistice with Austria was signed
in the Villa Giusti, near Padua, on 3 November. Austria and Hungary
signed separate armistices following the overthrow of the Habsburg
monarchy. In the following days, the Italian Army occupied Innsbruck and
all Tyrol with over 20,000 soldiers.[258]
On 30 October, the Ottoman Empire capitulated, signing the Armistice of Mudros.[254]
Ferdinand
Foch, second from right, pictured outside the carriage in Compiègne
after agreeing to the armistice that ended the war there. The carriage
was later chosen by Nazi Germany as the symbolic setting of Pétain's
June 1940 armistice.[259]
On 11 November, at 5:00 am, an armistice
with Germany was signed in a railroad carriage at Compiègne. At 11 am on
11 November 1918—"the eleventh hour of the eleventh day of the eleventh
month"—a ceasefire came into effect. During the six hours between the
signing of the armistice and its taking effect, opposing armies on the
Western Front began to withdraw from their positions, but fighting
continued along many areas of the front, as commanders wanted to capture
territory before the war ended. The occupation of the Rhineland took
place following the Armistice. The occupying armies consisted of
American, Belgian, British and French forces.
In November 1918,
the Allies had ample supplies of men and materiel to invade Germany. Yet
at the time of the armistice, no Allied force had crossed the German
frontier, the Western Front was still some 720 kilometres (450 mi) from
Berlin, and the Kaiser's armies had retreated from the battlefield in
good order. These factors enabled Hindenburg and other senior German
leaders to spread the story that their armies had not really been
defeated. This resulted in the stab-in-the-back myth,[260][261] which
attributed Germany's defeat not to its inability to continue fighting
(even though up to a million soldiers were suffering from the 1918 flu
pandemic and unfit to fight), but to the public's failure to respond to
its "patriotic calling" and the supposed intentional sabotage of the war
effort, particularly by Jews, Socialists, and Bolsheviks.
The
Allies had much more potential wealth they could spend on the war. One
estimate (using 1913 US dollars) is that the Allies spent $58 billion on
the war and the Central Powers only $25 billion. Among the Allies, the
UK spent $21 billion and the US$17 billion; among the Central Powers
Germany spent $20 billion.[262]
Aftermath
Main article: Aftermath of World War I
In
the aftermath of the war, four empires disappeared: the German,
Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian.[p] Numerous nations regained
their former independence, and new ones were created. Four dynasties,
together with their ancillary aristocracies, fell as a result of the
war: the Romanovs, the Hohenzollerns, the Habsburgs, and the Ottomans.
Belgium and Serbia were badly damaged, as was France, with 1.4 million
soldiers dead,[263] not counting other casualties. Germany and Russia
were similarly affected.[1]
Formal end of the war
The signing of the Treaty of Versailles in the Hall of Mirrors, Versailles, 28 June 1919, by Sir William Orpen
A
formal state of war between the two sides persisted for another seven
months, until the signing of the Treaty of Versailles with Germany on 28
June 1919. The United States Senate did not ratify the treaty despite
public support for it,[264][265] and did not formally end its
involvement in the war until the Knox–Porter Resolution was signed on 2
July 1921 by President Warren G. Harding.[266] For the United Kingdom
and the British Empire, the state of war ceased under the provisions of
the Termination of the Present War (Definition) Act 1918 with respect
to:
Germany on 10 January 1920.[267]
Austria on 16 July 1920.[268]
Bulgaria on 9 August 1920.[269]
Hungary on 26 July 1921.[270]
Turkey on 6 August 1924.[271]
Greek prime minister Eleftherios Venizelos signing the Treaty of Sèvres
After
the Treaty of Versailles, treaties with Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria, and
the Ottoman Empire were signed. The Ottoman Empire disintegrated, with
much of its Levant territory awarded to various Allied powers as
protectorates. The Turkish core in Anatolia was reorganised as the
Republic of Turkey. The Ottoman Empire was to be partitioned by the
Treaty of Sèvres of 1920. This treaty was never ratified by the Sultan
and was rejected by the Turkish National Movement, leading to the
victorious Turkish War of Independence and the much less stringent 1923
Treaty of Lausanne.
Some war memorials date the end of the war as
being when the Versailles Treaty was signed in 1919, which was when
many of the troops serving abroad finally returned home; by contrast,
most commemorations of the war's end concentrate on the armistice of 11
November 1918.[272] Legally, the formal peace treaties were not complete
until the last, the Treaty of Lausanne, was signed. Under its terms,
the Allied forces left Constantinople on 23 August 1923.
Peace treaties and national boundaries
After
the war, there grew a certain amount of academic focus on the causes of
war and on the elements that could make peace flourish. In part, these
led to the institutionalization of peace and conflict studies, security
studies and International Relations (IR) in general.[273] The Paris
Peace Conference imposed a series of peace treaties on the Central
Powers officially ending the war. The 1919 Treaty of Versailles dealt
with Germany and, building on Wilson's 14th point, brought into being
the League of Nations on 28 June 1919.[274][275]
The Central
Powers had to acknowledge responsibility for "all the loss and damage to
which the Allied and Associated Governments and their nationals have
been subjected as a consequence of the war imposed upon them by" their
aggression. In the Treaty of Versailles, this statement was Article 231.
This article became known as the War Guilt clause as the majority of
Germans felt humiliated and resentful.[276] Overall the Germans felt
they had been unjustly dealt with by what they called the "diktat of
Versailles". German historian Hagen Schulze said the Treaty placed
Germany "under legal sanctions, deprived of military power, economically
ruined, and politically humiliated."[277] Belgian historian Laurence
Van Ypersele emphasises the central role played by memory of the war and
the Versailles Treaty in German politics in the 1920s and 1930s:
Active
denial of war guilt in Germany and German resentment at both
reparations and continued Allied occupation of the Rhineland made
widespread revision of the meaning and memory of the war problematic.
The legend of the "stab in the back" and the wish to revise the
"Versailles diktat", and the belief in an international threat aimed at
the elimination of the German nation persisted at the heart of German
politics. Even a man of peace such as [Gustav] Stresemann publicly
rejected German guilt. As for the Nazis, they waved the banners of
domestic treason and international conspiracy in an attempt to galvanise
the German nation into a spirit of revenge. Like a Fascist Italy, Nazi
Germany sought to redirect the memory of the war to the benefit of its
own policies.[278]
Meanwhile, new nations liberated from German
rule viewed the treaty as recognition of wrongs committed against small
nations by much larger aggressive neighbours.[279] The Peace Conference
required all the defeated powers to pay reparations for all the damage
done to civilians. However, owing to economic difficulties and Germany
being the only defeated power with an intact economy, the burden fell
largely on Germany.
Austria-Hungary was partitioned into several
successor states, including Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and
Yugoslavia, largely but not entirely along ethnic lines. Transylvania
was awarded to Romania. The details were contained in the
Saint-Germain-en-Laye and the Treaty of Trianon. As a result, Hungary
lost 64% of its total population, decreasing from 20.9 million to 7.6
million and losing 31% (3.3 out of 10.7 million) of its ethnic
Hungarians.[280] According to the 1910 census, speakers of the Hungarian
language included approximately 48% of the entire population of the
kingdom, and 54% of the population of the territory referred to as
"Hungary proper", i.e. excluding Croatia-Slavonia. Within the borders of
"Hungary proper" numerous ethnic minorities were present: 16.1%
Romanians, 10.5% Slovaks, 10.4% Germans, 2.5% Ruthenians, 2.5% Serbs and
8% others.[281] Between 1920 and 1924, 354,000 Hungarians fled former
Hungarian territories attached to Romania, Czechoslovakia, and
Yugoslavia.[282]
The Russian Empire, which had withdrawn from the
war in 1917 after the October Revolution, lost much of its western
frontier as the newly independent nations of Estonia, Finland, Latvia,
Lithuania, and Poland were carved from it. Romania took control of
Bessarabia in April 1918.[283]
National identities
Further information: Sykes–Picot Agreement
Dissolution of Austria-Hungary after war
Map of territorial changes in Europe after World War I (as of 1923)
After
123 years, Poland re-emerged as an independent country. The Kingdom of
Serbia and its dynasty, as a "minor Entente nation" and the country with
the most casualties per capita,[284][285][286] became the backbone of a
new multinational state, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes,
later renamed Yugoslavia. Czechoslovakia, combining the Kingdom of
Bohemia with parts of the Kingdom of Hungary, became a new nation.
Romania would unite all Romanian-speaking people under a single state
leading to Greater Romania.[287] Russia became the Soviet Union and lost
Finland, Estonia, Lithuania, and Latvia, which became independent
countries. The Ottoman Empire was soon replaced by Turkey and several
other countries in the Middle East.
In the British Empire, the
war unleashed new forms of nationalism. In Australia and New Zealand,
the Battle of Gallipoli became known as those nations' "Baptism of
Fire". It was the first major war in which the newly established
countries fought, and it was one of the first times that Australian
troops fought as Australians, not just subjects of the British Crown.
Anzac Day, commemorating the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps
(ANZAC), celebrates this defining moment.[288][289]
After the
Battle of Vimy Ridge, where the Canadian divisions fought together for
the first time as a single corps, Canadians began to refer to their
country as a nation "forged from fire".[290] Having succeeded on the
same battleground where the "mother countries" had previously faltered,
they were for the first time respected internationally for their own
accomplishments. Canada entered the war as a Dominion of the British
Empire and remained so, although it emerged with a greater measure of
independence.[291][292] When Britain declared war in 1914, the dominions
were automatically at war; at the conclusion, Canada, Australia, New
Zealand, and South Africa were individual signatories of the Treaty of
Versailles.[293]
Lobbying by Chaim Weizmann and fear that
American Jews would encourage the United States to support Germany
culminated in the British government's Balfour Declaration of 1917,
endorsing creation of a Jewish homeland in Palestine.[294] A total of
more than 1,172,000 Jewish soldiers served in the Allied and Central
Power forces in World War I, including 275,000 in Austria-Hungary and
450,000 in Tsarist Russia.[295]
The establishment of the modern
state of Israel and the roots of the continuing Israeli–Palestinian
conflict are partially found in the unstable power dynamics of the
Middle East that resulted from World War I.[296] Before the end of the
war, the Ottoman Empire had maintained a modest level of peace and
stability throughout the Middle East.[297] With the fall of the Ottoman
government, power vacuums developed and conflicting claims to land and
nationhood began to emerge.[298] The political boundaries drawn by the
victors of World War I were quickly imposed, sometimes after only
cursory consultation with the local population. These continue to be
problematic in the 21st-century struggles for national
identity.[299][300] While the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire at the
end of World War I was pivotal in contributing to the modern political
situation of the Middle East, including the Arab-Israeli
conflict,[301][302][303] the end of Ottoman rule also spawned
lesser-known disputes over water and other natural resources.[304]
The
prestige of Germany and German things in Latin America remained high
after the war but did not recover to its pre-war levels.[305][306]
Indeed, in Chile the war bought an end to a period of intense scientific
and cultural influence writer Eduardo de la Barra scorningly called
"the German bewitchment" (Spanish: el embrujamiento alemán).[305]
Czechoslovak Legion, Vladivostok, 1918
The
Czechoslovak Legion fought on the sides of the Entente, seeking to win
support for an independent Czechoslovakia. The Legion in Russia was
established in September 1914, in December 1917 in France (including
volunteers from America) and in April 1918 in Italy. Czechoslovak Legion
troops defeated the Austro-Hungarian army at the Ukrainian village of
Zboriv, in July 1917. After this success, the number of Czechoslovak
legionaries increased, as well as Czechoslovak military power. In the
Battle of Bakhmach, the Legion defeated the Germans and forced them to
make a truce.
In Russia, they were heavily involved in the
Russian Civil War, siding with the Whites against the Bolsheviks, at
times controlling most of the Trans-Siberian Railway and conquering all
the major cities of Siberia. The presence of the Czechoslovak Legion
near Yekaterinburg appears to have been one of the motivations for the
Bolshevik execution of the Tsar and his family in July 1918. Legionaries
arrived less than a week afterwards and captured the city. Because
Russia's European ports were not safe, the corps was evacuated by a long
detour via the port of Vladivostok. The last transport was the American
ship Heffron in September 1920.
The Transylvanian and Bukovinian
Romanians who were taken prisoners of war fought as the Romanian
Volunteer Corps in Russia, Romanian Legion of Siberia and Romanian
Legion in Italy. Taking part in the Eastern Front as part of the Russian
Army and since summer 1917 in the Romanian front as part of the
Romanian Army. As a supporter of the White movement with the
Czechoslovak Legion against the Red Army during the Russian Civil War.
In the battles of Montello, Vittorio Veneto, Sisemolet, Piave, Cimone,
Monte Grappa, Nervesa and Ponte Delle Alpi as part of the Italian Army
against Austria-Hungary and in 1919 as part of the Romanian Army in the
Hungarian-Romanian War.[307][308]
In the late spring of 1918,
three new states were formed in the South Caucasus: the First Republic
of Armenia, the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic, and the Democratic
Republic of Georgia, which declared their independence from the Russian
Empire. Two other minor entities were established, the Centrocaspian
Dictatorship and South West Caucasian Republic (the former was
liquidated by Azerbaijan in the autumn of 1918 and the latter by a joint
Armenian-British task force in early 1919). With the withdrawal of the
Russian armies from the Caucasus front in the winter of 1917–18, the
three major republics braced for an imminent Ottoman advance, which
commenced in the early months of 1918. Solidarity was briefly maintained
when the Transcaucasian Federative Republic was created in the spring
of 1918, but this collapsed in May when the Georgians asked for and
received protection from Germany and the Azerbaijanis concluded a treaty
with the Ottoman Empire that was more akin to a military alliance.
Armenia was left to fend for itself and struggled for five months
against the threat of a full-fledged occupation by the Ottoman Turks
before defeating them at the Battle of Sardarabad.[309]
Health effects
Transporting Ottoman wounded at Sirkeci
Of
the 60 million European military personnel who were mobilised from 1914
to 1918, 8 million were killed, 7 million were permanently disabled,
and 15 million were seriously injured. Germany lost 15.1% of its active
male population, Austria-Hungary lost 17.1%, and France lost 10.5%.[310]
France mobilised 7.8 million men, of which 1.4 million died and 3.2
million were injured.[311] Among the soldiers mutilated and surviving in
the trenches, approximately 15,000 sustained horrific facial injuries,
causing them to undergo social stigma and marginalisation; they were
called the gueules cassées. In Germany, civilian deaths were 474,000
higher than in peacetime, due in large part to food shortages and
malnutrition that weakened resistance to disease. These excess deaths
are estimated as 271,000 in 1918, plus another 71,000 in the first half
of 1919 when the blockade was still in effect.[312] By the end of the
war, starvation caused by famine had killed approximately 100,000 people
in Lebanon.[313] Between 5 and 10 million people died in the Russian
famine of 1921.[314] By 1922, there were between 4.5 million and 7
million homeless children in Russia as a result of nearly a decade of
devastation from World War I, the Russian Civil War, and the subsequent
famine of 1920–1922.[315] Numerous anti-Soviet Russians fled the country
after the Revolution; by the 1930s, the northern Chinese city of Harbin
had 100,000 Russians.[316] Thousands more emigrated to France, England,
and the United States.
Emergency military hospital during
the Spanish flu pandemic, which killed about 675,000 people in the
United States alone, Camp Funston, Kansas, 1918
The Australian prime
minister, Billy Hughes, wrote to the British prime minister, David Lloyd
George, "You have assured us that you cannot get better terms. I much
regret it, and hope even now that some way may be found of securing
agreement for demanding reparation commensurate with the tremendous
sacrifices made by the British Empire and her Allies." Australia
received £5,571,720 war reparations, but the direct cost of the war to
Australia had been £376,993,052, and, by the mid-1930s, repatriation
pensions, war gratuities, interest and sinking fund charges were
£831,280,947.[317] Of about 416,000 Australians who served, about 60,000
were killed and another 152,000 were wounded.[1]
Diseases
flourished in the chaotic wartime conditions. In 1914 alone, louse-borne
epidemic typhus killed 200,000 in Serbia.[318] From 1918 to 1922,
Russia had about 25 million infections and 3 million deaths from
epidemic typhus.[319] In 1923, 13 million Russians contracted malaria, a
sharp increase from the pre-war years.[320] Starting in early 1918, a
major influenza epidemic known as Spanish flu spread around the world,
accelerated by the movement of large number of soldiers, often crammed
together in camps and transport ships with poor sanitation. Overall, the
Spanish flu killed at least 17 million to 25 million people,[3][321]
including an estimated 2.64 million Europeans and as many as 675,000
Americans.[322] Moreover, between 1915 and 1926, an epidemic of
encephalitis lethargica spread around the world affecting nearly five
million people.[323][324] The social disruption and widespread violence
of the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the ensuing Russian Civil War
sparked more than 2,000 pogroms in the former Russian Empire, mostly in
Ukraine.[325] An estimated 60,000–200,000 civilian Jews were killed in
the atrocities.[326]
In the aftermath of World War I, Greece
fought against Turkish nationalists led by Mustafa Kemal, a war that
eventually resulted in a massive population exchange between the two
countries under the Treaty of Lausanne.[327] According to various
sources,[328] several hundred thousand Greeks died during this period,
which was tied in with the Greek genocide.[329]
Technology
See also: Technology during World War I
Ground warfare
See also: Tanks in World War I
Tanks on parade in London at the end of World War I
World
War I began as a clash of 20th-century technology and 19th-century
tactics, with the inevitably large ensuing casualties. By the end of
1917, however, the major armies, now numbering millions of men, had
modernised and were making use of telephone, wireless
communication,[330] armoured cars, tanks (especially with the advent of
the first prototype tank, Little Willie),[331] and aircraft. Infantry
formations were reorganised, so that 100-man companies were no longer
the main unit of manoeuvre; instead, squads of 10 or so men, under the
command of a junior NCO, were favoured.
Artillery also underwent a
revolution. In 1914, cannons were positioned in the front line and
fired directly at their targets. By 1917, indirect fire with guns (as
well as mortars and even machine guns) was commonplace, using new
techniques for spotting and ranging, notably, aircraft and the often
overlooked field telephone.[332] Counter-battery missions became
commonplace, also, and sound detection was used to locate enemy
batteries.
A Russian armoured car, 1919
Germany was far
ahead of the Allies in using heavy indirect fire. The German Army
employed 150 mm (6 in) and 210 mm (8 in) howitzers in 1914, when typical
French and British guns were only 75 mm (3 in) and 105 mm (4 in). The
British had a 6-inch (152 mm) howitzer, but it was so heavy it had to be
hauled to the field in pieces and assembled. The Germans also fielded
Austrian 305 mm (12 in) and 420 mm (17 in) guns and, even at the
beginning of the war, had inventories of various calibres of
Minenwerfer, which were ideally suited for trench warfare.[333][334]
38-cm "Lange Max" of Koekelare (Leugenboom),the biggest gun in the world in 1917
On
27 June 1917 the Germans used the biggest gun in the world, Batterie
Pommern, nicknamed "Lange Max". This gun from Krupp was able to shoot
750 kg shells from Koekelare to Dunkirk, a distance of about 50 km (31
mi).
Much of the combat involved trench warfare, in which
hundreds often died for each metre gained. Many of the deadliest battles
in history occurred during World War I. Such battles include Ypres, the
Marne, Cambrai, the Somme, Verdun, and Gallipoli. The Germans employed
the Haber process of nitrogen fixation to provide their forces with a
constant supply of gunpowder despite the British naval blockade.[335]
Artillery was responsible for the largest number of casualties[336] and
consumed vast quantities of explosives. The large number of head wounds
caused by exploding shells and fragmentation forced the combatant
nations to develop the modern steel helmet, led by the French, who
introduced the Adrian helmet in 1915. It was quickly followed by the
Brodie helmet, worn by British Imperial and US troops, and in 1916 by
the distinctive German Stahlhelm, a design, with improvements, still in
use today.
Gas! GAS! Quick, boys! – An ecstasy of fumbling,
Fitting the clumsy helmets just in time;
But someone still was yelling out and stumbling,
And flound'ring like a man in fire or lime ...
Dim, through the misty panes and thick green light,
As under a green sea, I saw him drowning.
— Wilfred Owen, Dulce et Decorum est, 1917[337]
A Canadian soldier with mustard gas burns, c. 1917–1918
The
widespread use of chemical warfare was a distinguishing feature of the
conflict. Gases used included chlorine, mustard gas and phosgene.
Relatively few war casualties were caused by gas,[338] as effective
countermeasures to gas attacks were quickly created, such as gas masks.
The use of chemical warfare and small-scale strategic bombing (as
opposed to tactical bombing) were both outlawed by the Hague Conventions
of 1899 and 1907, and both proved to be of limited effectiveness,[339]
though they captured the public imagination.[340]
The most
powerful land-based weapons were railway guns, weighing dozens of tons
apiece.[341] The German version were nicknamed Big Berthas, even though
the namesake was not a railway gun. Germany developed the Paris Gun,
able to bombard Paris from over 100 kilometres (62 mi), though shells
were relatively light at 94 kilograms (210 lb).
British Vickers machine gun, 1917
Trenches,
machine guns, air reconnaissance, barbed wire, and modern artillery
with fragmentation shells helped bring the battle lines of World War I
to a stalemate. The British and the French sought a solution with the
creation of the tank and mechanised warfare. The British first tanks
were used during the Battle of the Somme on 15 September 1916.
Mechanical reliability was an issue, but the experiment proved its
worth. Within a year, the British were fielding tanks by the hundreds,
and they showed their potential during the Battle of Cambrai in November
1917, by breaking the Hindenburg Line, while combined arms teams
captured 8,000 enemy soldiers and 100 guns. Meanwhile, the French
introduced the first tanks with a rotating turret, the Renault FT, which
became a decisive tool of the victory. The conflict also saw the
introduction of light automatic weapons and submachine guns, such as the
Lewis gun, the M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle, and the MP 18.
Another
new weapon, the flamethrower, was first used by the German army and
later adopted by other forces. Although not of high tactical value, the
flamethrower was a powerful, demoralising weapon that caused terror on
the battlefield.
Trench railways evolved to supply the enormous
quantities of food, water, and ammunition required to support large
numbers of soldiers in areas where conventional transportation systems
had been destroyed. Internal combustion engines and improved traction
systems for automobiles and trucks/lorries eventually rendered trench
railways obsolete.
Areas taken in major attacks
Attack areas in WW1.jpg
On
the Western Front, neither side made impressive gains in the first
three years of the war with attacks at Verdun, the Somme, Passchendaele,
and Cambrai—the exception was Nivelle's Offensive in which the German
defence gave ground while mauling the attackers so badly that there were
mutinies in the French Army. In 1918 the Germans smashed through the
defence lines in three great attacks: Michael, on the Lys, and on the
Aisne, which displayed the power of their new tactics. The Allies struck
back at Soissons, which showed the Germans that they must return to the
defensive, and at Amiens; tanks played a prominent role in both these
assaults, as they had the year before at Cambrai.
The areas in
the East were larger. The Germans did well at the First Masurian Lakes
driving the invaders from East Prussia, and at Riga, which led the
Russians to sue for peace. The Austro-Hungarians and Germans joined for a
great success at Gorlice–Tarnów, which drove the Russians out of
Poland. In a series of attacks along with the Bulgarians, they occupied
Serbia, Albania, Montenegro and most of Romania. The Allies successes
came later in Palestine, the beginning of the end for the Ottomans, in
Macedonia, which drove the Bulgarians out of the war, and at Vittorio
Veneto, the final blow for the Austro-Hungarians. The area occupied in
the East by the Central powers on 11 November 1918 was 1,042,600 km2
(402,600 sq mi).
Naval
The Moltke-class SMS Goeben
Germany
deployed U-boats (submarines) after the war began. Alternating between
restricted and unrestricted submarine warfare in the Atlantic, the
Imperial German Navy employed them to deprive the British Isles of vital
supplies. The deaths of British merchant sailors and the seeming
invulnerability of U-boats led to the development of depth charges
(1916), hydrophones (sonar, 1917), blimps, hunter-killer submarines (HMS
R-1, 1917), forward-throwing anti-submarine weapons, and dipping
hydrophones (the latter two both abandoned in 1918).[118] To extend
their operations, the Germans proposed supply submarines (1916). Most of
these would be forgotten in the interwar period until World War II
revived the need.[342]
Aviation
Main article: Aviation in World War I
Royal
Air Force Sopwith Camel. In April 1917, the average life expectancy of a
British pilot on the Western Front was 93 flying hours.[343]
Fixed-wing
aircraft were first used militarily by the Italians in Libya on 23
October 1911 during the Italo-Turkish War for reconnaissance, soon
followed by the dropping of grenades and aerial photography the next
year. By 1914, their military utility was obvious. They were initially
used for reconnaissance and ground attack. To shoot down enemy planes,
anti-aircraft guns and fighter aircraft were developed. Strategic
bombers were created, principally by the Germans and British, though the
former used Zeppelins as well.[344] Towards the end of the conflict,
aircraft carriers were used for the first time, with HMS Furious
launching Sopwith Camels in a raid to destroy the Zeppelin hangars at
Tønder in 1918.[345]
Luftstreitkräfte Fokker Dr.I being inspected by Manfred von Richthofen, also known as the Red Baron.
Manned
observation balloons, floating high above the trenches, were used as
stationary reconnaissance platforms, reporting enemy movements and
directing artillery. Balloons commonly had a crew of two, equipped with
parachutes,[346] so that if there was an enemy air attack the crew could
parachute to safety. At the time, parachutes were too heavy to be used
by pilots of aircraft (with their marginal power output), and smaller
versions were not developed until the end of the war; they were also
opposed by the British leadership, who feared they might promote
cowardice.[347]
Recognised for their value as observation
platforms, balloons were important targets for enemy aircraft. To defend
them against air attack, they were heavily protected by anti-aircraft
guns and patrolled by friendly aircraft; to attack them, unusual weapons
such as air-to-air rockets were tried. Thus, the reconnaissance value
of blimps and balloons contributed to the development of air-to-air
combat between all types of aircraft, and to the trench stalemate,
because it was impossible to move large numbers of troops undetected.
The Germans conducted air raids on England during 1915 and 1916 with
airships, hoping to damage British morale and cause aircraft to be
diverted from the front lines, and indeed the resulting panic led to the
diversion of several squadrons of fighters from France.[344][347]
Radio telecommunication
Mobile radio station in German South West Africa, using a hydrogen balloon to lift the antenna
The
introduction of radio telegraphy was a significant step in
communication during World War I. The stations utilized at that time
were spark-gap transmitters. As an example, the information of the start
of World War I was transmitted to German South West Africa on 2 August
1914 via radio telegraphy from the Nauen transmitter station via a relay
station in Kamina and Lomé in Togo to the radio station in Windhoek.
War crimes
Rape of Belgium
Main article: Rape of Belgium
The
German invaders treated any resistance—such as sabotaging rail lines—as
illegal and immoral, and shot the offenders and burned buildings in
retaliation. In addition, they tended to suspect that most civilians
were potential francs-tireurs (guerrillas) and, accordingly, took and
sometimes killed hostages from among the civilian population. The German
army executed over 6,500 French and Belgian civilians between August
and November 1914, usually in near-random large-scale shootings of
civilians ordered by junior German officers. The German Army destroyed
15,000–20,000 buildings—most famously the university library at
Louvain—and generated a wave of refugees of over a million people. Over
half the German regiments in Belgium were involved in major
incidents.[348] Thousands of workers were shipped to Germany to work in
factories. British propaganda dramatising the Rape of Belgium attracted
much attention in the United States, while Berlin said it was both
lawful and necessary because of the threat of franc-tireurs like those
in France in 1870.[349] The British and French magnified the reports and
disseminated them at home and in the United States, where they played a
major role in dissolving support for Germany.[350][351]
Austro-Hungarian war crimes in Serbia
Austro-Hungarian soldiers executing men and women in Serbia, 1916[352]
Austria's
propaganda machinery spread anti-Serb sentiment, with other things, the
slogan "Serbien muss sterbien" (Serbia must die).[353] During the war
Austro-Hungarian officers in Serbia ordered troops to "exterminate and
burn everything that is Serbian", and hangings and mass shootings were
everyday occurrences.[353] Austrian historian, Anton Holzer, wrote that
the Austro-Hungarian army carried out "countless and systematic
massacres…against the Serbian population. The soldiers invaded villages
and rounded up unarmed men, women and children. They were either shot
dead, bayoneted to death or hanged. The victims were locked into barns
and burned alive. Women were sent up to the front lines and mass-raped.
The inhabitants of whole villages were taken as hostages and humiliated
and tortured."[354]
A claim from a local spy that "traitors" were
hiding in a certain house was enough to sentence the whole family to
death by hanging. Priests were often hanged, under the accusation of
spreading the spirit of treason among the people. Multiple source state
that 30,000 Serbs, mostly civilians, were hanged by Austro-Hungarian
forces in the first year of the war alone.[353]
Baralong incidents
Main article: Baralong incidents
HMS Baralong
On
19 August 1915, the German submarine U-27 was sunk by the British
Q-ship HMS Baralong. All German survivors were summarily executed by
Baralong's crew on the orders of Lieutenant Godfrey Herbert, the captain
of the ship. The shooting was reported to the media by American
citizens who were on board the Nicosia, a British freighter loaded with
war supplies, which was stopped by U-27 just minutes before the
incident.[355]
On 24 September, Baralong destroyed U-41, which
was in the process of sinking the cargo ship Urbino. According to Karl
Goetz, the submarine's commander, Baralong continued to fly the US flag
after firing on U-41 and then rammed the lifeboat—carrying the German
survivors, sinking it.[356]
Torpedoing of HMHS Llandovery Castle
See also: Unrestricted submarine warfare
The
Canadian hospital ship HMHS Llandovery Castle was torpedoed by the
German submarine SM U-86 on 27 June 1918 in violation of international
law. Only 24 of the 258 medical personnel, patients, and crew survived.
Survivors reported that the U-boat surfaced and ran down the lifeboats,
machine-gunning survivors in the water. The U-boat captain, Helmut
Brümmer-Patzig, was charged with war crimes in Germany following the
war, but escaped prosecution by going to the Free City of Danzig, beyond
the jurisdiction of German courts.[357]
Blockade of Germany
Main article: Blockade of Germany
After
the war, the German government claimed that approximately 763,000
German civilians died from starvation and disease during the war because
of the Allied blockade.[358][359] An academic study done in 1928 put
the death toll at 424,000.[360] Germany protested that the Allies had
used starvation as a weapon of war.[361] Sally Marks argued that the
German accounts of a hunger blockade are a "myth," as Germany did not
face the starvation level of Belgium and the regions of Poland and
northern France that it occupied.[362] According to the British judge
and legal philosopher Patrick Devlin, "The War Orders given by the
Admiralty on 26 August [1914] were clear enough. All food consigned to
Germany through neutral ports was to be captured and all food consigned
to Rotterdam was to be presumed consigned to Germany." According to
Devlin, this was a serious breach of International Law, equivalent to
German minelaying.[363]
Chemical weapons in warfare
Main article: Chemical weapons in World War I
French soldiers making a gas and flame attack on German trenches in Flanders
The
German army was the first to successfully deploy chemical weapons
during the Second Battle of Ypres (22 April – 25 May 1915), after German
scientists working under the direction of Fritz Haber at the Kaiser
Wilhelm Institute developed a method to weaponize chlorine.[q][364] The
use of chemical weapons was sanctioned by the German High Command in an
effort to force Allied soldiers out of their entrenched positions,
complementing rather than supplanting more lethal conventional
weapons.[364] In time, chemical weapons were deployed by all major
belligerents throughout the war, inflicting approximately 1.3 million
casualties, but relatively few fatalities: About 90,000 in total.[364]
For example, there were an estimated 186,000 British chemical weapons
casualties during the war (80% of which were the result of exposure to
the vesicant sulfur mustard, introduced to the battlefield by the
Germans in July 1917, which burns the skin at any point of contact and
inflicts more severe lung damage than chlorine or phosgene),[364] and up
to one-third of American casualties were caused by them. The Russian
Army reportedly suffered roughly 500,000 chemical weapon casualties in
World War I.[365] The use of chemical weapons in warfare was in direct
violation of the 1899 Hague Declaration Concerning Asphyxiating Gases
and the 1907 Hague Convention on Land Warfare, which prohibited their
use.[366][367]
The effect of poison gas was not limited to
combatants. Civilians were at risk from the gases as winds blew the
poison gases through their towns, and they rarely received warnings or
alerts of potential danger. In addition to absent warning systems,
civilians often did not have access to effective gas masks. An estimated
100,000–260,000 civilian casualties were caused by chemical weapons
during the conflict and tens of thousands more (along with military
personnel) died from scarring of the lungs, skin damage, and cerebral
damage in the years after the conflict ended. Many commanders on both
sides knew such weapons would cause major harm to civilians but
nonetheless continued to use them. British Field Marshal Douglas Haig
wrote in his diary, "My officers and I were aware that such weapons
would cause harm to women and children living in nearby towns, as strong
winds were common in the battlefront. However, because the weapon was
to be directed against the enemy, none of us were overly concerned at
all."[368][369][370][371]
The war damaged chemistry's prestige in European societies, in particular the German variety.[372]
Genocide and ethnic cleansing
Ottoman Empire
See also: Late Ottoman genocides, Armenian genocide, Sayfo, Greek genocide, and Genocide denial
Armenians
killed during the Armenian Genocide. Image taken from Ambassador
Morgenthau's Story, written by Henry Morgenthau Sr. and published in
1918.[373]
The ethnic cleansing of the Ottoman Empire's Armenian
population, including mass deportations and executions, during the final
years of the Ottoman Empire is considered genocide.[374] The Ottomans
carried out organised and systematic massacres of the Armenian
population at the beginning of the war and manipulated acts of Armenian
resistance by portraying them as rebellions to justify further
extermination.[375] In early 1915, a number of Armenians volunteered to
join the Russian forces and the Ottoman government used this as a
pretext to issue the Tehcir Law (Law on Deportation), which authorised
the deportation of Armenians from the Empire's eastern provinces to
Syria between 1915 and 1918. The Armenians were intentionally marched to
death and a number were attacked by Ottoman brigands.[376] While an
exact number of deaths is unknown, the International Association of
Genocide Scholars estimates 1.5 million.[374][377] The government of
Turkey has consistently denied the genocide, arguing that those who died
were victims of inter-ethnic fighting, famine, or disease during World
War I; these claims are rejected by most historians.[378]
Other
ethnic groups were similarly attacked by the Ottoman Empire during this
period, including Assyrians and Greeks, and some scholars consider those
events to be part of the same policy of extermination.[379][380][381]
At least 250,000 Assyrian Christians, about half of the population, and
350,000–750,000 Anatolian and Pontic Greeks were killed between 1915 and
1922.[382]
Russian Empire
Main article: Pogroms in the Russian Empire
See also: Central Asian revolt of 1916
Many
pogroms accompanied the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the ensuing
Russian Civil War. 60,000–200,000 civilian Jews were killed in the
atrocities throughout the former Russian Empire (mostly within the Pale
of Settlement in present-day Ukraine).[383] There were an estimated 7–12
million casualties during the Russian Civil War, mostly civilians.[384]
Soldiers' experiences
Main
articles: List of last World War I veterans by country, World War I
casualties, Commonwealth War Graves Commission, and American Battle
Monuments Commission
The British soldiers of the war were initially
volunteers but increasingly were conscripted into service. Surviving
veterans, returning home, often found they could discuss their
experiences only amongst themselves. Grouping together, they formed
"veterans' associations" or "Legions". A small number of personal
accounts of American veterans have been collected by the Library of
Congress Veterans History Project.[385]
Prisoners of war
Main article: World War I prisoners of war in Germany
German prisoners in a French prison camp during the later part of the war
About
eight million men surrendered and were held in POW camps during the
war. All nations pledged to follow the Hague Conventions on fair
treatment of prisoners of war, and the survival rate for POWs was
generally much higher than that of combatants at the front.[386]
Individual surrenders were uncommon; large units usually surrendered en
masse. At the siege of Maubeuge about 40,000 French soldiers
surrendered, at the battle of Galicia Russians took about 100,000 to
120,000 Austrian captives, at the Brusilov Offensive about 325,000 to
417,000 Germans and Austrians surrendered to Russians, and at the Battle
of Tannenberg, 92,000 Russians surrendered. When the besieged garrison
of Kaunas surrendered in 1915, some 20,000 Russians became prisoners, at
the battle near Przasnysz (February–March 1915) 14,000 Germans
surrendered to Russians, and at the First Battle of the Marne about
12,000 Germans surrendered to the Allies. 25–31% of Russian losses (as a
proportion of those captured, wounded, or killed) were to prisoner
status; for Austria-Hungary 32%, for Italy 26%, for France 12%, for
Germany 9%; for Britain 7%. Prisoners from the Allied armies totalled
about 1.4 million (not including Russia, which lost 2.5–3.5 million men
as prisoners). From the Central Powers about 3.3 million men became
prisoners; most of them surrendered to Russians.[387] Germany held 2.5
million prisoners; Russia held 2.2–2.9 million; while Britain and France
held about 720,000. Most were captured just before the Armistice. The
United States held 48,000. The most dangerous moment was the act of
surrender when helpless soldiers were sometimes gunned down.[388][389]
Once prisoners reached a camp, conditions were, in general, satisfactory
(and much better than in World War II), thanks in part to the efforts
of the International Red Cross and inspections by neutral nations.
However, conditions were terrible in Russia: starvation was common for
prisoners and civilians alike; about 15–20% of the prisoners in Russia
died, and in Central Powers imprisonment 8% of Russians.[390] In
Germany, food was scarce, but only 5% died.[391][392][393]
British prisoners guarded by Ottoman forces after the First Battle of Gaza in 1917
The
Ottoman Empire often treated POWs poorly.[394] Some 11,800 British
Empire soldiers, most of them Indians, became prisoners after the siege
of Kut in Mesopotamia in April 1916; 4,250 died in captivity.[395]
Although many were in a poor condition when captured, Ottoman officers
forced them to march 1,100 kilometres (684 mi) to Anatolia. A survivor
said: "We were driven along like beasts; to drop out was to die."[396]
The survivors were then forced to build a railway through the Taurus
Mountains.
In Russia, when the prisoners from the Czechoslovak
Legion of the Austro-Hungarian army were released in 1917, they re-armed
themselves and briefly became a military and diplomatic force during
the Russian Civil War.
While the Allied prisoners of the Central
Powers were quickly sent home at the end of active hostilities, the same
treatment was not granted to Central Power prisoners of the Allies and
Russia, many of whom served as forced labour, e.g., in France until
1920. They were released only after many approaches by the Red Cross to
the Supreme War Council.[397] German prisoners were still being held in
Russia as late as 1924.[398]
Military attachés and war correspondents
Main article: List of military attachés and war correspondents in World War I
Military
and civilian observers from every major power closely followed the
course of the war. Many were able to report on events from a perspective
somewhat akin to modern "embedded" positions within the opposing land
and naval forces.
Support for the war
Poster urging women to join the British war effort, published by the Young Women's Christian Association
In
the Balkans, Yugoslav nationalists such as the leader, Ante Trumbić,
strongly supported the war, desiring the freedom of Yugoslavs from
Austria-Hungary and other foreign powers and the creation of an
independent Yugoslavia. The Yugoslav Committee, led by Trumbić, was
formed in Paris on 30 April 1915 but shortly moved its office to
London.[399] In April 1918, the Rome Congress of Oppressed Nationalities
met, including Czechoslovak, Italian, Polish, Transylvanian, and
Yugoslav representatives who urged the Allies to support national
self-determination for the peoples residing within Austria-Hungary.[400]
In
the Middle East, Arab nationalism soared in Ottoman territories in
response to the rise of Turkish nationalism during the war, with Arab
nationalist leaders advocating the creation of a pan-Arab state. In
1916, the Arab Revolt began in Ottoman-controlled territories of the
Middle East in an effort to achieve independence.[401]
In East
Africa, Iyasu V of Ethiopia was supporting the Dervish state who were at
war with the British in the Somaliland campaign.[402] Von Syburg, the
German envoy in Addis Ababa, said, "now the time has come for Ethiopia
to regain the coast of the Red Sea driving the Italians home, to restore
the Empire to its ancient size." The Ethiopian Empire was on the verge
of entering World War I on the side of the Central Powers before Iyasu's
overthrow at the Battle of Segale due to Allied pressure on the
Ethiopian aristocracy.[403] Iyasu was accused of converting to
Islam.[404] According to Ethiopian historian Bahru Zewde, the evidence
used to prove Iyasu's conversion was a doctored photo of Iyasu wearing a
turban provided by the Allies.[405] Some historians claim the British
spy T. E. Lawrence forged the Iyasu photo.[406]
Bermuda
Volunteer Rifle Corps First Contingent in Bermuda, winter 1914–1915,
before joining 1 Lincolnshire Regiment in France in June 1915. The dozen
remaining after Guedecourt on 25 September 1916, merged with a Second
Contingent. The two contingents suffered 75% casualties.
A number of
socialist parties initially supported the war when it began in August
1914.[400] But European socialists split on national lines, with the
concept of class conflict held by radical socialists such as Marxists
and syndicalists being overborne by their patriotic support for the
war.[407] Once the war began, Austrian, British, French, German, and
Russian socialists followed the rising nationalist current by supporting
their countries' intervention in the war.[408]
Italian
nationalism was stirred by the outbreak of the war and was initially
strongly supported by a variety of political factions. One of the most
prominent and popular Italian nationalist supporters of the war was
Gabriele D'Annunzio, who promoted Italian irredentism and helped sway
the Italian public to support intervention in the war.[409] The Italian
Liberal Party, under the leadership of Paolo Boselli, promoted
intervention in the war on the side of the Allies and used the Dante
Alighieri Society to promote Italian nationalism.[410] Italian
socialists were divided on whether to support the war or oppose it; some
were militant supporters of the war, including Benito Mussolini and
Leonida Bissolati.[411] However, the Italian Socialist Party decided to
oppose the war after anti-militarist protestors were killed, resulting
in a general strike called Red Week.[412] The Italian Socialist Party
purged itself of pro-war nationalist members, including Mussolini.[412]
Mussolini, a syndicalist who supported the war on grounds of irredentist
claims on Italian-populated regions of Austria-Hungary, formed the
pro-interventionist Il Popolo d'Italia and the Fasci Rivoluzionario
d'Azione Internazionalista ("Revolutionary Fasci for International
Action") in October 1914 that later developed into the Fasci Italiani di
Combattimento in 1919, the origin of fascism.[413] Mussolini's
nationalism enabled him to raise funds from Ansaldo (an armaments firm)
and other companies to create Il Popolo d'Italia to convince socialists
and revolutionaries to support the war.[414]
Patriotic Funds
On
both sides there was large scale fundraising for soldiers' welfare,
their dependents and for those injured. The Nail Men were a German
example. Around the British empire there were many Patriotic Funds,
including the Royal Patriotic Fund Corporation, Canadian Patriotic Fund,
Queensland Patriotic Fund and, by 1919, there were 983 funds in New
Zealand.[415] At the start of the next world war the New Zealand funds
were reformed, having been criticised as overlapping, wasteful and
abused,[416] but 11 were still functioning in 2002.[417]
Opposition to the war
Main articles: Opposition to World War I and 1917 French Army mutinies
Sackville Street (now O'Connell Street) after the 1916 Easter Rising in Dublin
Once
war was declared, many socialists and trade unions backed their
governments. Among the exceptions were the Bolsheviks, the Socialist
Party of America, the Italian Socialist Party, and people like Karl
Liebknecht, Rosa Luxemburg, and their followers in Germany.
Pope
Benedict XV, elected to the papacy less than three months into World War
I, made the war and its consequences the main focus of his early
pontificate. In stark contrast to his predecessor,[418] five days after
his election he spoke of his determination to do what he could to bring
peace. His first encyclical, Ad beatissimi Apostolorum, given 1 November
1914, was concerned with this subject. Benedict XV found his abilities
and unique position as a religious emissary of peace ignored by the
belligerent powers. The 1915 Treaty of London between Italy and the
Triple Entente included secret provisions whereby the Allies agreed with
Italy to ignore papal peace moves towards the Central Powers.
Consequently, the publication of Benedict's proposed seven-point Peace
Note of August 1917 was roundly ignored by all parties except
Austria-Hungary.[419]
The Deserter, 1916: Anti-war cartoon depicting Jesus facing a firing squad with soldiers from five European countries
In
Britain in 1914, the Public Schools Officers' Training Corps annual
camp was held at Tidworth Pennings, near Salisbury Plain. Head of the
British Army, Lord Kitchener, was to review the cadets, but the
imminence of the war prevented him. General Horace Smith-Dorrien was
sent instead. He surprised the two-or-three thousand cadets by declaring
(in the words of Donald Christopher Smith, a Bermudian cadet who was
present),
that war should be avoided at almost any cost, that war
would solve nothing, that the whole of Europe and more besides would be
reduced to ruin, and that the loss of life would be so large that whole
populations would be decimated. In our ignorance I, and many of us,
felt almost ashamed of a British General who uttered such depressing and
unpatriotic sentiments, but during the next four years, those of us who
survived the holocaust—probably not more than one-quarter of us—learned
how right the General's prognosis was and how courageous he had been to
utter it.[420]
Voicing these sentiments did not hinder
Smith-Dorrien's career, or prevent him from doing his duty in World War I
to the best of his abilities.
Possible execution at Verdun
at the time of the mutinies in 1917. The original French text
accompanying this photograph notes, however, that the uniforms are those
of 1914–15 and that the execution may be that of a spy at the beginning
of the war.
Many countries jailed those who spoke out against the
conflict. These included Eugene Debs in the United States and Bertrand
Russell in Britain. In the US, the Espionage Act of 1917 and Sedition
Act of 1918 made it a federal crime to oppose military recruitment or
make any statements deemed "disloyal". Publications at all critical of
the government were removed from circulation by postal censors,[421] and
many served long prison sentences for statements of fact deemed
unpatriotic.
A number of nationalists opposed intervention,
particularly within states that the nationalists were hostile to.
Although the vast majority of Irish people consented to participate in
the war in 1914 and 1915, a minority of advanced Irish nationalists
staunchly opposed taking part.[422] The war began amid the Home Rule
crisis in Ireland that had resurfaced in 1912, and by July 1914 there
was a serious possibility of an outbreak of civil war in Ireland. Irish
nationalists and Marxists attempted to pursue Irish independence,
culminating in the Easter Rising of 1916, with Germany sending 20,000
rifles to Ireland to stir unrest in Britain.[423] The UK government
placed Ireland under martial law in response to the Easter Rising,
though once the immediate threat of revolution had dissipated, the
authorities did try to make concessions to nationalist feeling.[424]
However, opposition to involvement in the war increased in Ireland,
resulting in the Conscription Crisis of 1918.
Other opposition
came from conscientious objectors—some socialist, some religious—who
refused to fight. In Britain, 16,000 people asked for conscientious
objector status.[425] Some of them, most notably prominent peace
activist Stephen Hobhouse, refused both military and alternative
service.[426] Many suffered years of prison, including solitary
confinement and bread and water diets. Even after the war, in Britain
many job advertisements were marked "No conscientious objectors need
apply".[427]
Bolshevik leaders Lenin and Trotsky promised "Peace, Land and Bread" to the impoverished masses
The
Central Asian revolt started in the summer of 1916, when the Russian
Empire government ended its exemption of Muslims from military
service.[428]
In 1917, a series of French Army Mutinies led to dozens of soldiers being executed and many more imprisoned.
On
1–4 May 1917, about 100,000 workers and soldiers of Petrograd, and
after them, the workers and soldiers of other Russian cities, led by the
Bolsheviks, demonstrated under banners reading "Down with the war!" and
"all power to the soviets!" The mass demonstrations resulted in a
crisis for the Russian Provisional Government.[429] In Milan, in May
1917, Bolshevik revolutionaries organised and engaged in rioting calling
for an end to the war, and managed to close down factories and stop
public transportation.[430] The Italian army was forced to enter Milan
with tanks and machine guns to face Bolsheviks and anarchists, who
fought violently until 23 May when the army gained control of the city.
Almost 50 people (including three Italian soldiers) were killed and over
800 people arrested.[430]
In September 1917, Russian soldiers in
France began questioning why they were fighting for the French at all
and mutinied.[431] In Russia, opposition to the war led to soldiers also
establishing their own revolutionary committees, which helped foment
the October Revolution of 1917, with the call going up for "bread, land,
and peace". The Decree on Peace, written by Vladimir Lenin, was passed
on 8 November 1917, following the success of the October
Revolution.[432] The Bolsheviks agreed to a peace treaty with Germany,
the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, despite its harsh conditions. The German
Revolution of 1918–1919 led to the abdication of the Kaiser and German
surrender.
Conscription
Young men registering for conscription, New York City, 5 June 1917
Conscription
was common in most European countries. However, it was controversial in
English-speaking countries. It was especially unpopular among minority
ethnic groups—especially the Irish Catholics in Ireland and
Australia,[433] and the French Catholics in Canada.
Canada
Main article: Conscription Crisis of 1917
In
Canada, the issue produced a major political crisis that permanently
alienated the Francophones. It opened a political gap between French
Canadian, who believed their true loyalty was to Canada and not to the
British Empire, and members of the Anglophone majority, who saw the war
as a duty to their British heritage.[434]
Australia
Main article: Conscription in Australia
Military recruitment in Melbourne, Australia, 1914
Australia
had a form of conscription at the outbreak of the war, as compulsory
military training had been introduced in 1911. However, the Defence Act
1903 provided that unexempted males could be called upon only for home
defence during times of war, not overseas service. Prime Minister Billy
Hughes wished to amend the legislation to require conscripts to serve
overseas, and held two non-binding referendums – one in 1916 and one in
1917 – in order to secure public support.[435] Both were defeated by
narrow margins, with farmers, the labour movement, the Catholic Church,
and Irish-Australians combining to campaign for the "No" vote.[436] The
issue of conscription caused the 1916 Australian Labor Party split.
Hughes and his supporters were expelled from the party, forming the
National Labor Party and then the Nationalist Party. Despite the
referendum results, the Nationalists won a landslide victory at the 1917
federal election.[435]
Britain
Main article: Conscription in the United Kingdom
See also: Recruitment to the British Army during the First World War
British volunteer recruits in London, August 1914
In
Britain, conscription resulted in the calling up of nearly every
physically fit man in Britain—six of ten million eligible. Of these,
about 750,000 lost their lives. Most deaths were those of young
unmarried men; however, 160,000 wives lost husbands and 300,000 children
lost fathers.[437] Conscription during the First World War began when
the British government passed the Military Service Act in 1916. The act
specified that single men aged 18 to 40 years old were liable to be
called up for military service unless they were widowed with children or
ministers of a religion. There was a system of Military Service
Tribunals to adjudicate upon claims for exemption upon the grounds of
performing civilian work of national importance, domestic hardship,
health, and conscientious objection. The law went through several
changes before the war ended. Married men were exempt in the original
Act, although this was changed in June 1916. The age limit was also
eventually raised to 51 years old. Recognition of work of national
importance also diminished, and in the last year of the war, there was
some support for the conscription of clergy.[438] Conscription lasted
until mid-1919. Due to the political situation in Ireland, conscription
was never applied there; only in England, Scotland and Wales.
United States
Main article: Conscription in the United States § World War I
In
the United States, conscription began in 1917 and was generally well
received, with a few pockets of opposition in isolated rural areas.[439]
The administration decided to rely primarily on conscription, rather
than voluntary enlistment, to raise military manpower after only 73,000
volunteers enlisted out of the initial 1 million target in the first six
weeks of the war.[440] In 1917 10 million men were registered. This was
deemed to be inadequate, so age ranges were increased and exemptions
reduced, and so by the end of 1918 this increased to 24 million men that
were registered with nearly 3 million inducted into the military
services. The draft was universal and included blacks on the same terms
as whites, although they served in different units. In all 367,710 black
Americans were drafted (13% of the total), compared to 2,442,586 white
(87%).
Forms of resistance ranged from peaceful protest to
violent demonstrations and from humble letter-writing campaigns asking
for mercy to radical newspapers demanding reform. The most common
tactics were dodging and desertion, and many communities sheltered and
defended their draft dodgers as political heroes. Many socialists were
jailed for "obstructing the recruitment or enlistment service". The most
famous was Eugene Debs, head of the Socialist Party of America, who ran
for president in 1920 from his prison cell. In 1917 a number of
radicals and anarchists challenged the new draft law in federal court,
arguing that it was a direct violation of the Thirteenth Amendment's
prohibition against slavery and involuntary servitude. The Supreme Court
unanimously upheld the constitutionality of the draft act in the
Selective Draft Law Cases on 7 January 1918.
Austria-Hungary
Like
all the armies of mainland Europe, Austria-Hungary relied on
conscription to fill its ranks. Officer recruitment, however, was
voluntary. The effect of this at the start of the war was that well over
a quarter of the rank and file were Slavs, while more than 75% of the
officers were ethnic Germans. This was much resented. The army has been
described as being "run on colonial lines" and the Slav soldiers as
"disaffected". Thus conscription contributed greatly to Austria's
disastrous performance on the battlefield.[441]
Diplomacy
Main article: Diplomatic history of World War I
1917
political cartoon about the Zimmermann Telegram. The message was
intercepted by the British; its publication caused outrage and
contributed to the U.S. entry into World War I.
The non-military
diplomatic and propaganda interactions among the nations were designed
to build support for the cause or to undermine support for the enemy.
For the most part, wartime diplomacy focused on five issues: propaganda
campaigns; defining and redefining the war goals, which became harsher
as the war went on; luring neutral nations (Italy, Ottoman Empire,
Bulgaria, Romania) into the coalition by offering slices of enemy
territory; and encouragement by the Allies of nationalistic minority
movements inside the Central Powers, especially among Czechs, Poles, and
Arabs. In addition, there were multiple peace proposals coming from
neutrals, or one side or the other; none of them progressed very
far.[442][443][444]
Legacy and memory
See also: Iron harvest
... "Strange, friend," I said, "Here is no cause to mourn."
"None," said the other, "Save the undone years"...
— Wilfred Owen, Strange Meeting, 1918[337]
The
first tentative efforts to comprehend the meaning and consequences of
modern warfare began during the initial phases of the war, and this
process continued throughout and after the end of hostilities, and is
still underway, more than a century later. As late as 2007, signs
warning visitors to keep off certain paths at battlefield sites like
Verdun and Somme remained in place as unexploded ordnance continued to
pose a danger to farmers living near former battlegrounds. In France and
Belgium locals who discover caches of unexploded munitions are assisted
by weapons disposal units. In some places, plant life has still not
returned to normal.[445]
Historiography
Teaching World War I
has presented special challenges. When compared with World War II, the
First World War is often thought to be "a wrong war fought for the wrong
reasons". It lacks the metanarrative of good versus evil that
characterizes the Second World War. Lacking recognizable heroes and
villains, it is often taught thematically, invoking tropes like the
wastefulness of war, the folly of generals and the innocence of
soldiers. The complexity of the conflict is mostly obscured by these
oversimplifications.[445]
Historian Heather Jones argues that the
historiography has been reinvigorated by the cultural turn in recent
years. Scholars have raised entirely new questions regarding military
occupation, radicalisation of politics, race, medical science, gender
and mental health. Furthermore, new research has revised our
understanding of five major topics that historians have long debated:
Why the war began, why the Allies won, whether generals were responsible
for high casualty rates, how the soldiers endured the horrors of trench
warfare, and to what extent the civilian homefront accepted and
endorsed the war effort.[446][447]
Memorials
Main article: World War I memorials
The Italian Redipuglia War Memorial, which contains the remains of 100,187 soldiers
Memorials
were erected in thousands of villages and towns. Close to battlefields,
those buried in improvised burial grounds were gradually moved to
formal graveyards under the care of organisations such as the
Commonwealth War Graves Commission, the American Battle Monuments
Commission, the German War Graves Commission, and Le Souvenir français.
Many of these graveyards also have central monuments to the missing or
unidentified dead, such as the Menin Gate Memorial to the Missing and
the Thiepval Memorial to the Missing of the Somme.
In 1915 John
McCrae, a Canadian army doctor, wrote the poem In Flanders Fields as a
salute to those who perished in the Great War. Published in Punch on 8
December 1915, it is still recited today, especially on Remembrance Day
and Memorial Day.[448][449]
A typical village war memorial to soldiers killed in World War I
War memorial to soldiers of the 49th Bengalee Regiment (Bangali Platoon) in Kolkata, India, who died in the war.
National
World War I Museum and Memorial in Kansas City, Missouri, is a memorial
dedicated to all Americans who served in World War I. The Liberty
Memorial was dedicated on 1 November 1921, when the supreme Allied
commanders spoke to a crowd of more than 100,000 people.[450]
The
UK Government has budgeted substantial resources to the commemoration
of the war during the period 2014 to 2018. The lead body is the Imperial
War Museum.[451] On 3 August 2014, French President François Hollande
and German President Joachim Gauck together marked the centenary of
Germany's declaration of war on France by laying the first stone of a
memorial in Vieil Armand, known in German as Hartmannswillerkopf, for
French and German soldiers killed in the war.[452] During the Armistice
centenary commemorations, French President Emmanuel Macron and German
Chancellor Angela Merkel visited the site of the signing of the
Armistice of Compiègne and unveiled a plaque to reconciliation.[453]
Cultural memory
Further information: World War I in popular culture
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Left: John McCrae, author of In Flanders Fields
Right: Siegfried Sassoon
World
War I had a lasting impact on collective memory. It was seen by many in
Britain as signalling the end of an era of stability stretching back to
the Victorian period, and across Europe many regarded it as a
watershed.[454] Historian Samuel Hynes explained:
A generation of
innocent young men, their heads full of high abstractions like Honour,
Glory and England, went off to war to make the world safe for democracy.
They were slaughtered in stupid battles planned by stupid generals.
Those who survived were shocked, disillusioned and embittered by their
war experiences, and saw that their real enemies were not the Germans,
but the old men at home who had lied to them. They rejected the values
of the society that had sent them to war, and in doing so separated
their own generation from the past and from their cultural
inheritance.[455]
This has become the most common perception of
World War I, perpetuated by the art, cinema, poems, and stories
published subsequently. Films such as All Quiet on the Western Front,
Paths of Glory and King and Country have perpetuated the idea, while
war-time films including Camrades, Poppies of Flanders, and Shoulder
Arms indicate that the most contemporary views of the war were overall
far more positive.[456] Likewise, the art of Paul Nash, John Nash,
Christopher Nevinson, and Henry Tonks in Britain painted a negative view
of the conflict in keeping with the growing perception, while popular
war-time artists such as Muirhead Bone painted more serene and pleasant
interpretations subsequently rejected as inaccurate.[455] Several
historians like John Terraine, Niall Ferguson and Gary Sheffield have
challenged these interpretations as partial and polemical views:
These
beliefs did not become widely shared because they offered the only
accurate interpretation of wartime events. In every respect, the war was
much more complicated than they suggest. In recent years, historians
have argued persuasively against almost every popular cliché of World
War I. It has been pointed out that, although the losses were
devastating, their greatest impact was socially and geographically
limited. The many emotions other than horror experienced by soldiers in
and out of the front line, including comradeship, boredom, and even
enjoyment, have been recognised. The war is not now seen as a 'fight
about nothing', but as a war of ideals, a struggle between aggressive
militarism and more or less liberal democracy. It has been acknowledged
that British generals were often capable men facing difficult challenges
and that it was under their command that the British army played a
major part in the defeat of the Germans in 1918: a great forgotten
victory.[456]
Though these views have been discounted as
"myths",[455][457] they are common. They have dynamically changed
according to contemporary influences, reflecting in the 1950s
perceptions of the war as "aimless" following the contrasting Second
World War and emphasising conflict within the ranks during times of
class conflict in the 1960s. The majority of additions to the contrary
are often rejected.[456]
Social trauma
A 1919 book for veterans, from the US War Department
The
social trauma caused by unprecedented rates of casualties manifested
itself in different ways, which have been the subject of subsequent
historical debate.[458] Over 8 million Europeans died in the war.
Millions suffered permanent disabilities. The war gave birth to fascism
and Bolshevism and destroyed the dynasties that had ruled the Ottoman,
Habsburg, Russian and German Empires.[445]
The optimism of la
belle époque was destroyed, and those who had fought in the war were
referred to as the Lost Generation.[459] For years afterwards, people
mourned the dead, the missing, and the many disabled.[460] Many soldiers
returned with severe trauma, suffering from shell shock (also called
neurasthenia, a condition related to post-traumatic stress
disorder).[461] Many more returned home with few after-effects; however,
their silence about the war contributed to the conflict's growing
mythological status. Though many participants did not share in the
experiences of combat or spend any significant time at the front, or had
positive memories of their service, the images of suffering and trauma
became the widely shared perception. Such historians as Dan Todman, Paul
Fussell, and Samuel Heyns have all published works since the 1990s
arguing that these common perceptions of the war are factually
incorrect.[458]
Discontent in Germany and Austria
The rise of
Nazism and fascism included a revival of the nationalist spirit and a
rejection of many post-war changes. Similarly, the popularity of the
stab-in-the-back legend (German: Dolchstoßlegende) was a testament to
the psychological state of defeated Germany and was a rejection of
responsibility for the conflict. This conspiracy theory of betrayal
became common, and the German populace came to see themselves as
victims. The widespread acceptance of the "stab-in-the-back" theory
delegitimised the Weimar government and destabilised the system, opening
it to extremes of right and left. The same occurred in Austria which
did not consider itself responsible for the outbreak of the war and
claimed not to have suffered a military defeat.[462]
Communist
and fascist movements around Europe drew strength from this theory and
enjoyed a new level of popularity. These feelings were most pronounced
in areas directly or harshly affected by the war. Adolf Hitler was able
to gain popularity by using German discontent with the still
controversial Treaty of Versailles.[463] World War II was in part a
continuation of the power struggle never fully resolved by World War I.
Furthermore, it was common for Germans in the 1930s to justify acts of
aggression due to perceived injustices imposed by the victors of World
War I.[260][464][465] American historian William Rubinstein wrote that:
The
'Age of Totalitarianism' included nearly all the infamous examples of
genocide in modern history, headed by the Jewish Holocaust, but also
comprising the mass murders and purges of the Communist world, other
mass killings carried out by Nazi Germany and its allies, and also the
Armenian Genocide of 1915. All these slaughters, it is argued here, had a
common origin, the collapse of the elite structure and normal modes of
government of much of central, eastern and southern Europe as a result
of World War I, without which surely neither Communism nor Fascism would
have existed except in the minds of unknown agitators and
crackpots.[466]
Economic effects
See also: Economic history of World War I
Poster showing women workers, 1915
One
of the most dramatic effects of the war was the expansion of
governmental powers and responsibilities in Britain, France, the United
States, and the Dominions of the British Empire. To harness all the
power of their societies, governments created new ministries and powers.
New taxes were levied and laws enacted, all designed to bolster the war
effort; many have lasted to the present. Similarly, the war strained
the abilities of some formerly large and bureaucratised governments,
such as in Austria-Hungary and Germany.
Gross domestic product
(GDP) increased for three Allies (Britain, Italy, and the United
States), but decreased in France and Russia, in neutral Netherlands, and
in the three main Central Powers. The shrinkage in GDP in Austria,
Russia, France, and the Ottoman Empire ranged between 30% and 40%. In
Austria, for example, most pigs were slaughtered, so at war's end there
was no meat.
In all nations, the government's share of GDP
increased, surpassing 50% in both Germany and France and nearly reaching
that level in Britain. To pay for purchases in the United States,
Britain cashed in its extensive investments in American railroads and
then began borrowing heavily from Wall Street. President Wilson was on
the verge of cutting off the loans in late 1916 but allowed a great
increase in US government lending to the Allies. After 1919, the US
demanded repayment of these loans. The repayments were, in part, funded
by German reparations that, in turn, were supported by American loans to
Germany. This circular system collapsed in 1931 and some loans were
never repaid. Britain still owed the United States $4.4 billion[r] of
World War I debt in 1934; the last installment was finally paid in
2015.[467]
Macro- and micro-economic consequences devolved from
the war. Families were altered by the departure of many men. With the
death or absence of the primary wage earner, women were forced into the
workforce in unprecedented numbers. At the same time, industry needed to
replace the lost labourers sent to war. This aided the struggle for
voting rights for women.[468]
World War I further compounded the
gender imbalance, adding to the phenomenon of surplus women. The deaths
of nearly one million men during the war in Britain increased the gender
gap by almost a million: from 670,000 to 1,700,000. The number of
unmarried women seeking economic means grew dramatically. In addition,
demobilisation and economic decline following the war caused high
unemployment. The war increased female employment; however, the return
of demobilised men displaced many from the workforce, as did the closure
of many of the wartime factories.
In Britain, rationing was
finally imposed in early 1918, limited to meat, sugar, and fats (butter
and margarine), but not bread. The new system worked smoothly. From 1914
to 1918, trade union membership doubled, from a little over four
million to a little over eight million.
Britain turned to her
colonies for help in obtaining essential war materials whose supply from
traditional sources had become difficult. Geologists such as Albert
Kitson were called on to find new resources of precious minerals in the
African colonies. Kitson discovered important new deposits of manganese,
used in munitions production, in the Gold Coast.[469]
Article
231 of the Treaty of Versailles (the so-called "war guilt" clause)
stated Germany accepted responsibility for "all the loss and damage to
which the Allied and Associated Governments and their nationals have
been subjected as a consequence of the war imposed upon them by the
aggression of Germany and her allies."[470] It was worded as such to lay
a legal basis for reparations, and a similar clause was inserted in the
treaties with Austria and Hungary. However, neither of them interpreted
it as an admission of war guilt."[471] In 1921, the total reparation
sum was placed at 132 billion gold marks. However, "Allied experts knew
that Germany could not pay" this sum. The total sum was divided into
three categories, with the third being "deliberately designed to be
chimerical" and its "primary function was to mislead public opinion ...
into believing the "total sum was being maintained."[472] Thus, 50
billion gold marks (12.5 billion dollars) "represented the actual Allied
assessment of German capacity to pay" and "therefore ... represented
the total German reparations" figure that had to be paid.[472]
This
figure could be paid in cash or in-kind (coal, timber, chemical dyes,
etc.). In addition, some of the territory lost—via the treaty of
Versailles—was credited towards the reparation figure as were other acts
such as helping to restore the Library of Louvain.[473] By 1929, the
Great Depression arrived, causing political chaos throughout the
world.[474] In 1932 the payment of reparations was suspended by the
international community, by which point Germany had paid only the
equivalent of 20.598 billion gold marks in reparations.[475] With the
rise of Adolf Hitler, all bonds and loans that had been issued and taken
out during the 1920s and early 1930s were cancelled. David Andelman
notes "refusing to pay doesn't make an agreement null and void. The
bonds, the agreement, still exist." Thus, following the Second World
War, at the London Conference in 1953, Germany agreed to resume payment
on the money borrowed. On 3 October 2010, Germany made the final payment
on these bonds.[s]
The war contributed to the evolution of the
wristwatch from women's jewellery to a practical everyday item,
replacing the pocketwatch, which requires a free hand to operate.[480]
Military funding of advancements in radio contributed to the post-war
popularity of the medium.[480]
See also
icon World War I portal
War portal
World portal
Lists of World War I topics
Outline of World War I
Footnotes
Russian
Republic during 1917. The Bolshevik government signed the separate
peace with the Central Powers shortly after their armed seizure of power
of November that year.
The United States did not ratify any of the treaties agreed to at the Paris Peace Conference.
Bulgaria joined the Central Powers on 14 October 1915.
The
Ottoman Empire agreed to a secret alliance with Germany on 2 August
1914. It joined the war on the side of the Central Powers on 29 October
1914.
The United States declared war on Austria-Hungary on 7 December 1917.
Austria was considered one of the successor states to Austria-Hungary.
The United States declared war on Germany on 6 April 1917.
Hungary was considered one of the successor states to Austria-Hungary.
Although
the Treaty of Sèvres was intended to end the war between the Allied
Powers and the Ottoman Empire, the Allied Powers and the Republic of
Turkey, the successor state of the Ottoman Empire, agreed to the Treaty
of Lausanne.
Died in 1916 of pneumonia, succeeded by Charles (Karl) I of Austria
Died in July 1918 and succeeded by Mehmed VI
Cvjetko
Popović, Gavrilo Princip, Nedeljko Čabrinović, Trifko Grabež, and Vaso
Čubrilović were Bosnian Serbs, while Muhamed Mehmedbašić was from the
Bosniak Muslim community [40]
Former prisoners also set up the
Romanian Legion which served with the White movement in Siberia during
the Russian Civil War,[165] [166] while 37,000 of the 60,000 Romanians
captured in Italy joined the Romanian Volunteer Legion and fought in the
last battles on the Italian front.[162]
Bessarabia remained part of
Romania until 1940, when it was annexed by Joseph Stalin as the
Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic;[172] following the dissolution of
the USSR in 1991, it became the independent Republic of Moldova
This
gave German submarines permission to attack any merchant ships entering
the war zone, regardless of their cargo or nationality; the zone
included all British and French coastal waters [192]
Unlike the
others, the successor state to the Russian Empire, the Union of Soviet
Socialist Republics, retained similar external borders, via retaining or
quickly recovering lost territories
A German attempt to use chemical weapons on the Russian front in January 1915 failed to cause casualties.
109 in this context – see Long and short scales
World
War I officially ended when Germany paid off the final amount of
reparations imposed on it by the Allies.[476][477][478][479]
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Gilbert 1994, p. xv.
Spreeuwenberg 2018, pp. 2561–2567.
Williams 2014, pp. 4–10.
Zuber 2011, pp. 46–49.
"Offensive, Gorlice-Tarnow | International Encyclopedia of the First World War (WW1)".
Sheffield 2002, p. 251.
Shapiro & Epstein 2006, p. 329.
Proffitt, Michael (13 June 2014). "Chief Editor's notes June 2014". Oxford English Dictionary's blog.
"The
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BBC Two.
"Were they always called World War I and World War II?".
Ask History. Archived from the original on 1 October 2015. Retrieved 24
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American
Battle Monuments Commission (1938). American Armies and Battlefields in
Europe: A History, Guide, and Reference Book. US Government Printing
Office. OCLC 59803706.
Balakian, Peter (2003). The Burning Tigris:
The Armenian Genocide and America's Response. New York: HarperCollins.
ISBN 978-0-06-019840-4. OCLC 56822108.
Bond, Brian (1968). "The First
World War". In C.L. Mowat (ed.). The New Cambridge Modern History. Vol.
XII: The Shifting Balance of World Forces 1898–1945 (2nd ed.). pp.
171–208 – via archive.org.
Duffy, Michael (2006). Somme. First World War.com. ISBN 978-0-297-84689-5. Retrieved 25 February 2007.
Encyclopædia
Britannica (12th ed.). 1922. Comprises the 11th edition plus three new
volumes 30-31-32 that cover events since 1911 with thorough coverage of
the war as well as every country and colony.
1922 Encyclopædia Britannica – via Wikisource.
scans of each page of vol 30-31-32
Fortescue,
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Balkan Wars
Background
Nationalism
in the Ottoman Empire AlbanianBulgarianGreekSerbianCongress of
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Diplomacy and politics
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Second Balkan War
Battles
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Diplomacy and politics
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Other
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General
Aftermath
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Atrocities
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Participants
Bulgaria
Ferdinand IIvan GeshovStoyan DanevMihail SavovIvan FichevVasil
KutinchevNikola IvanovRadko DimitrievStiliyan KovachevGeorgi
TodorovGreece George IConstantine IEleftherios VenizelosPanagiotis
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DousmanisMontenegro Nicholas ICrown Prince DaniloJanko VukotićOttoman
Empire Mehmed VNazim PashaZeki PashaEsad PashaKölemen Abdullah PashaAli
Rıza PashaHasan Tahsin PashaEnver BeyAhmed Izzet PashaRomania Carol
ICrown Prince FerdinandAlexandru AverescuSerbia Peter ICrown Prince
AlexanderRadomir PutnikPetar BojovićStepa StepanovićBožidar
JankovićOther Balkan states: Albania (Ismail Qemali)
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Timeline
Pre-War conflicts
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(1911)Italo-Turkish War (1911–12)First Balkan War (1912–13)Second Balkan
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Prelude
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Autumn 1914
Battle
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Masurian LakesBattle of KolubaraBattle of SarikamishRace to the SeaFirst
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1915
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1916
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offensiveBattle of Transylvania
1917
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OituzBattle of CaporettoSouthern Palestine offensiveOctober
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and the Central Powers
1918
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1918Battle of GoychaySecond Battle of the Piave RiverSecond Battle of
the MarneHundred Days OffensiveVardar offensiveBattle of MegiddoThird
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Other conflicts
Somaliland campaign
(1900–1920)Mexican Revolution (1910–1920)Maritz rebellion (1914–15)Zaian
War (1914–1921)Kurdish rebellions (1914–1917)Kelantan rebellion
(1915)Senussi campaign (1915–16)Volta-Bani War (1915–1917)Darfur
Expedition (1916)Kaocen revolt (1916–17)Central Asian Revolt
(1916–17)Finnish Civil War (1918)
Post-War conflicts
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(1917–1921)Armenian–Azerbaijani War (1918–1920)Armeno-Georgian War
(1918)German Revolution (1918–19)Revolutions and interventions in
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(1918–1920)Polish–Ukrainian War (1918–19)Third Anglo-Afghan War
(1919)Egyptian Revolution (1919)Polish–Lithuanian War
(1919–1920)Polish–Soviet War (1919–1921)Irish War of Independence
(1919–1921)Turkish War of Independence Franco-Turkish War
(1918–1921)Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922)Turkish–Armenian War (1920)Iraqi
revolt (1920)Vlora War (1920)Franco-Syrian War (1920)Soviet–Georgian
War (1921)
Aspects
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Atrocities
Civilian impact
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