Nelson Rockefeller
Nelson Aldrich Rockefeller (July
8, 1908 – January 26, 1979), sometimes referred to by his nickname Rocky,[1] was an American businessman and politician who
served as the 41st vice
president of the United States from 1974 to 1977 under
President Gerald Ford. A member of
the Republican Party and
wealthy Rockefeller family, he
previously served as the 49th governor of New York from
1959 to 1973. Rockefeller also served as assistant secretary of State for American Republic Affairs for
Presidents Franklin D. Roosevelt and Harry S. Truman (1944–1945) as well as under secretary of Health, Education and Welfare (HEW)
under Dwight D. Eisenhower from
1953 to 1954. A son of John D. Rockefeller Jr. and Abby Aldrich Rockefeller as
well as a grandson of Standard Oil co-founder John D. Rockefeller, he
was a noted art collector and served as administrator of Rockefeller Center in Manhattan, New York City.
Rockefeller was often considered
to be liberal, progressive,[2] or moderate. In an agreement that was termed
the Treaty of Fifth Avenue, he
persuaded Richard Nixon to
alter the Republican Party platform just before the 1960
Republican Convention. In his time, liberals in the Republican Party
were called "Rockefeller Republicans".
As Governor of New York from 1959 to 1973, Rockefeller's achievements included
the expansion of the State University of New
York (SUNY), efforts to protect the environment, the
construction of the Governor Nelson A. Rockefeller Empire State Plaza in Albany, increased facilities and personnel for medical care,
and the creation of the New York State Council on
the Arts.
After unsuccessfully seeking the
Republican presidential nomination in 1960, 1964,
and 1968,
he was appointed vice president of the United States under President Gerald Ford, who ascended to the presidency following the
August 1974 resignation of Richard
Nixon. Rockefeller was the second vice president appointed to the
position under the 25th Amendment, following Ford himself. Rockefeller declined
to be placed on the 1976 Republican ticket with Ford. He retired from politics
in 1977 and died two years later.
As a businessman, Rockefeller was
president and later chair of Rockefeller Center, Inc., and he formed the
International Basic Economy Corporation in 1947. Rockefeller assembled a
significant art collection and promoted public access to the arts. He served as
trustee, treasurer, and president of the Museum of Modern Art, and
founded the Museum of Primitive Art in
1954. In the area of philanthropy, he founded the Rockefeller Brothers Fund in
1940 with his four brothers and established the American International
Association for Economic and Social Development in 1946.
Governor of
New York (1959–1973)
Rockefeller resigned from the federal government in
1956 to focus on New York State and on national politics.[45] From September 1956 to April 1958, he chaired
the Temporary State Commission on the Constitutional Convention.[46] That was followed by his chairmanship of the
Special Legislative Committee on the Revision and Simplification of the
Constitution.[46] In the state election of 1958,
he was elected governor of New York by
over 570,000 votes, defeating incumbent W. Averell Harriman, even
though 1958 was a banner year for Democrats elsewhere
in the nation.[47] Rockefeller was re-elected in the three
subsequent elections in 1962, 1966 and 1970,
increasing the state's role in education, environmental protection,
transportation, housing, welfare, medical aid, civil rights, and the arts. To
pay for the increased government spending, Rockefeller increased taxation - for
example, a sales tax was introduced in New York in 1965.[19] He resigned three years into his fourth term
and began to work at the Commission
on Critical Choices for Americans.[48]
Vice presidency (1974–1977)
Upon President Nixon's resignation
on August 9, 1974, Vice President Gerald Ford assumed the presidency. On August 20, Ford
nominated Rockefeller to be the next Vice
President of the United States. In considering potential nominees,
Rockefeller was one of three primary candidates. The other two were then-United States Ambassador
to NATO Donald Rumsfeld, whom Ford
eventually chose as his Chief of Staff and later Secretary of Defense, and
then-Republican National
Committee Chairman George H. W. Bush, who would eventually become Vice President
in his own right for two terms and President for one term.[94]
While acknowledging that many
conservatives opposed Rockefeller, Ford believed he would bring executive
expertise to the administration and broaden the ticket's appeal if they ran in
1976, given Rockefeller's ability to attract support from constituencies that
did not typically support Republicans, including organized labor, African Americans, Hispanics, and city dwellers. Ford also felt he could
demonstrate his own self-confidence by selecting a strong personality like
Rockefeller for the number two spot.[95] Although he had said he was "just not
built for standby equipment",[96] Rockefeller accepted the President's request
to serve as vice president:
It was entirely a question of
there being a Constitutional crisis and a crisis of confidence on the part of
the American people. ... . I felt there was a duty incumbent on any American
who could do anything that would contribute to a restoration of confidence in
the democratic process and in the integrity of government.
Rockefeller was also persuaded by
Ford's promise to make him "a full partner" in his presidency,
especially in domestic policy.[97]
Rockefeller underwent extended
hearings before Congress, suffering embarrassment when it was revealed he made
massive gifts to senior aides, such as Henry Kissinger, and used his personal fortune to finance a
scurrilous biography of political opponent Arthur Goldberg.[98] He had also taken debatable deductions on his
federal income taxes, and ultimately agreed to pay nearly one million dollars
to settle the issue, but no illegalities were uncovered, and he was confirmed.
Although conservative Republicans were not pleased that Rockefeller was picked,
most of them voted for his confirmation anyway; nevertheless, a minority bloc
(including Barry Goldwater, Jesse Helms and Trent Lott) voted against him.[99] Many conservative groups campaigned against
Rockefeller's nomination, including the National Right to Life
Committee, the American Conservative
Union, and others. The New York Conservative Party also opposed his
confirmation, despite the fact that its only elected member of the U.S.
Congress then, James L. Buckley,
supported him.[100] On the left, Americans for Democratic Action
opposed Rockefeller's confirmation because it said his wealth posed too much of
a conflict of interest.[101]
The Senate had given its approval
December 10, 1974, 90 to 7. The House confirmed his nomination 287 to 128 on
December 19.[102] Beginning his service upon taking the oath of
office on December 19, Rockefeller was the second person appointed vice
president under the 25th Amendment—the first being Ford himself. Rockefeller often
seemed concerned that Ford gave him little or no power, and few tasks, while he
was vice president. Ford initially said he wanted Rockefeller to chair
the Domestic
Policy Council, but Ford's new White House staff had no intention of
sharing power with the vice president and his staff.[103]
Rockefeller's attempt to take
charge of domestic policy was thwarted by Chief of Staff Rumsfeld, who objected
to policy makers reporting to the president through the vice president. When
Rockefeller had one of his former aides, James Cannon, appointed executive
director of the Domestic Council, Rumsfeld cut its budget. Rockefeller was
excluded from the decision making process on many important issues. When he
learned that Ford had proposed cuts in federal taxes and spending he responded:
"This is the most important move the president has made, and I wasn't even
consulted."[104] However, Ford appointed him to the Commission
on the Organization of Government for the Conduct of Foreign Policy, and
appointed him Chairman of the Commission on CIA Activities within the United States, the
National Commission on Productivity, the Federal Compensation Committee, and
the Committee on the Right to Privacy. Ford also put Rockefeller in charge of
his "Whip Inflation Now"
initiative.[citation needed]
While Rockefeller was Vice
President, the official vice presidential residence was established at Number One Observatory
Circle on the grounds of the United States Naval
Observatory. This residence had previously been the residence of
the Chief of Naval Operations.
Previous vice presidents had been responsible for maintaining their own homes
at their own expense, but the necessity of full-time Secret Service security
had made this custom impractical. Rockefeller already had a well-secured
Washington residence and never lived in the home as a principal residence,
although he did host several official functions there. His wealth enabled him
to donate millions of dollars of furnishings to the house.[citation needed]
Rockefeller was slow to make use
of Air Force Two, the
official vice-presidential aircraft. Instead, he continued to use his own Gulfstream (which had
the callsign Executive Two as a
private aircraft). Rockefeller felt he was saving taxpayer money this way.
Finally the Secret Service convinced him it was costing more to fly agents
around separately for his protective detail than it would for him to travel on
Air Force Two with them.[105]
Political ideology
Reflecting his interdisciplinary
approach to problem solving, Rockefeller took a pragmatic approach to
governing. In their book Rockefeller of New York: Executive Power in
the State House, Robert Connery and Gerald Benjamin state,
"Rockefeller was not committed to any ideology. Rather, he considered
himself a practical problem solver, much more interested in defining problems
and finding solutions around which he could unite support sufficient to ensure
their enactment in legislation than in following either a strictly liberal or
strictly conservative course. Rockefeller's programs did not consistently
follow either liberal or conservative ideology." Early fiscal policies
were conservative while later ones were not so. In the later years of his
administration "conservative decisions on social programs were paralleled
by liberal ones on environmental issues."[112]Rockefeller was opposed by conservatives in the GOP
such as Barry Goldwater and Ronald Reagan because of his liberal political
views. Described as a big spender by historian Geoffrey Kabaservice, Rockefeller
spent more money as governor of New York than his Republican predecessor Thomas E. Dewey, who was more fiscally conservative.[113][114] Rockefeller expanded the state's infrastructure, increased spending on education including a
massive expansion of the State University of New York, and increased the
state's involvement in environmental issues. Rockefeller had good relations
with unions, especially the construction trades, which benefited from his
extensive building programs.[citation needed]
In foreign affairs, Rockefeller
supported U.S. involvement in the United Nations as well as U.S. foreign aid. He also
supported the U.S.'s fight against communism and its membership in NATO.
As a result of Rockefeller's policies, some conservatives sought to gain
leverage by creating the Conservative Party of New
York. The small party acted as a minor counterweight to the Liberal Party of New York.[115] The most common criticism of Rockefeller's
governorship of New York is that he tried to do too much too fast, vastly
increasing the level of state debt which later contributed to New York's fiscal
crisis in 1975.[116] Rockefeller created some 230 public-benefit
authorities like the Urban Development Corporation. They were often used to
issue bonds in order to avoid the requirement of a vote of the people for the
issuance of a bond; such authority-issued bonds bore higher interest than if
they had been issued directly by the state. The state budget went from $2.04
billion in 1959–1960 to $8.8 billion in his last year, 1973–1974.
"Rockefeller sought and obtained eight tax increases during his fifteen
years in office."[117] "During his administration, the tax
burden rose to a higher level than in any other state, and the incidence of
taxation shifted, with a greater share being borne by the individual
taxpayer."