Nero - 54-68 A.D.
Caesar, 50-54 (Under Claudius)
| Son of Agrippina Junior (by Ahenobarbus) | Husband of Claudia Octavia, Poppaea and Statilia Messalina | Father of Claudia Neronis | Adopted son, grand-nephew, and successor of Claudius | Step-brother of Claudia Antonia, Britannicus and Claudia Octavia | Nephew of Caligula | Grandson of Germanicus and Agrippina Senior | Great-grandson of Agrippa, Julia, Nero Claudius Drusus and Antonia |
Nero (Latin: Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus;15
December 37 - 9 June 68) was Roman Emperor from 54 to 68, and the last
in the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Nero was adopted by his great uncle
Claudius to become his heir and successor, and succeeded to the throne
in 54 following Claudius' death.
During his reign, Nero
focused much of his attention on diplomacy, trade, and enhancing the
cultural life of the Empire. He ordered theaters built and promoted
athletic games. During his reign, the redoubtable general Corbulo
conducted a successful war and negotiated peace with the Parthian
Empire. His general Suetonius Paulinus crushed a revolt in Britain. Nero
annexed the Bosporan Kingdom to the Empire and began the First
Roman-Jewish War.
In 64, most of Rome was destroyed in the Great
Fire of Rome, which many Romans believed Nero himself had started in
order to clear land for his planned palatial complex, the Domus Aurea.
In 68, the rebellion of Vindex in Gaul and later the acclamation of
Galba in Hispania drove Nero from the throne. Facing assassination, he
committed suicide on 9 June 68 (the first Roman emperor to do so) His
death ended the Julio-Claudian Dynasty, sparking a brief period of civil
wars known as the Year of the Four Emperors. Nero's rule is often
associated with tyranny and extravagance. He is known for many
executions, including that of his mother, and the probable murder by
poison of his stepbrother Britannicus.
He is infamously known as
the Emperor who "fiddled while Rome burned" and as an early persecutor
of Christians. He was known for having captured Christians to burn them
in his garden at night for a source of light. This view is based on the
writings of Tacitus, Suetonius, and Cassius Dio, the main surviving
sources for Nero's reign. Few surviving sources paint Nero in a
favorable light. Some sources, though, including some mentioned above,
portray him as an emperor who was popular with the common Roman people,
especially in the East. Some modern historians question the reliability
of ancient sources when reporting on Nero's tyrannical acts.
Family
Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus,
the future Nero, was born on 15 December 37 in Antium, near Rome. He
was the only son of Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Agrippina the
Younger, sister of Emperor Caligula.
Nero's father Gnaeus was the
son of Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus (consul 16 BC) and Antonia Major.
Gnaeus was thus the grandson of Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus (consul 32
BC) and probably Aemilia Lepida on his father's side, and the grandson
of Mark Antony and Octavia Minor on his mother's side. Thus, Nero had as
his paternal grandmother Antonia Maior, and also claimed more remote
descent from Antonia Minor as a great-grandson-later grandson after
Claudius adopted him.
Through Octavia, Nero was the grandnephew of
Caesar Augustus. Nero's father had been employed as a praetor and was a
member of Caligula's staff when the latter traveled to the East (some
apparently think Suetonius refers to Augustus' adopted son Gaius Caesar
here, but this is not likely).
Nero's father was described by
Suetonius as a murderer and a cheat who was charged by Emperor Tiberius
with treason, adultery, and incest. Tiberius died, allowing him to
escape these charges. Nero's father died of edema ("dropsy") in 39 when
Nero was two.
Nero's mother was Agrippina the Younger, a
great-granddaughter of Caesar Augustus and his wife Scribonia through
their daughter Julia the Elder and her husband Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa.
Agrippina's father, Germanicus, was a grandson of Augustus's wife,
Livia, on one side and to Mark Antony and Octavia on the other.
Germanicus' mother Antonia Minor, was a daughter of Octavia Minor and
Mark Antony. Octavia was Augustus' elder sister. Germanicus was also the
adopted son of Tiberius. Agrippina poisoned her second husband
Passienus Crispus, so many ancient historians also accuse her of
murdering her third husband, the emperor Claudius.
Rise to power
Coin issued under Claudius celebrating young Nero as the future emperor, c. 50.
Nero
was not expected to become Emperor because his maternal uncle,
Caligula, had begun his reign at the age of 25 with enough time to
produce his own heir. Nero's mother, Agrippina, lost favor with Caligula
and was exiled in 39 after her husband's death. Caligula seized Nero's
inheritance and sent him to be raised by his less wealthy aunt, Domitia
Lepida, who was the mother of Valeria Messalina, Claudius's third wife.
Caligula,
his wife Caesonia and their infant daughter Julia Drusilla were
murdered on 24 January 41. These events led Claudius, Caligula's uncle,
to become emperor. Claudius allowed Agrippina to return from exile.
Claudius
had married twice before marrying Valeria Messalina. His previous
marriages produced three children including a son, Drusus, who died at a
young age. He had two children with Messalina - Claudia Octavia (born
40) and Britannicus (born 41). Messalina was executed by Claudius in the
year 48.
In 49 AD, Claudius married a fourth time, to Nero's
mother Agrippina. To aid Claudius politically, young Nero was adopted in
50 and took the name Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus . Nero was older than his stepbrother Britannicus, and thus became heir to the throne.
Nero
was proclaimed an adult in 51 at the age of 14. He was appointed
proconsul, entered and first addressed the Senate, made joint public
appearances with Claudius, and was featured in coinage. In 53, he
married his stepsister Claudia Octavia.
Emperor (54 AD)
Early rule
Nero
and Agrippina. Agrippina crowns her young son Nero with a laurel
wreath. She carries a cornucopia, symbol of fortune and plenty, and he
wears the armour and cloak of a Roman commander, with a helmet on the
ground at his feet. The scene refers to Nero's accession as emperor in
54 AD and is dated before 59 AD when Nero had Agrippina murdered.
Claudius died in 54 and Nero, taking the name Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus,
was established as Emperor. Though accounts vary, many ancient
historians state Agrippina poisoned Claudius. According to Pliny the
Elder, she used poison mushrooms. It is not known how much Nero knew or
if he was even involved in the death of Claudius.
Suetonius wrote
"...for even if he was not the instigator of the emperor's death, he was
at least privy to it, as he openly admitted; for he used afterwards to
laud mushrooms, the vehicle in which the poison was administered to
Claudius, as "the food of the gods," as the Greek proverb has it. At any
rate, after Claudius' death he vented on him every kind of insult, in
act and word, charging him now with folly and now with cruelty; for it
was a favourite joke of his to say that Claudius had ceased "to play the
fool among mortals, lengthening the first syllable of the word morari,
and he disregarded many of his decrees and acts as the work of a madman
and a dotard. Finally, he neglected to enclose the place where his body
was burned except with a low and mean wall."Nero became Emperor at 17
when the news of Claudius' death was made known,the youngest emperor
until that time. Ancient historians describe Nero's early reign as being
strongly influenced by his mother, Agrippina, his tutor Lucius Annaeus
Seneca, and the Praetorian Prefect Sextus Afranius Burrus, especially in
the first year. Other tutors were less often mentioned, such as
Alexander of Aegae.
Very early in Nero's rule, problems arose from
competition for influence between Agrippina and Nero's two main
advisers, Seneca and Burrus.
In 54, Agrippina tried to sit down
next to Nero while he met with an Armenian envoy, but Seneca stopped her
and prevented a scandalous scene (as it was unimaginable at that time
for a woman to be in the same room as men doing official business).
Nero's friends also mistrusted Agrippina and told Nero to beware of his
mother.
Nero was reportedly unsatisfied with his marriage to
Octavia and entered into an affair with Claudia Acte, a former slave. In
55, Agrippina attempted to intervene in favor of Octavia and demanded
that her son dismiss Acte. Nero, with the support of Seneca, resisted
the intervention of his mother in his personal affairs.
With
Agrippina's influence over her son severed, she reportedly began pushing
for Britannicus, Nero's stepbrother, to become emperor. Nearly
fifteen-year-old Britannicus, heir-designate prior to Nero's adoption,
was still legally a minor, but was approaching legal adulthood.
According to Tacitus, Agrippina hoped that with her support,
Britannicus, being the blood son of Claudius, would be seen as the true
heir to the throne by the state over Nero. However, the youth died
suddenly and suspiciously on 12 February 55, the very day before his
proclamation as an adult had been set.
Nero claimed that
Britannicus died from an epileptic seizure, but ancient historians all
claim Britannicus' death came from Nero's poisoning him. Supposedly, he
enlisted the services of Locusta, a woman who specialized in the
manufacture of poisons. She devised a mixture to kill Britannicus, but
after testing it unsuccessfully on a slave, Nero angrily threatened to
have her put to death if she did not come up with something usable.
Locusta then devised a new concoction that she promised would "kill
swifter than a viper."
Her promise was fulfilled after Britannicus
consumed it at a dinner party from water used to cool his wine, which
had already been tasted, and succumbed within minutes. After the death
of Britannicus, Agrippina was accused of slandering Octavia and Nero
ordered her out of the imperial residence.
Matricide and consolidation of power
Coin of Nero and Poppaea Sabina
Over
time, Nero became progressively more powerful, freeing himself of his
advisers and eliminating rivals to the throne. In 55, he removed Marcus
Antonius Pallas, an ally of Agrippina, from his position in the
treasury. Pallas, along with Burrus, was accused of conspiring against
the Emperor to bring Faustus Sulla to the throne. Seneca was accused of
having relations with Agrippina and embezzlement. Seneca succeeded in
having himself, Pallas and Burrus acquitted. According to Cassius Dio,
at this time, Seneca and Burrus reduced their role in governing from
careful management to mere moderation of Nero.
In 58, Nero became
romantically involved with Poppaea Sabina, the wife of his friend and
future emperor Otho. Reportedly because a marriage to Poppaea and a
divorce from Octavia did not seem politically feasible with Agrippina
alive, Nero ordered the murder of his mother in 59. A number of modern
historians find this an unlikely motive as Nero did not marry Poppaea
until 62 .
Additionally, according to Suetonius, Poppaea did not
divorce her husband until after Agrippina's death, making it unlikely
that the already married Poppaea would be pressing Nero for marriage.
Some modern historians theorize that Nero's execution of Agrippina was
prompted by her plotting to set Rubellius Plautus on the throne.
According to Suetonius, Nero tried to kill his mother through a planned
shipwreck, which took the life of her friend, Acerronia Polla, but when
Agrippina survived, he had her executed and framed it as a suicide. The
incident is also recorded by Tacitus.
The Remorse of the Emperor Nero after the Murder of his Mother, by John William Waterhouse, 1878.
In
62, Nero's adviser, Burrus, died. Additionally, Seneca was again faced
with embezzlement charges. Seneca asked Nero for permission to retire
from public affairs. Nero divorced and banished Octavia on grounds of
infertility, leaving him free to marry the pregnant Poppaea. After
public protests, Nero was forced to allow Octavia to return from exile,
but she was executed shortly after her return.
Nero also was
reported to have kicked Poppaea to death in 65 before she could have his
second child. However, modern historians, noting Suetonius, Tacitus and
Cassius Dio's possible bias against Nero and the likelihood that they
did not have eyewitness accounts of private events, postulate that
Poppaea may have died because of complications of miscarriage or
childbirth.
Accusations of treason being plotted against Nero and
the Senate first appeared in 62. The Senate ruled that Antistius, a
praetor, should be put to death for speaking ill of Nero at a party.
Later, Nero ordered the exile of Fabricius Veiento who slandered the
Senate in a book. Tacitus writes that the roots of the conspiracy led by
Gaius Calpurnius Piso began in this year. To consolidate power, Nero
executed a number of people in 62 and 63 including his rivals Pallas,
Rubellius Plautus and Faustus Sulla. According to Suetonius, Nero
"showed neither discrimination nor moderation in putting to death
whomsoever he pleased" during this period.
Nero's consolidation of
power also included a slow usurping of authority from the Senate. In
54, Nero promised to give the Senate powers equivalent to those under
Republican rule. By 65, senators complained that they had no power left
and this led to the Pisonian conspiracy.
Other relationships
When
Nero's wife Poppaea Sabina died in 65, Nero went into deep mourning.
Her body was not cremated, it was stuffed with spices, embalmed and put
in the Mausoleum of Augustus. She was given a state funeral. Nero
praised her during the funeral eulogy and gave her divine honors. It is
said that Nero "burned ten years' worth of Arabia's incense production
at her funeral.
In the beginning of 66, he married Statilia
Messalina. She was already married when she became Nero's mistress in 65
AD, with Statilia's husband being driven to suicide in 66, so Nero
could marry Statilia. She was one of the few of Nero's courtiers who
survived the fall of his reign.
In 67, Nero ordered a young
freedman, Sporus, to be castrated and then married him. According to
Dion Cassius, Sporus bore an uncanny resemblance to Sabina, and Nero
even called him by his dead wife's name.
Administrative policies
Over
the course of his reign, Nero often made rulings that pleased the lower
class. Nero was criticized as being obsessed with personal popularity.
Nero
began his reign in 54 by promising the Senate more autonomy. In this
first year, he forbade others to refer to him with regard to enactments,
for which he was praised by the Senate. Nero was known for spending his
time visiting brothels and taverns during this period.
In 55,
Nero began taking on a more active role as an administrator. He was
consul four times between 55 and 60. During this period, some ancient
historians speak fairly well of Nero and contrast it with his later
rule.
Under Nero, restrictions were put on the amount of bail and
fines. Also, fees for lawyers were limited. There was a discussion in
the Senate on the misconduct of the freedmen class, and a strong demand
was made that patrons should have the right of revoking freedom. Nero
supported the freedmen and ruled that patrons had no such right.
The
Senate tried to pass a law in which the crimes of one slave applied to
all slaves within a household. Despite riots from the people, Nero
supported the Senate on their measure, and deployed troops to organise
the execution of 400 slaves affected by the law. However, he vetoed
strong measures against the freedmen affected by the case.
After
tax collectors were accused of being too harsh to the poor, Nero
transferred collection authority to lower commissioners. Nero banned any
magistrate or procurator from exhibiting public entertainment for fear
that the venue was being used as a method to sway the populace.
Additionally, there were many impeachments and removals of government
officials along with arrests for extortion and corruption.
When
further complaints arose that the poor were being overly taxed, Nero
attempted to repeal all indirect taxes. The Senate convinced him this
action would bankrupt the public treasury. As a compromise, taxes were
cut from 4.5% to 2.5%. Additionally, secret government tax records were
ordered to become public. To lower the cost of food imports, merchant
ships were declared tax-exempt.
In imitation of the Greeks, Nero
built a number of gymnasiums and theatres. Enormous gladiatorial shows
were also held. Nero also established the quinquennial Neronia. The
festival included games, poetry, and theater. Historians indicate that
there was a belief that theatre led to immorality. Others considered
that to have performers dressed in Greek clothing was old fashioned.
Some questioned the large public expenditure on entertainment.
In
64, Rome burned. Nero enacted a public relief effort as well as
significant reconstruction. A number of other major construction
projects occurred in Nero's late reign. Nero had the marshes of Ostia
filled with rubble from the fire. He erected the large Domus Aurea. In
67, Nero attempted to have a canal dug at the Isthmus of Corinth.
Ancient historians state that these projects and others exacerbated the
drain on the State's budget.
The cost to rebuild Rome was immense,
requiring funds the state treasury did not have. Nero devalued the
Roman currency for the first time in the Empire's history. He reduced
the weight of the denarius from 84 per Roman pound to 96 (3.85 grams to
3.35 grams). He also reduced the silver purity from 99.5% to 93.5%-the
silver weight dropping from 3.83 grams to 3.4 grams. Furthermore, Nero
reduced the weight of the aureus from 40 per Roman pound to 45 (8 grams
to 7.2 grams).
Between 62 and 67, according to Plinius the Elder
and Seneca, Nero promoted an expedition to discover the sources of the
Nile River. It was the first exploration of equatorial Africa from
Europe in history. However, Nero's expedition up the Nile failed because
water plants had clogged the river, denying Nero's vessels access to
the Sudd of Nubia.
The economic policy of Nero is a point of
debate among scholars. According to ancient historians, Nero's
construction projects were overly extravagant and the large number of
expenditures under Nero left Italy "thoroughly exhausted by
contributions of money" with "the provinces ruined." Modern historians,
though, note that the period was riddled with deflation and that it is
likely that Nero's spending came in the form of public works projects
and charity intended to ease economic troubles.
Great Fire of Rome (64 AD)
The
Great Fire of Rome erupted on the night of 18 July to 19 July 64. The
fire started at the southeastern end of the Circus Maximus in shops
selling flammable goods.
Artwork depicting the Great Fire of Rome.
The
extent of the fire is uncertain. According to Tacitus, who was nine at
the time of the fire, it spread quickly and burned for over five days.
It destroyed three of fourteen Roman districts and severely damaged
seven. The only other historian who lived through the period and
mentioned the fire is Pliny the Elder, who wrote about it in passing.
Other historians who lived through the period (including Josephus, Dio
Chrysostom, Plutarch, and Epictetus) make no mention of it in what
remains of their work.
It is uncertain who or what actually caused
the fire-whether accident or arson. Suetonius and Cassius Dio favor
Nero as the arsonist, so he could build a palatial complex. Tacitus
mentions that Christians confessed to the crime, but it is not known
whether these confessions were induced by torture. However, accidental
fires were common in ancient Rome. In fact, Rome suffered another large
fire in 69 and in 80.
It was said by Suetonius and Cassius Dio
that Nero sang the "Sack of Ilium" in stage costume while the city
burned. Popular legend claims that Nero played the fiddle at the time of
the fire, an anachronism based merely on the concept of the lyre, a
stringed instrument associated with Nero and his performances. (There
were no fiddles in 1st-century Rome.) Tacitus's account, however, has
Nero in Antium at the time of the fire. Tacitus also said that Nero
playing his lyre and singing while the city burned was only rumor.
According
to Tacitus, upon hearing news of the fire, Nero returned to Rome to
organize a relief effort, which he paid for from his own funds. Nero's
contributions to the relief extended to personally taking part in the
search for and rescue of victims of the blaze, spending days searching
the debris without even his bodyguards. After the fire, Nero opened his
palaces to provide shelter for the homeless, and arranged for food
supplies to be delivered in order to prevent starvation among the
survivors.
In the wake of the fire, he made a new urban
development plan. Houses after the fire were spaced out, built in brick,
and faced by porticos on wide roads. Nero also built a new palace
complex known as the Domus Aurea in an area cleared by the fire. This
included lush artificial landscapes and a 30-meter-tall statue of
himself, the Colossus of Nero. The size of this complex is debated (from
100 to 300 acres). To find the necessary funds for the reconstruction,
tributes were imposed on the provinces of the empire.
Tacitus
notes that the population searched for a scapegoat and rumors held Nero
responsible. To deflect blame, Nero targeted Christians. He ordered
Christians to be thrown to dogs, while others were crucified and burned.
Public performances
Nero
enjoyed driving a one-horse chariot, singing to the lyre, and poetry.
He even composed songs that were performed by other entertainers
throughout the empire. At first, Nero only performed for a private
audience.
In 64 AD., Nero began singing in public in Neapolis in
order to improve his popularity. He also sang at the second quinquennial
Neronia in 65. It was said that Nero craved the attention, but
historians also write that Nero was encouraged to sing and perform in
public by the Senate, his inner circle and the people. Ancient
historians strongly criticize his choice to perform, calling it
shameful.
Nero was convinced to participate in the Olympic Games
of 67 in order to improve relations with Greece and display Roman
dominance. As a competitor, Nero raced a ten-horse chariot and nearly
died after being thrown from it. He also performed as an actor and a
singer. Though Nero faltered in his racing (in one case, dropping out
entirely before the end) and acting competitions, he won these crowns
nevertheless and paraded them when he returned to Rome. The victories
are attributed to Nero bribing the judges and his status as emperor.
War and peace with Parthia
Shortly
after Nero's accession to the throne in 54, the Roman vassal kingdom of
Armenia overthrew their Iberian prince Rhadamistus and he was replaced
with the Parthian prince Tiridates. This was seen as a Parthian invasion
of Roman territory. There was concern in Rome over how the young
Emperor would handle the situation. Nero reacted by immediately sending
the military to the region under the command of Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo.
The Parthians temporarily relinquished control of Armenia to Rome.
The
peace did not last and full-scale war broke out in 58. The Parthian
king Vologases I refused to remove his brother Tiridates from Armenia.
The Parthians began a full-scale invasion of the Armenian kingdom.
Commander Corbulo responded and repelled most of the Parthian army that
same year. Tiridates retreated and Rome again controlled most of
Armenia.
Nero was acclaimed in public for this initial victory.
Tigranes, a Cappadocian noble raised in Rome, was installed by Nero as
the new ruler of Armenia. Corbulo was appointed governor of Syria as a
reward.
In 62, Tigranes invaded the Parthian province of Adiabene.
Again, Rome and Parthia were at war and this continued until 63.
Parthia began building up for a strike against the Roman province of
Syria. Corbulo tried to convince Nero to continue the war, but Nero
opted for a peace deal instead. There was anxiety in Rome about eastern
grain supplies and a budget deficit.
The result was a deal where
Tiridates again became the Armenian king, but was crowned in Rome by
Emperor Nero. In the future, the king of Armenia was to be a Parthian
prince, but his appointment required approval from the Romans. Tiridates
was forced to come to Rome and partake in ceremonies meant to display
Roman dominance.
This peace deal of 63 was a considerable victory
for Nero politically. Nero became very popular in the eastern provinces
of Rome and with the Parthians as well. The peace between Parthia and
Rome lasted 50 years until Emperor Trajan of Rome invaded Armenia in
114.
Other major power struggles and rebellions
A plaster bust of Nero, Pushkin Museum, Moscow.
The
war with Parthia was not Nero's only major war but he was both
criticized and praised for an aversion to battle. Like many emperors,
Nero faced a number of rebellions and power struggles within the empire.
British Revolt of 60-61 (Boudica's Uprising)In
60, a major rebellion broke out in the province of Britannia. While the
governor Gaius Suetonius Paullinus and his troops were busy capturing
the island of Mona (Anglesey) from the druids, the tribes of the
southeast staged a revolt led by queen Boudica of the Iceni. Boudica and
her troops destroyed three cities before the army of Paullinus could
return, receive reinforcements, and quell the rebellion in 61. Fearing
Paullinus himself would provoke further rebellion, Nero replaced him
with the more passive Publius Petronius Turpilianus.
The Pisonian Conspiracy of 65In
65, Gaius Calpurnius Piso, a Roman statesman, organized a conspiracy
against Nero with the help of Subrius Flavus and Sulpicius Asper, a
tribune and a centurion of the Praetorian Guard. According to Tacitus,
many conspirators wished to "rescue the state" from the emperor and
restore the Republic. The freedman Milichus discovered the conspiracy
and reported it to Nero's secretary, Epaphroditos. As a result, the
conspiracy failed and its members were executed including Lucan, the
poet. Nero's previous advisor, Seneca was ordered to commit suicide
after admitting he discussed the plot with the conspirators.
The First Jewish War of 66-70In
66, there was a Jewish revolt in Judea stemming from Greek and Jewish
religious tension. In 67, Nero dispatched Vespasian to restore order.
This revolt was eventually put down in 70, after Nero's death. This
revolt is famous for Romans breaching the walls of Jerusalem and
destroying the Second Temple of Jerusalem.
The revolt of Vindex and Galba and the death of Nero
In
March 68, Gaius Julius Vindex, the governor of Gallia Lugdunensis,
rebelled against Nero's tax policies. Lucius Verginius Rufus, the
governor of Germania Superior, was ordered to put down Vindex's
rebellion. In an attempt to gain support from outside his own province,
Vindex called upon Servius Sulpicius Galba, the governor of Hispania
Tarraconensis, to join the rebellion and further, to declare himself
emperor in opposition to Nero.
At the Battle of Vesontio in May
68, Verginius' forces easily defeated those of Vindex and the latter
committed suicide. However, after putting down this one rebel,
Verginius' legions attempted to proclaim their own commander as Emperor.
Verginius refused to act against Nero, but the discontent of the
legions of Germany and the continued opposition of Galba in Spain did
not bode well for Nero.
While Nero had retained some control of
the situation, support for Galba increased despite his being officially
declared a public enemy. The prefect of the Praetorian Guard, Gaius
Nymphidius Sabinus, also abandoned his allegiance to the Emperor and
came out in support for Galba.
In response, Nero fled Rome with
the intention of going to the port of Ostia and, from there, to take a
fleet to one of the still-loyal eastern provinces. However, he abandoned
the idea when some army officers openly refused to obey his commands,
responding with a line from Vergil's Aeneid: "Is it so dreadful a
thing then to die?" Nero then toyed with the idea of fleeing to
Parthia, throwing himself upon the mercy of Galba, or to appeal to the
people and beg them to pardon him for his past offences "and if he could
not soften their hearts, to entreat them at least to allow him the
prefecture of Egypt". Suetonius reports that the text of this speech was
later found in Nero's writing desk, but that he dared not give it from
fear of being torn to pieces before he could reach the Forum.
Nero
returned to Rome and spent the evening in the palace. After sleeping,
he awoke at about midnight to find the palace guard had left.
Dispatching messages to his friends' palace chambers for them to come,
he received no answers. Upon going to their chambers personally, he
found them all abandoned. When he called for a gladiator or anyone else
adept with a sword to kill him, no one appeared. He cried, "Have I
neither friend nor foe?" and ran out as if to throw himself into the
Tiber.
Returning, Nero sought for some place where he could hide
and collect his thoughts. An imperial freedman, Phaon, offered his
villa, located 4 miles outside the city. Travelling in disguise, Nero
and four loyal freedman, Epaphroditos, Phaon, Neophytus, and Sporus,
reached the villa, where Nero ordered them to dig a grave for him. At
this time, a courier arrived with a report that the Senate had declared
Nero a public enemy and that it was their intention to execute him by
beating him to death.
At this news, Nero prepared himself for
suicide. Losing his nerve, he first begged for one of his companions to
set an example by first killing himself. At last, the sound of
approaching horsemen drove Nero to face the end. However, he still could
not bring himself to take his own life but instead he forced his
private secretary, Epaphroditos, to perform the task. Nero's famous
dying words were "Qualis artifex pereo," which translates into English
as "What an artist dies in me!"
Events and revolts leading up to Nero's death are portrayed in the 1951 film, Quo Vadis, with Peter Ustinov playing Nero.
When
one of the horsemen entered, upon his seeing Nero all but dead he
attempted to stop the bleeding in vain. Nero died on 9 June 68, the
anniversary of the death of Octavia, and was buried in the Mausoleum of
the Domitii Ahenobarbi, in what is now the Villa Borghese (Pincian Hill)
area of Rome.
With his death, the Julio-Claudian dynasty ended. Chaos ensued in the year of the Four Emperors.
Post Mortem
According
to Suetonius and Cassius Dio, the people of Rome celebrated the death
of Nero.Tacitus, though, describes a more complicated political
environment. Tacitus mentions that Nero's death was welcomed by
Senators, nobility and the upper class. The lower-class, slaves,
frequenters of the arena and the theater, and "those who were supported
by the famous excesses of Nero", on the other hand, were upset with the
news. Members of the military were said to have mixed feelings, as they
had allegiance to Nero, but were bribed to overthrow him.
Eastern
sources, namely Philostratus II and Apollonius of Tyana, mention that
Nero's death was mourned as he "restored the liberties of Hellas with a
wisdom and moderation quite alien to his character" and that he "held
our liberties in his hand and respected them."
Modern scholarship
generally holds that, while the Senate and more well-off individuals
welcomed Nero's death, the general populace was "loyal to the end and
beyond, for Otho and Vitellius both thought it worthwhile to appeal to
their nostalgia."
Nero's name was erased from some monuments, in
what Edward Champlin regards as an "outburst of private zeal". Many
portraits of Nero were reworked to represent other figures; according to
Eric R. Varner, over fifty such images survive. This reworking of
images is often explained as part of the way in which the memory of
disgraced emperors was condemned posthumously (see damnatio memoriae).
Champlin, however, doubts that the practice is necessarily negative and
notes that some continued to create images of Nero long after his death.
The
civil war during the year of the Four Emperors was described by ancient
historians as a troubling period. According to Tacitus, this
instability was rooted in the fact that emperors could no longer rely on
the perceived legitimacy of the imperial bloodline, as Nero and those
before him could. Galba began his short reign with the execution of many
allies of Nero and possible future enemies. One such notable enemy
included Nymphidius Sabinus, who claimed to be the son of Emperor
Caligula.
Otho overthrew Galba. Otho was said to be liked by many
soldiers because he had been a friend of Nero's and resembled him
somewhat in temperament. It was said that the common Roman hailed Otho
as Nero himself. Otho used "Nero" as a surname and reerected many
statues to Nero. Vitellius overthrew Otho. Vitellius began his reign
with a large funeral for Nero complete with songs written by Nero.
After
Nero's suicide in 68, there was a widespread belief, especially in the
eastern provinces, that he was not dead and somehow would return. This
belief came to be known as the Nero Redivivus Legend.
The legend
of Nero's return lasted for hundreds of years after Nero's death.
Augustine of Hippo wrote of the legend as a popular belief in 422.
At
least three Nero imposters emerged leading rebellions. The first, who
sang and played the cithara or lyre and whose face was similar to that
of the dead emperor, appeared in 69 during the reign of Vitellius. After
persuading some to recognize him, he was captured and executed.
Sometime during the reign of Titus (79-81), another impostor appeared in
Asia and sang to the accompaniment of the lyre and looked like Nero but
he, too, was killed. Twenty years after Nero's death, during the reign
of Domitian, there was a third pretender. He was supported by the
Parthians, who only reluctantly gave him up, and the matter almost came
to war.
Physical appearance
In his book The Lives of the Twelve Caesars,
Suetonius describes Nero as "about the average height, his body marked
with spots and malodorous, his hair light blond, his features regular
rather than attractive, his eyes blue and somewhat weak, his neck over
thick, his belly prominent, and his legs very slender."
Historiography
The
history of Nero's reign is problematic in that no historical sources
survived that were contemporary with Nero. These first histories at one
time did exist and were described as biased and fantastical, either
overly critical or praising of Nero. The original sources were also said
to contradict on a number of events. Nonetheless, these lost primary
sources were the basis of surviving secondary and tertiary histories on
Nero written by the next generations of historians.
A few of the
contemporary historians are known by name. Fabius Rusticus, Cluvius
Rufus and Pliny the Elder all wrote condemning histories on Nero that
are now lost. There were also pro-Nero histories, but it is unknown who
wrote them or for what deeds Nero was praised.
The bulk of what is
known of Nero comes from Tacitus, Suetonius and Cassius Dio, who were
all of the senatorial class. Tacitus and Suetonius wrote their histories
on Nero over fifty years after his death, while Cassius Dio wrote his
history over 150 years after Nero's death. These sources contradict on a
number of events in Nero's life including the death of Claudius, the
death of Agrippina, and the Roman fire of 64, but they are consistent in
their condemnation of Nero.
Nero and religion
Jewish tradition
At
the end of 66, conflict broke out between Greeks and Jews in Jerusalem
and Caesarea. According to the Talmud, Nero went to Jerusalem and shot
arrows in all four directions. All the arrows landed in the city. He
then asked a passing child to repeat the verse he had learned that day.
The child responded, "I will lay my vengeance upon Edom by the hand of
my people Israel" (Ez. 25,14). Nero became terrified, believing that God
wanted the Temple in Jerusalem to be destroyed, but would punish the
one to carry it out. Nero said, "He desires to lay waste His House and
to lay the blame on me," whereupon he fled and converted to Judaism to
avoid such retribution. Vespasian was then dispatched to put down the
rebellion.
The Talmud adds that the sage Reb Meir Baal HaNess, a
prominent supporter of the Bar Kokhba rebellion against Roman rule, was a
descendant of Nero.
Roman and Greek sources nowhere report Nero's
alleged trip to Jerusalem or his alleged conversion to Judaism. There
is also no record of Nero having any offspring who survived infancy: his
only recorded child, Claudia Augusta, died aged 4 months.
Christian tradition
Christian
tradition and secular historical sources hold Nero as the first major
state sponsor of Christian persecution, and sometimes as the killer of
Apostles Peter and Paul. Some 2nd- and 3rd-century theologians, among
others, recorded their belief that Nero would return from death or
exile, usually as "the Anti-Christ. He is also seen as one of the most
savage persecutors of Christians."
First persecutor
Non-Christian
historian Tacitus describes Nero extensively torturing and executing
Christians after the fire of 64. Suetonius also mentions Nero punishing
Christians, though he does so as a praise and does not connect it with
the fire.
Christian writer Tertullian (c. 155-230) was the first
to call Nero the first persecutor of Christians. He wrote, "Examine your
records. There you will find that Nero was the first that persecuted
this doctrine". Lactantius (c. 240-320) also said that Nero "first
persecuted the servants of God". as does Sulpicius Severus. However,
Suetonius writes that, "since the Jews constantly made disturbances at
the instigation of Chrestus, he [emperor Claudius] expelled them from
Rome" ("Iudaeos impulsore Chresto assidue tumultuantis Roma expulit").
These expelled "Jews" may have been early Christians, although
Suetonius is not explicit. Nor is the Bible explicit, calling Aquila of
Pontus and his wife, Priscilla, both expelled from Italy at the time,
"Jews."
Killer of Peter and Paul
The first text to suggest that Nero killed an apostle is the apocryphal Ascension of Isaiah, a Christian writing from the 2nd century. It says, the
slayer of his mother, who himself this king, will persecute the plant
which the Twelve Apostles of the Beloved have planted. Of the Twelve one
will be delivered into his hands.
Bishop Eusebius of Caesarea
(c. 275-339) was the first to write that Paul was beheaded in Rome
during the reign of Nero. He states that Nero's persecution led to Peter
and Paul's deaths, but that Nero did not give any specific orders.
Several other accounts have Paul surviving his two years in Rome and
traveling to Hispania.
Peter is first said to have been crucified
upside-down in Rome during Nero's reign (but not by Nero) in the
apocryphal Acts of Peter (c. 200). The account ends with Paul still
alive and Nero abiding by God's command not to persecute any more
Christians.
By the 4th century, a number of writers were stating that Nero killed Peter and Paul.
The Antichrist
The Ascension of Isaiah
is the first text to suggest that Nero was the Antichrist. It claims
that a "lawless king, the slayer of his mother...will come and there
will come with him all the powers of this world, and they will hearken
unto him in all that he desires."
The Sibylline Oracles, Book 5
and 8, written in the 2nd century, speak of Nero returning and bringing
destruction. Within Christian communities, these writings, along with
others, fueled the belief that Nero would return as the Antichrist. In
310, Lactantius wrote that Nero suddenly disappeared, and even the
burial-place of that noxious wild beast was nowhere to be seen. This has
led some persons of extravagant imagination to suppose that, having
been conveyed to a distant region, he is still reserved alive; and to
him they apply the Sibylline verses.
In 422, Augustine of
Hippo wrote about 2 Thessalonians 2:1-11, where he believed Paul
mentioned the coming of the Antichrist. Though he rejects the theory,
Augustine mentions that many Christians believed that Nero was the
Antichrist or would return as the Antichrist. He wrote, so that in
saying, "For the mystery of iniquity doth already work," he alluded to
Nero, whose deeds already seemed to be as the deeds of Antichrist.
Some
modern biblical scholars such as Delbert Hillers (Johns Hopkins
University) of the American Schools of Oriental Research and the editors
of the Oxford & Harper Collins Study Bibles, contend that the
number 666 in the Book of Revelation is a code for Nero, a view that is
also supported in Roman Catholic Biblical commentaries.
The concept of Nero as the Antichrist is often a central belief of Preterist eschatology.