| Constantine the Great (Latin:
Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus Augustus;
27 February c. 272 – 22 May 337), also known as Constantine I or Saint
Constantine, was
Roman Emperor
from 306 to 337. Well known for
being the first Roman emperor to
be converted
to
Christianity
, Constantine and co-Emperor
Licinius
issued the
Edict of Milan
in 313, which proclaimed
tolerance of all religions
throughout the
empire.
Constantine defeated the emperors
Maxentius
and
Licinius
during civil wars. He also fought
successfully against the
Franks
,
Alamanni
,
Visigoths
, and
Sarmatians
during his reign — even resettling
parts of Dacia
which had been abandoned during the
previous century. Constantine built a new imperial residence at
Byzantium
, naming it
New Rome
. However, in Constantine's honor,
people called it
Constantinople
, which would later be the
capital of what is now known as the
Byzantine Empire
for over one thousand years.
Because of this, he is thought of as the founder of the Byzantine Empire.
Flavius Valerius Constantinus, as he was originally named, was born in the
city of Naissus,
Dardania
province of
Moesia
, in present-day
Niš,
Serbia
, on 27 February of an uncertain year,
probably near 272.
His father was
Flavius Constantius
, a native of
Dardania
province of Moesia (later
Dacia Ripensis
). Constantius was a tolerant and
politically skilled man. Constantine probably spent little time with his father.
Constantius was an officer in the Roman army, part of the Emperor
Aurelian
's imperial bodyguard. Constantius
advanced through the ranks, earning the
governorship
of
Dalmatia
from Emperor
Diocletian
, another of Aurelian's companions
from
Illyricum
, in 284 or 285.Constantine's mother
was
Helena
, a
Bithynian
woman of low social standing.It is
uncertain whether she was legally married to Constantius or merely his concubine
Helena gave birth to the future emperor
Constantine I
on 27 February of an uncertain
year soon after 270 (probably around 272). At the time, she was in
Naissus
(Niš,
Serbia
). In order to obtain a wife more
consonant with his rising status, Constantius divorced Helena some time before
289, when he married
Theodora
, Maximian's daughter.(The narrative
sources date the marriage to 293, but the
Latin panegyric
of 289 refers to the couple as
already married). Helena and her son were dispatched to the court of
Diocletian
at Nicomedia, where Constantine grew
to be a member of the inner circle. Helena never remarried and lived for a time
in obscurity, though close to her only son, who had a deep regard and affection
for her.
She received the title of
Augusta
in 325 and died in 330 with her son
at her side. She was buried in the
Mausoleum of Helena
, outside
Rome on the
Via Labicana
. Her
sarcophagus
is on display in the
Pio-Clementine Vatican Museum
, although the
connection is often questioned, next to her is the sarcophagus of her
granddaughter Saint Constantina (Saint Constance). The elaborate reliefs contain
hunting scenes. During her life, she gave many presents to the poor, released
prisoners and mingled with the ordinary worshippers in modest attire.
Constantine received a formal education at Diocletian's court, where he
learned Latin literature, Greek, and philosophy.
On 1 May 305, Diocletian, as a result of a debilitating sickness taken in the
winter of 304–5, announced his resignation. In a parallel ceremony in Milan,
Maximian did the same. Lactantius states that Galerius manipulated the weakened
Diocletian into resigning, and forced him to accept Galerius' allies in the
imperial succession. According to Lactantius, the crowd listening to
Diocletian's resignation speech believed, until the very last moment, that
Diocletian would choose Constantine and
Maxentius
(Maximian's son) as his successors.
It was not to be: Constantius and Galerius were promoted to Augusti, while
Severus
and
Maximin
were appointed their Caesars
respectively. Constantine and Maxentius were ignored.
Constantine recognized the implicit danger in remaining at Galerius' court,
where he was held as a virtual hostage. His career depended on being rescued by
his father in the west. Constantius was quick to intervene. In the late spring
or early summer of 305, Constantius requested leave for his son, to help him
campaign in Britain. After a long evening of drinking, Galerius granted the
request. Constantine's later propaganda describes how he fled the court in the
night, before Galerius could change his mind. He rode from
post-house
to post-house at high speed,
hamstringing
every horse in his wake.By the
time Galerius awoke the following morning, Constantine had fled too far to be
caught. Constantine joined his father in
Gaul
, at Bononia (Boulogne)
before the summer of 305.
From Bononia they crossed the
Channel
to Britain and made their way to
Eboracum
(York),
capital of the province of
Britannia Secunda
and home to a large military
base. Constantine was able to spend a year in northern Britain at his father's
side, campaigning against the
Picts
beyond
Hadrian's Wall
in the summer and autumn.
Constantius's campaign, like that of
Septimius Severus
before it, probably advanced
far into the north without achieving great success. Constantius had become
severely sick over the course of his reign, and died on 25 July 306 in
Eboracum
(York).
Before dying, he declared his support for raising Constantine to the rank of
full Augustus. The
Alamannic
king
Chrocus
, a barbarian taken into service under
Constantius, then proclaimed Constantine as Augustus. The troops loyal to
Constantius' memory followed him in acclamation. Gaul and Britain quickly
accepted his rule; Iberia, which had been in his father's domain for less than a
year, rejected it.
Constantine sent Galerius an official notice of Constantius's death and his
own acclamation. Along with the notice, he included a portrait of himself in the
robes of an Augustus. The portrait was wreathed in
bay
. He requested recognition as heir to his
father's throne, and passed off responsibility for his unlawful ascension on his
army, claiming they had "forced it upon him".Galerius was put into a fury by the
message; he almost set the portrait on fire. His advisers calmed him, and argued
that outright denial of Constantine's claims would mean certain war.Galerius was
compelled to compromise: he granted Constantine the title "Caesar" rather than
"Augustus" (the latter office went to Severus instead). Wishing to make it clear
that he alone gave Constantine legitimacy, Galerius personally sent Constantine
the emperor's traditional
purple robes
. Constantine accepted the
decision. Constantine's share of the Empire consisted of Britain, Gaul, and
Spain.
Because Constantine was still largely untried and had a hint of illegitimacy
about him, he relied on his father's reputation in his early propaganda: the
earliest panegyrics to Constantine give as much coverage to his father's deeds
as to those of Constantine himself.
Constantine's military skill and building projects soon gave
the panegyrist the opportunity to comment favorably on the similarities between
father and son, and Eusebius remarked that Constantine was a "renewal, as it
were, in his own person, of his father's life and reign". Constantinian coinage,
sculpture and oratory also shows a new tendency for disdain towards the
"barbarians" beyond the frontiers. After Constantine's victory over the
Alemanni, he minted a coin issue depicting weeping and begging Alemannic
tribesmen—"The Alemanni conquered"—beneath the phrase "Romans' rejoicing".There
was little sympathy for these enemies. As his panegyrist declared: "It is a
stupid clemency that spares the conquered foe."
In 310, a dispossessed and power-hungry Maximian rebelled against Constantine
while Constantine was away campaigning against the Franks. Maximian had been
sent south to Arles with a contingent of Constantine's army, in preparation for
any attacks by Maxentius in southern Gaul. He announced that Constantine was
dead, and took up the imperial purple. In spite of a large donative pledge to
any who would support him as emperor, most of Constantine's army remained loyal
to their emperor, and Maximian was soon compelled to leave. Constantine soon
heard of the rebellion, abandoned his campaign against the Franks, and marched
his army up the Rhine. At Cabillunum (Chalon-sur-Saône),
he moved his troops onto waiting boats to row down the slow waters of the
Saône
to the quicker waters of the
Rhone
. He disembarked at
Lugdunum
(Lyon).Maximian
fled to Massilia (Marseille),
a town better able to withstand a long siege than Arles. It made little
difference, however, as loyal citizens opened the rear gates to Constantine.
Maximian was captured and reproved for his crimes. Constantine granted some
clemency, but strongly encouraged his suicide. In July 310, Maximian hanged
himself.
The death of Maximian required a shift in Constantine's public image. He
could no longer rely on his connection to the elder emperor Maximian, and needed
a new source of legitimacy.In a speech delivered in Gaul on 25 July 310, the
anonymous orator reveals a previously unknown dynastic connection to
Claudius II
, a third-century emperor famed for
defeating the Goths and restoring order to the empire. Breaking away from
tetrarchic models, the speech emphasizes Constantine's ancestral prerogative to
rule, rather than principles of imperial equality. The new ideology expressed in
the speech made Galerius and Maximian irrelevant to Constantine's right to rule.
Indeed, the orator emphasizes ancestry to the exclusion of all other factors:
"No chance agreement of men, nor some unexpected consequence of favor, made you
emperor," the orator declares to Constantine.
A gold multiple of "Unconquered Constantine" with
Sol Invictus
, struck in 313. The use of
Sol's image appealed to both the educated citizens of Gaul, who would
recognize
in it Apollo's patronage of
Augustus
and the arts; and to Christians,
who found solar monotheism less objectionable than the traditional pagan
pantheon.
The oration also moves away from the religious ideology of the Tetrarchy,
with its focus on twin dynasties of
Jupiter
and
Hercules
. Instead, the orator proclaims that
Constantine experienced a divine vision of
Apollo
and
Victory
granting him
laurel wreaths
of health and a long reign. In
the likeness of Apollo Constantine recognized himself as the saving figure to
whom would be granted "rule of the whole world", as the poet Virgil had once
foretold. The oration's religious shift is paralleled by a similar shift in
Constantine's coinage. In his early reign, the coinage of Constantine advertised
Mars
as his patron. From 310 on, Mars was
replaced by
Sol Invictus
, a god conventionally identified
with Apollo.
By the middle of 310, Galerius had become too ill to involve himself in
imperial politics. His final act survives: a letter to the provincials posted in
Nicomedia on 30 April 311, proclaiming an end to the persecutions, and the
resumption of religious toleration. He died soon after the edict's proclamation,
destroying what little remained of the tetrarchy. Maximin mobilized against
Licinius, and seized Asia Minor. A hasty peace was signed on a boat in the
middle of the Bosphorus. While Constantine toured Britain and Gaul, Maxentius
prepared for war.He fortified northern Italy, and strengthened his support in
the Christian community by allowing it to elect a new
Bishop
of
Rome
,
Eusebius
.
Constantine's advisers and generals cautioned against preemptive attack on
Maxentius; even his soothsayers recommended against it, stating that the
sacrifices had produced unfavorable omens. Constantine, with a spirit that left
a deep impression on his followers, inspiring some to believe that he had some
form of supernatural guidance, ignored all these cautions. Early in the spring
of 312,Constantine crossed the
Cottian Alps
with a quarter of his army, a
force numbering about 40,000.The first town his army encountered was Segusium (Susa,
Italy
), a heavily fortified town that shut its
gates to him. Constantine ordered his men to set fire to its gates and scale its
walls. He took the town quickly. Constantine ordered his troops not to loot the
town, and advanced with them into northern Italy.
At the approach to the west of the important city of Augusta Taurinorum (Turin,
Italy), Constantine met a large force of heavily armed Maxentian cavalry. In the
ensuing
battle
Constantine's army encircled Maxentius'
cavalry, flanked them with his own cavalry, and dismounted them with blows from
his soldiers' iron-tipped clubs. Constantine's armies emerged victorious. Turin
refused to give refuge to Maxentius' retreating forces, opening its gates to
Constantine instead.
Other cities of the north Italian plain sent Constantine
embassies of congratulation for his victory. He moved on to Milan, where he was
met with open gates and jubilant rejoicing. Constantine rested his army in Milan
until mid-summer 312, when he moved on to
Brixia
(Brescia).
Brescia's army was easily dispersed, and Constantine quickly advanced to
Verona
, where a large Maxentian force was
camped. Ruricius Pompeianus, general of the Veronese forces and Maxentius'
praetorian prefect, was in a strong defensive position, since the town was
surrounded on three sides by the
Adige
. Constantine sent a small force north of
the town in an attempt to cross the river unnoticed. Ruricius sent a large
detachment to counter Constantine's expeditionary force, but was defeated.
Constantine's forces successfully surrounded the town and laid siege. Ruricius
gave Constantine the slip and returned with a larger force to oppose
Constantine. Constantine refused to let up on the siege, and sent only a small
force to oppose him. In the desperately fought
encounter
that followed, Ruricius was killed
and his army destroyed.Verona surrendered soon afterwards, followed by
Aquileia
, Mutina (Modena),
and
Ravenna
. The road to Rome was now wide open to
Constantine.
Maxentius prepared for the same type of war he had waged against Severus and
Galerius: he sat in Rome and prepared for a siege. He still controlled Rome's
praetorian guards, was well-stocked with African grain, and was surrounded on
all sides by the seemingly impregnable
Aurelian Walls
. He ordered all bridges across
the Tiber
cut, reportedly on the counsel of the
gods, and left the rest of central Italy undefended; Constantine secured that
region's support without challenge. Constantine progressed slowly along the
Via Flaminia
, allowing the weakness of
Maxentius to draw his regime further into turmoil. Maxentius' support continued
to weaken: at chariot races on 27 October, the crowd openly taunted Maxentius,
shouting that Constantine was invincible. Maxentius, no longer certain that he
would emerge from a siege victorious, built a temporary boat bridge across the
Tiber in preparation for a field battle against Constantine. On 28 October 312,
the sixth anniversary of his reign, he approached the keepers of the
Sibylline Books
for guidance. The keepers
prophesied that, on that very day, "the enemy of the Romans" would die.
Maxentius advanced north to meet Constantine in battle.
Maxentius organized his forces—still twice the size of Constantine's—in long
lines facing the battle plain, with their backs to the river. Constantine's army
arrived at the field bearing unfamiliar symbols on either its standards or its
soldiers' shields. Constantine was visited by a dream the night before the
battle, wherein he was advised "to mark the heavenly sign of God on the shields
of his soldiers...by means of a slanted letter X with the top of its head bent
round, he marked Christ on their shields." Eusebius describes the sign as
Chi
(Χ) traversed by
Rho
(Ρ): ☧, a symbol representing the first two
letters of the Greek spelling of the word Christos or Christ.
Constantine deployed his own forces along the whole length of Maxentius'
line. He ordered his cavalry to charge, and they broke Maxentius' cavalry. He
then sent his infantry against Maxentius' infantry, pushing many into the Tiber
where they were slaughtered and drowned. The battle was brief: Maxentius' troops
were broken before the first charge. Maxentius' horse guards and praetorians
initially held their position, but broke under the force of a Constantinian
cavalry charge; they also broke ranks and fled to the river. Maxentius rode with
them, and attempted to cross the bridge of boats, but he was pushed by the mass
of his fleeing soldiers into the Tiber, and drowned.
In Rome
Constantine entered Rome on 29 October.He staged a grand
adventus
in the city, and was met with
popular jubilation. Maxentius' body was fished out of the Tiber and decapitated.
His head was paraded through the streets for all to see. Unlike his
predecessors, Constantine neglected to make the trip to the
Capitoline Hill
and perform customary
sacrifices at the
Temple of Jupiter
. He did, however, choose to
honor the
Senatorial
Curia
with a visit, where he promised to
restore its ancestral privileges and give it a secure role in his reformed
government: there would be no revenge against Maxentius' supporters.In response,
the Senate decreed him "title of the first name", which meant his name would be
listed first in all official documents, and acclaimed him as "the greatest
Augustus". He issued decrees returning property lost under Maxentius, recalling
political exiles, and releasing Maxentius' imprisoned opponents.
In the following years, Constantine gradually consolidated his military
superiority over his rivals in the crumbling Tetrarchy. In 313, he met
Licinius
in
Milan
to secure their alliance by the marriage
of Licinius and Constantine's half-sister
Constantia
. During this meeting, the emperors
agreed on the so-called
Edict of Milan
,officially granting full
tolerance to Christianity and all religions in the Empire.The document had
special benefits for Christians, legalizing their religion and granting them
restoration for all property seized during Diocletian's persecution.
In the year 320,
Licinius
reneged on the religious freedom
promised by the
Edict of Milan
in 313 and began to oppress
Christians anew, generally without bloodshed, but resorting to confiscations and
sacking of Christian office-holders.That became a challenge to Constantine in
the West, climaxing in the great civil war of 324. Licinius, aided by
Goth
mercenaries
, represented the past and the
ancient Pagan
faiths. Constantine and his
Franks
marched under the standard of the
labarum
, and both sides saw the battle in
religious terms. Outnumbered, but fired by their zeal, Constantine's army
emerged victorious in the
Battle of Adrianople
. Licinius fled across the
Bosphorus and appointed
Martius Martinianus
, the commander of his
bodyguard, as Caesar, but Constantine next won the
Battle of the Hellespont
, and finally the
Battle of Chrysopolis
on 18 September
324.Licinius and Martinianus surrendered to Constantine at Nicomedia on the
promise their lives would be spared: they were sent to live as private citizens
in Thessalonica and Cappadocia respectively, but in 325 Constantine accused
Licinius of plotting against him and had them both arrested and hanged;
Licinius's son (the son of Constantine's half-sister) was also killed. Thus
Constantine became the sole emperor of the Roman Empire.
Foundation of
Constantinople
Licinius' defeat came to represent the defeat of a rival center of Pagan and
Greek-speaking political activity in the East, as opposed to the Christian and
Latin-speaking Rome, and it was proposed that a new Eastern capital should
represent the integration of the East into the Roman Empire as a whole, as a
center of learning, prosperity, and cultural preservation for the whole of the
Eastern Roman Empire
. Among the various
locations proposed for this alternative capital, Constantine appears to have
toyed earlier with
Serdica
(present-day
Sofia
), as he was reported saying that "Serdica
is my Rome". Sirmium
and
Thessalonica
were also considered. Eventually,
however, Constantine decided to work on the Greek city of
Byzantium
, which offered the advantage of
having already been extensively rebuilt on Roman patterns of urbanism, during
the preceding century, by
Septimius Severus
and
Caracalla
, who had already acknowledged its
strategic importance. The city was then renamed Constantinopolis
("Constantine's City" or
Constantinople
in English), and issued special
commemorative coins in 330 to honor the event. The new city was protected by the
relics of the
True Cross
, the
Rod of Moses
and other holy
relics
, though a cameo now at the
Hermitage Museum
also represented Constantine
crowned by the tyche
of the new city. The figures of old gods
were either replaced or assimilated into a framework of
Christian symbolism
. Constantine built the new
Church of the Holy Apostles
on the site of a
temple to Aphrodite
. Generations later there was the
story that a
divine vision
led Constantine to this spot, and
an angel
no one else could see, led him on a
circuit of the new walls. The capital would often be compared to the 'old' Rome
as Nova Roma Constantinopolitana, the "New Rome of Constantinople".
Constantine the Great, mosaic in
Hagia Sophia
, c. 1000
Religious policy
Constantine is perhaps best known for being the first "Christian" Roman
emperor. Scholars debate whether Constantine adopted his mother
St. Helena
's
Christianity in his youth, or whether he adopted it gradually over the course of
his life.
Constantine was over 40 when he finally declared himself a Christian, writing to
Christians to make clear that he believed he owed his successes to the
protection of the Christian High God alone.Throughout his rule, Constantine
supported the Church financially, built basilicas, granted privileges to clergy
(e.g. exemption from certain taxes), promoted Christians to high office, and
returned property confiscated during the Diocletianic persecution.His most
famous building projects include the
Church of the Holy Sepulchre
, and
Old Saint Peter's Basilica
.
However, Constantine certainly did not patronize Christianity alone. After
gaining victory in the Battle of the Milvian Bridge (312), a triumphal arch—the
Arch of Constantine
—was built (315) to
celebrate his triumph. The arch is most notably decorated with images of the
goddess
Victoria
and, at the time of its dedication,
sacrifices to gods like
Apollo
,
Diana
, and
Hercules
were made. Most notably absent from
the Arch are any depictions whatsoever regarding Christian symbolism.
Later in 321, Constantine instructed that Christians and non-Christians
should be united in observing the venerable day of the sun, referencing
the sun-worship
that
Aurelian
had established as an official cult.
Furthermore, and long after his oft alleged "conversion" to Christianity,
Constantine's coinage continued to carry the symbols of the sun. Even after the
pagan gods had disappeared from the coinage, Christian symbols appeared only as
Constantine's personal attributes: the
chi rho
between his hands or on his
labarum
, but never on the coin itself. Even
when Constantine dedicated the new capital of Constantinople, which became the
seat of Byzantine Christianity for a millennium, he did so wearing the
Apollonian
sun-rayed
Diadem
; no Christian symbols were present at
this dedication.
Constantine made new laws regarding the
Jews. They were forbidden to own Christian slaves or to
circumcise
their slaves.
Administrative reforms
Beginning in the mid-3rd century the emperors began to favor members of the
equestrian order
over senators, who had had a
monopoly on the most important offices of state. Senators were stripped of the
command of legions and most provincial governorships (as it was felt that they
lacked the specialized military upbringing needed in an age of acute defense
needs), such posts being given to equestrians by Diocletian and his
colleagues—following a practice enforced piecemeal by their predecessors. The
emperors however, still needed the talents and the help of the very rich, who
were relied on to maintain social order and cohesion by means of a web of
powerful influence and contacts at all levels. Exclusion of the old senatorial
aristocracy threatened this arrangement.
In 326, Constantine reversed this pro-equestrian trend, raising many
administrative positions to senatorial rank and thus opening these offices to
the old aristocracy, and at the same time elevating the rank of already existing
equestrians office-holders to senator, eventually wiping out the equestrian
order—at least as a bureaucratic rank—in the process. One could become a
senator, either by being elected
praetor
or (in most cases) by fulfilling a
function of senatorial rank: from then on, holding of actual power and social
status were melded together into a joint imperial hierarchy. At the same time,
Constantine gained with this the support of the old nobility, as the Senate was
allowed itself to elect praetors and
quaestors
, in place of the usual practice of
the emperors directly creating new magistrates (adlectio).
The Senate as a body remained devoid of any significant power; nevertheless,
the senators, who had been marginalized as potential holders of imperial
functions during the 3rd century, could now dispute such positions alongside
more upstart bureaucrats. Some modern historians see in those administrative
reforms an attempt by Constantine at reintegrating the senatorial order into the
imperial administrative elite to counter the possibility of alienating pagan
senators from a Christianized imperial rule.
Constantine's reforms had to do only with the civilian administration: the
military chiefs, who since the
Crisis of the Third Century
had risen from the
ranks, remained outside the senate, in which they were included only by
Constantine's children.
Monetary reforms
After the
runaway inflation of the third century
,
associated with the production of
fiat money
to pay for public expenses,
Diocletian had tried unsuccessfully to reestablish trustworthy minting of silver
and
billon
coins. The failure of the various
Diocletianic attempts at the restoration of a functioning silver coin resided in
the fact that the silver currency was overvalued in terms of its actual metal
content, and therefore could only circulate at much discounted rates. Minting of
the Diocletianic "pure" silver
argenteus
ceased, therefore, soon after
305, while the billon currency continued to be used until the 360s. From the
early 300s on, Constantine forsook any attempts at restoring the silver
currency, preferring instead to concentrate on minting large quantities of good
standard gold pieces—the
solidus
, 72 of which made a pound of gold. New
(and highly debased) silver pieces would continue to be issued during
Constantine's later reign and after his death, in a continuous process of
retariffing, until this billon minting eventually ceased, de jure, in
367, with the silver piece being de facto continued by various
denominations of bronze coins, the most important being the
centenionalis
. Later emperors like
Julian the Apostate
tried to present themselves
as advocates of the humiles by insisting on trustworthy mintings of the
bronze currency.
Constantine's monetary policy were closely associated with his religious
ones, in that increased minting was associated with measures of
confiscation—taken since 331 and closed in 336—of all gold, silver and bronze
statues from pagan temples, who were declared as imperial property and, as such,
as monetary assets. Two imperial commissioners for each province had the task of
getting hold of the statues and having them melded for immediate minting—with
the exception of a number of bronze statues who were used as public monuments
for the beautification of the new capital in Constantinople.
Later campaigns
Constantine considered Constantinople as his capital and permanent residence.
He lived there for a good portion of his later life. He rebuilt Trajan's bridge
across the Danube, in hopes of reconquering
Dacia
, a province that had been abandoned under
Aurelian. In the late winter of 332, Constantine campaigned with the
Sarmatians
against the
Goths
. The weather and lack of food cost the
Goths dearly: reportedly, nearly one hundred thousand died before they submitted
to Rome. In 334, after Sarmatian commoners had overthrown their leaders,
Constantine led a campaign against the tribe. He won a victory in the war and
extended his control over the region, as remains of camps and fortifications in
the region indicate.Constantine resettled some Sarmatian exiles as farmers in
Illyrian and Roman districts, and conscripted the rest into the army.
Constantine took the title Dacicus maximus in 336.
Sickness and death
Constantine had known death would soon come. Within the Church of the Holy
Apostles, Constantine had secretly prepared a final resting-place for himself.It
came sooner than he had expected. Soon after the Feast of Easter 337,
Constantine fell seriously ill. He left Constantinople for the hot baths near
his mother's city of Helenopolis (Altinova), on the southern shores of the Gulf
of İzmit. There, in a church his mother built in honor of Lucian the Apostle, he
prayed, and there he realized that he was dying. Seeking purification, he became
a catechumen
, and attempted a return to
Constantinople, making it only as far as a suburb of Nicomedia. He summoned the
bishops, and told them of his hope to be baptized in the
River Jordan
, where Christ was written to have
been baptized. He requested the baptism right away. The bishops, Eusebius
records, "performed the sacred ceremonies according to custom". He chose the
Arianizing bishop
Eusebius of Nicomedia
, bishop of the
city
where he lay dying, as his baptizer. In
postponing his baptism, he followed one custom at the time which postponed
baptism until after infancy. Constantine died soon after at a suburban villa
called Achyron, on the last day of the fifty-day festival of Pentecost directly
following Pascha (or Easter), on 22 May 337.
Following his death, his body was transferred to Constantinople and buried in
the
Church of the Holy Apostles
there. He was
succeeded by his three sons born of Fausta,
Constantine II
,
Constantius II
and
Constans
. A number of relatives were killed by
followers of Constantius, notably Constantine's nephews
Dalmatius
(who held the rank of Caesar) and
Hannibalianus
, presumably to eliminate possible
contenders to an already complicated succession. He also had two daughters,
Constantina
and
Helena
, wife of
Emperor Julian
.
Legacy
The Byzantine Empire considered Constantine its founder and the
Holy Roman Empire
reckoned him among the
venerable figures of its tradition. In the later Byzantine state, it had become
a great honor for an emperor to be hailed as a "new Constantine". Ten emperors,
including the last emperor of Byzantium, carried the name. Most Eastern
Christian churches consider Constantine a saint (Άγιος Κωνσταντίνος, Saint
Constantine). In the Byzantine Church he was called isapostolos (Ισαπόστολος
Κωνσταντίνος) —an
equal of the Apostles
.
Niš airport
is named Constantine the Great in
honor of his birth in Naissus. |
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In
Roman mythology
, Victoria was the personification/Goddess of victory.
She is the Roman version of the
Greek goddess
Nike
, and was associated with
Bellona
. She was adapted from the
Sabine
agricultural goddess
Vacuna
and had
a
temple
on the
Palatine Hill
. Her name (in Latin) means victory. Unlike the Greek Nike, Victoria (Latin
for "victory") was a major part of Roman society. Multiple temples were erected
in her honour. When her statue was removed in 382 AD by emperor
Gratianus
there was much anger in Rome. She was normally worshipped by
triumphant
generals returning from war. Also unlike the Greek Nike, who was known for success in athletic games such
as chariot races, Victoria was a symbol of victory over death and determined who
would be successful during war. Appearing on Roman coins, jewelry, architecture, and other arts, Victoria is
often seen with or in a
chariot
. An
example of this is her place upon the
Brandenburg Gate
in Berlin, Germany.
Flavius Valentinianus, known in English as
Valentinian I, (321
-
November
17
, 375
)
was Roman Emperor
from 364 until his death. Valentinian is often referred to as
the "last great western emperor".[1]
Both he and his brother Emperor
Valens
were
born at
Cibalae
(modern days
Vinkovci
,
Croatia
), in
Pannonia
,
the sons of a successful general,
Gratian the Elder
.
//
Life
He had been an officer who served under the emperors
Julian
and Jovian
, and had risen high in the imperial service. Of robust frame and
distinguished appearance, he possessed great courage and military capacity.
After the death of Jovian, he was chosen emperor in his forty-third year by the
officers of the army at
Nicaea
in Bithynia
on
February
26
, 364, and shortly afterwards named his brother
Valens
colleague with him in the empire.
The two brothers, after passing through the chief cities of
the neighbouring district, arranged the partition of the empire at
Naissus
(Nissa) in Upper
Moesia
. As
Western Roman Emperor, Valentinian took
Italia
,
Illyricum
, Hispania
, the Gauls
,
Britain
and
Africa
, leaving to
Eastern Roman Emperor
Valens the eastern half of the
Balkan peninsula
,
Greece
,
Aegyptus
,
Syria
and
Asia Minor
as far as
Persia
. They were immediately confronted by the revolt of
Procopius
, a relative of the deceased Julian. Valens defeated his army at
Thyatira
in Lydia
in 366, and Procopius was executed shortly afterwards.
During the short reign of Valentinian there were wars in
Africa, in Germany
, and in Britain, and
Rome came into
collision with
barbarian
peoples, specifically the
Burgundians
and the
Saxons
.
Valentinian's chief work was guarding the frontiers and
establishing military positions.
Milan
was at
first his headquarters for settling the affairs of northern Italy. The following
year (365) Valentinian was at
Paris
, and then
at
Reims
, to direct the operations of his generals against the
Alamanni
.
These people, defeated at Scarpona (Charpeigne) and Catelauni (Châlons-en-Champagne)
by Jovinus, were driven back to the German bank of the
Rhine
, and
checked for a while by a chain of military posts and fortresses. At the close of
367, however, they suddenly crossed the Rhine, attacked Moguntiacum (Mainz)
and plundered the city. Valentinian attacked them at Solicinium (Sulz
am Neckar, in the
Neckar
valley
, or
Schwetzingen
) with a large army, and defeated them with great slaughter. But
his own losses were so considerable that Valentinian abandoned the idea of
following up his success.
Later, in 371, Valentinian made peace with their king,
Macrian
, who
from that time remained a true friend of the
Romans
.
The next three years he spent at
Trier
, which he
chiefly made his headquarters, organizing the defence of the Rhine frontier, and
personally superintending the construction of numerous forts.
During his reign the coasts of Gaul were harassed by the
Saxon pirates, with whom the
Picts
and
Scots
of northern Britain joined hands, and ravaged the island from the
Antonine Wall
to the shores of
Kent. In 368
Count Theodosius
was sent to drive back the invaders; in this he was
completely successful, and established a new British province, called
Valentia
in honour of the emperor.
In Africa,
Firmus
raised the standard of revolt, being joined by the provincials, who
had been rendered desperate by the cruelty and extortions of
Comes
Romanus,
the military governor. The services of Theodosius were again requisitioned. He
landed in Africa with a small band of veterans, and Firmus, to avoid being taken
prisoner, committed suicide.
In 374, the
Quadi
, a
Germanic tribe
in what is now
Moravia
and
Slovakia
,
resenting the erection of Roman forts to the north of the
Danube
in what
they considered to be their own territory, and further exasperated by the
treacherous murder of their king,
Gabinius
,
crossed the river and laid waste the province of Pannonia. The emperor in April,
375 entered Illyricum with a powerful army. But during an audience to an embassy
from the Quadi at
Brigetio
on the Danube (near today Komárno in Slovakia), Valentinian
suffered a burst
blood
vessel
in the skull while angrily yelling at the people gathered. This
injury resulted in his death on November 17, 375.
Reputation
A.H.M. Jones
writes that though he was "less of a boor" than his chief rival
for election to the imperial throne, "he was of a violent and brutal temper, and
not only uncultivated himself, but hostile to cultivated persons", as
Ammianus
tells us, 'he hated the well-dressed and educated and wealthy and
well-born'. He was, however, an able soldier and a conscientious administrator,
and took an interest in the welfare of the humbler classes, from which his
father had risen. Unfortunately his good intentions were often frustrated by a
bad choice of ministers, and an obstinate belief in their merits despite all
evidence to the contrary."[2]
According to the
Encyclopædia Britannica 1911
, he was a founder of schools, and provided
medical attendance for the poor of
Rome, by appointing
a physician for each of the fourteen districts of the city.
Valentinian was a
Christian
but permitted liberal religious freedom to all his subjects, proscribing only
some forms of rituals such as particular types of sacrifices, and banning the
practice of magic. Against all abuses, both civil and ecclesiastical (excepting,
of course, his own excesses), Valentinian steadily set his face, even against
the increasing wealth and worldliness of the clergy. His chief flaw was his
temper, which at times was frightful, and showed itself in its full fierceness
in the punishment of persons accused of witchcraft, some kinds of
fortune-telling or magical practices." |
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| Flavius Iulius Constantius, known in English as Constantius II
(7 August 317 – November 3 361) was aRoman Emperor (337-361) of
theConstantinian dynasty. Constantius joins the lengthy list of emperors
whose career was marked by a seemingly endless series of wars both
domestic and foreign. He served as Caesar from 324 until his father's
death in 337 at which time he shared the title of Augustus with two
other brothers, Constantine II and Constans. To make sure no more
Johnny-come-latelies in his family would try their hand at being emperor
too it is thought that he engineered a bloodbath that left nary a
relative. Constantine II died in battle and Constans was murdered by the
men of Magnentius, the first of several usurpers. This left Constantius
finally as sole legitimate emperor and he moved quickly to suppress
Magnentius, an endeavor he eventually accomplished. The strife didn't
end there, however, as he still had to deal with other revolts and wars
on every corner of the empire. Caught in these never-ending battles he
died while on his way to battle Julian II. Flavius Iulius Constantius
was born atSirmium (nowSremska Mitrovica inSerbia) in province of
Pannonia, the third son ofConstantine the Great, and second by his
second wifeFausta, the daughter of Maximian. Constantius was madeCaesar
by his father on 13 November 324. When the elderConstantine died
atConstantinople on 22 May 337, Constantius was nearest of his sons to
that city, and despite being on campaign in the eastern provinces,
immediately returned to the city to oversee his father's funeral. The
Massacre of 337 The role of Constantius in the massacre of his relatives
(those descended from the second marriage of his paternal
grandfatherConstantius Chlorus andTheodora) is unclear.Zosimus, writing
498-518 claims that Constantius “caused” the soldiers to murder his
relatives, as opposed to actually ordering the action. Eutropius,
writing between 350 and 370, writes that Constantius merely sanctioned
“the act, rather than commanding it”. However, it must be noted that
both of these sources are hostile to Constantius - Zosimus being a
pagan,Eutropius a friend ofJulian, Constantius’ cousin and, ultimately,
his enemy. Whatever the case, Constantius himself, his older
brotherConstantine II, his younger brother Constans and three
cousins,Gallus, his half-brotherJulian andNepotianus, son ofEutropia,
were left as the only surviving males related to Constantine. Division
of the Empire Meeting at Sirmium not long after the massacre, the three
brothers proceeded to divide the Roman Empire among them, according to
their father's will. Constantine II receivedBritannia, Gaul and
Hispania; Constans (initially under the supervision of Constantine
II)Italia,Africa, Illyricum,Thrace,Macedon andAchaea; and Constantius
the East. Reign in the East There are few details of the early years of
Constantius' sole reign in the East. He seems to have spent most of his
time defending the eastern border against invasions by the
aggressiveSassanid Empire underShapur II. These conflicts seem to have
been mainly limited to Sassanid sieges of the various fortresses
(Nisibis,Singara, Constantia andAmida) of RomanMesopotamia, which
achieved little for either side. Although Shapur II seems to have been
victorious in most of the confrontations - except the Battle of
Narasara, where one ofShapur II's brothers, Narses, was killed - the
overall result must be considered a victory for Constantius
becauseShapur failed to make any significant gains. In the
meantime,Constantine II's desire to retain control ofConstans' realm had
lead Constantius' two surviving brothers into open conflict; resulting
in the death of the elder in 340. As a result, Constans took control of
his deceased elder brother’s realms and became sole ruler of the Western
two-thirds of the Empire. This division lasted until 350, when Constans
was killed in battle by forces loyal to theusurper Magnentius. War
against Magnentius This new state of affairs proved unacceptable to
Constantius, who felt that, as the only surviving son ofConstantine the
Great, the position ofEmperor was his alone. As such, he determined to
march west to enforce his claims. However, feeling that the east still
required some sort of imperial control, he elevated his
cousinConstantius Gallus to Caesar of the East. As an extra measure to
ensure the loyalty of his cousin, he married the elder of his two
sisters,Constantina, toGallus. Before facingMagnentius, Constantius
first came to terms withVetranio, a loyal Constantian general, who had
previously accepted the position of Augustus in order to retain the
loyalty of his troops, and probably to stop Magnentius from gaining more
support. This action may have been carried out at the urging of
Constantius’ own sister,Constantina, who had since traveled east to
marryGallus. Constantius for his own part had previously sentVetranio
the imperial diadem and acknowledged the general‘s new position.
However, when Constantius arrived,Vetranio willingly and gladly resigned
his position and accepted Constantius’ offer of a comfortable
retirement inBithynia. The following year, Constantius finally
metMagnentius in theBattle of Mursa Major, one of the bloodiest battles
in Roman history. The result was a defeat for the usurper, who withdrew
back to his Gaulish domains. As a result, the cities ofItaly switched
their allegiance to Constantius and ejected all ofMagnentius’ garrisons.
Constantius spent the early months of 352 on a campaign against
theSarmatians, before moving on to invadeItaly. When Constantius and
Magnentius finally met again, at theBattle of Mons Seleucus in southern
Gaul, Constantius once again emerged the victor. Soon after, Magnentius,
realising the futility of continuing his revolt, committed suicide 10
August 353. Sole Ruler of the Roman Empire Constantius spent much of the
rest of 353 and early 354 on campaign against theAlemanni on the
Danubian borders. The exact details of this campaign are uncertain,
though it seems to have ended with victory for Constantius. The Downfall
of Gallus In the meantime, Constantius had been receiving some
disturbing reports regarding the actions of his cousin,Gallus. Possibly
as a result of these reports, Constantius concluded a peace with
theAlemanni, and withdrew to Milan. Once there, he decided to first
callUrsicinus, Gallus’ magister equitum, to Milan for reasons that
remain unclear. Constantius then requested the presence ofGallus
andConstantina. Although at firstGallus andConstantina complied with
this order, whenConstantina died inBithynia,Gallus begun to hesitate.
However, after some convincing by one of Constantius’ agents, Gallus
continued his journey west, passing throughConstantinople andThrace to
Petobio in the province ofNoricum. It was there thatGallus was arrested
by the soldiers of Constantius under the command ofBarbatio. He was then
moved to Pola, and interrogated. Once there,Gallus claimed that it
wasConstantina who was to blame for all the trouble that had been caused
while he was in charge of the east. Apparently, at first, this so
greatly angered Constantius that he immediately ordered the death
ofGallus. However, soon after, he changed his mind, and recanted his
execution order. Unfortunately for Gallus, this order was delayed
byEusebius, one of Constantius‘ eunuchs, and, as a result,Gallus was
executed. More Usurpers and Julian Caesar On 11 August 355, themagister
militumClaudius Silvanus revolted in Gaul. Silvanus had surrendered to
Constantius after thebattle of Mursa Major. Constantius had made him
magister militum in 353, with the purpose of blocking the German
threats, a feat that Silvanus achieved by bribing the German tribes with
the money he had collected. A plot organized by members of Constantius'
court led the emperor to recall Silvanus. After Silvanus revolted, he
received a letter by Constantius that recalled him to Milan, but which
made no reference to the revolt.Ursicinus, who was meant to replace
Silvanus, bribed some troops, and Silvanus was killed. However,
Constantius realised that too many threats still faced the Empire, and
he could not possibly handle all of them by himself, so on 6 November
355, he elevated his last remaining relative, Julian, to the rank
ofCaesar. A few days later,Julian was married toHelena, the last
surviving sister of Constantius. Not long after Constantius sentJulian
off to Gaul. Constantius in the West and Return to the East Constantius
spent the next few years overseeing affairs in the western part of the
Empire primarily from his base atMilan. However, he also visited Rome -
for the first and only time in his life - in 357, and, in that same
year, he forced Sarmatian and Quadi invaders out ofPannonia and Moesia
Inferior, then led a successful campaign across the Danube against
theSarmatians and the Germanic Quadi tribe. Around 357/8, Constantius
received ambassadors fromShapur II, who demanded that Constantius
restore the lands surrendered byNarseh. Despite rejecting these terms,
Constantius still tried to avert war with theSassanid Empire by sending
two embassies toShapur II. As a result of Constantius' rejection of his
terms,Shapur II launched another invasion of Roman Mesopotamia. When
news reached Constantius that Shapur II had not only invaded Roman
territory, but takenAmida[46], destroyed Singara and taken Bezabde he
decided to return to there to face this re-emergent threat in 360. The
usurpation of Julian and Problems in the East In the meantime,Julian had
won some victories against theAlemanni tribe, who had once again
invadedRoman Gaul. As such, Constantius requested reinforcements
fromJulian for his own campaign against Shapur II. However, when he
requested reinforcements fromJulian’s Gaulish army, the Gaulish legions
revolted and proclaimedJulian Augustus. However, on account of the
immediate Sassanid threat, Constantius was unable to directly respond to
his cousin’s usurpation other than by sending missives by which he
tried to convince Julian to resign the title of Augustus and be
satisfied with that of Caesar. By 361, Constantius saw no alternative
but to face the usurper with violent force; and yet the threat of
theSassanids remained. Constantius had already spent part of early 361
unsuccessfully attempting to take the fortress ofBezabde. After a time,
he had withdrawn toAntioch to regroup, and prepare for a confrontation
withShapur II. However, as it turned out, the campaigns of the previous
year had inflicted such heavy losses on theSassanids that they did not
attempt another round of engagements in 361. This allowed Constantius to
turn his full attention to facing the usurpation ofJulian[55]. Death As
such, Constantius immediately gathered his forces and set off west.
However, by the time he reachedMopsuestia in Cicilia, it was clear that
he was fatally ill and would not survive to faceJulian. Apparently,
realising his death was near, Constantius had himself baptised by
Euzoius, theSemi-Arian bishop ofAntioch, and then declared that Julian
was his rightful successor. Constantius II died of fever on 3 November
361. Marriages and Children Constantius II was married three times:
First to adaughter of his half-uncleJulius Constantius, whose name is
unknown. She was a full-sister of Gallus and a half-sister of Julian.
She died c. 352/3. Second, to Eusebia, a woman ofMacedonian origin from
the city ofThessaloniki, whom he married before Constantius' defeat of
Magnentius in 353. She died in 360. Third and lastly, in 360, toFaustina
(empress), who gave birth to Constantius' only child, a posthumous
daughter namedFlavia Maxima Constantia, who later married
EmperorGratian. Religious Issues Constantius seems to have had a
particular interest in the religious state of theRoman Empire. As
aChristianRoman Emperor, Constantius made a concerted effort to
promoteChristianity at the expense ofRoman polytheism (‘paganism’). As
such, over the course of his reign, he issued a number of different
edicts designed specifically to carry out this agenda (see below).
Constantius also took an active part in attempting to shape the
Christian church. Paganism under Constantius In spite of the some of the
edicts issued by Constantius, it should be recognised that he was not
fanatically anti-pagan - he never made any attempt to disband the
various Roman priestly colleges or theVestal Virgins, he never acted
against the various pagan schools, and, at times, he actually even made
some effort to protect paganism. Also, most notably, he remainedpontifex
maximus until his death, and was actually deified by the Roman Senate
after his death. The relative moderation of Constantius' actions toward
paganism is reflected by the fact that it was not until over 20 years
after Constantius' death, during the reign ofGratian, that any pagan
senators protested their religion's treatment. Christianity under
Constantius Although often considered anArian, Constantius ultimately
preferred a third, compromise version that lay somewhere in between
Arianism and theNicaean Creed, retrospectively
calledSemi-Arianism[61][62]. As such, during his reign, Constantius made
a concerted attempt to mold the Christian church to follow this
compromise position, and to this end, he convened several Christian
councils during his reign, the most notable of which were one atRimini
and its twin atSeleuca, which met in 359 and 360 respectively.
"Unfortunately for his memory the theologians whose advice he took were
ultimately discredited and the malcontents whom he pressed to conform
emerged victorious," writes the historianA.H.M. Jones. "The great
councils of 359-60 are therefore not reckonedecumenical in the tradition
of the church, and Constantius II is not remembered as a restorer of
unity, but as aheretic who arbitrarily imposed his will on the church."
Judaism under Constantius Judaism faced some severe restrictions under
Constantius, who seems to have followed an anti-Jewish policy in line
with that of his father. Early in his reign, Constantius issued a double
edict in concert with his brothers limiting the ownership of slaves by
Jewish people and banning marriages between Jews and Christian women. A
later edict (issued by Constantius after becoming soleEmperor) decreed
that a person who was proven to have converted from Christianity to
Judaism would have their entire property confiscated by the state.
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