Probus (/ˈproʊbəs/; Latin: Marcus Aurelius Probus Augustus;
c. 19 August 232 – September/October 282), was Roman Emperor from 276 to 282.
Probus was an active and successful general as well as a conscientious
administrator, and in his reign of six years he secured prosperity for the
inner provinces while withstanding repeated inundations of hostile barbarian tribes
on almost every sector of the frontier.
After repelling the foreign enemies of the empire Probus was
forced to handle several internal revolts, but demonstrated leniency and
moderation to the vanquished wherever possible. In his reign the facade of the
constitutional authority of the Roman Senate was fastidiously maintained, and
the conqueror who had carried his arms to victory over the Rhine professed
himself dependent on the sanction of the Senate.
Upon defeating the Germans Probus re-erected the ancient
fortifications of emperor Hadrian between the Rhine and Danube rivers, protecting
the Agri Decumates, and exacted from the vanquished a tribute of manpower to
resettle depopulated provinces within the empire and provide for adequate defense
of the frontiers.[8] Despite his widespread popularity, Probus was killed in a
mutiny of the soldiers while in the middle of preparations for the Persian war,
which would be carried out under his successor Carus.
Probus was born between 230 and 235 (exact date of birth
unknown) in Sirmium (modern day Sremska Mitrovica), Pannonia Inferior, the son
of Dalmatius According to the Alexandrian Chronicle, he was born sometime in
the year 232.
Military career
Probus entered the army around 250 upon reaching adulthood.
He rose rapidly through the ranks, repeatedly earning high military
decorations. Appointed as a military tribune by the emperor Valerian, at a very
young age, in recognition of his latent ability,[citation needed] he justified
the choice by a distinguished victory over the Sarmatians on the Illyrian
frontier. During the chaotic years of the reign of Valerian, Illyria was the
only province, generaled by such officers as Claudius, Aurelian and Probus,
where the barbarians were kept at bay, while Gaul was overrun by the Franks,
Rhaetia by the Alemans, Thrace and the Mediterranean by the Goths, and the east
by Shapur I. Probus became amongst the highest placed lieutenants of Aurelian,
reconquering Egypt from Zenobia in 273 A.D. Emperor Tacitus, upon his accession
in 275, appointed Probus supreme chief of the east, granting him extraordinary
powers in order to secure a dangerous frontier. Though the details are not
specified, he is said to have fought with success on almost every frontier of
the empire, before his election as emperor by the troops upon Tacitus' death of
old age in 276, in his camp in Asia Minor.
Florianus, the half-brother of Tacitus, also proclaimed
himself emperor, and took control of Tacitus' army in Asia Minor, but was
killed by his own soldiers after an indecisive campaign against Probus in the
mountains of Cilicia. In contrast to Florianus, who ignored the wishes of the
senate, Probus referred his claim to Rome in a respectful dispatch. The senate
enthusiastically ratified his pretensions. Probus next travelled west,
defeating the Goths along the lower Danube in 277, and acquiring the title of
Gothicus. However, the Goths came to respect his ability and implored a treaty
with the empire.
In 278, Probus campaigned successfully in Gaul against the
Alamanni and Longiones; both tribes had advanced through the Neckar valley and
across the Rhine into Roman territory. Meanwhile, his generals defeated the
Franks and these operations were directed to clearing Gaul of Germanic invaders
(Franks and Burgundians), allowing Probus to adopt the titles of Gothicus Maximus
and Germanicus Maximus. Reportedly, 400,000 barbarians were killed during
Probus' campaign, and the entire nation of the Lugii were extirpated.
After the defeat of the Germanic invaders in Gaul, Probus
crossed the Rhine to campaign successfully against the Barbarians in their
homeland, forcing them to pay homage. In the aftermath of the campaign, Probus
repaired the ancient fortifications erected by Hadrian in the vulnerable space
between the Rhine and Danube, in the territory of Swabia. More significantly,
Probus, by forcing from the vanquished tribes a tribute of manpower,
established the precedent of settling barbarians within the empire as
auxiliaries on a large scale. The provinces were depopulated by war, disease
and the chaotic administration, heavy taxation, and extensive army recruitment,
during the crisis of the Third century, and the barbarian colonies, at least in
the short term, helped to restore frontier defense and the practice of
agriculture.
The army discipline which Aurelian had repaired was
cultivated and extended under Probus, who was however more shy in the practice
of cruelty. One of his principles was never to allow the soldiers to be idle,
and to employ them in time of peace on useful works, such as the planting of
vineyards in Gaul, Pannonia and other districts, in order to restart the
economy in these devastated lands.
In 279–280, Probus was, according to Zosimus, in Raetia,
Illyricum and Lycia, where he fought the Vandals. In the same years, Probus'
generals defeated the Blemmyes in Egypt. Either then, or during his previous
command in Egypt, he ordered the reconstruction of bridges and canals along the
Nile, where the production of grain for the Empire was centered.
In 280–281, Probus put down three usurpers, Julius Saturninus,
Proculus and Bonosus. The extent of these revolts is not clear, but there are
clues that they were not just local problems (an inscription with the name of
Probus erased has been found as far as Spain). In 281, the emperor was in Rome,
where he celebrated his well-deserved triumph.
Probus was eager to start his eastern campaign, delayed by
the revolts in the west. He left Rome in 282, travelling first towards Sirmium,
his birth city.
Assassination
Different accounts of Probus's death exist. According to
Joannes Zonaras, the commander of the Praetorian Guard Marcus Aurelius Carus
had been proclaimed, more or less unwillingly, emperor by his troops. Probus sent some troops against the new usurper, but when
those troops changed sides and supported Carus, Probus' remaining soldiers
assassinated him at Sirmium (September/October 282). According to other
sources, however, Probus was killed by disgruntled soldiers, who rebelled
against his orders to be employed for civic purposes, like draining marshes.
Allegedly, the soldiers were provoked when they overheard him lamenting the necessity
of a standing army. Carus was proclaimed emperor after Probus' death and
avenged the murder of his predecessor.
Legacy According to the favorable treatment of Gibbon (whose
account is largely derived from the Augustan History), Probus was the last of
the benevolent constitutional emperors of Rome. While his successor Carus (Imp.
281-284) simply disdained to seek the senate's confirmation of his title, the
latter's successor Diocletian (Imp. 284-305) took active measures to undermine
its authority, and established the autocratic nature and divine derivation of
the Imperial power. Never again, after Diocletian's reforms, would the Roman
senate play an active role in the management of the empire. On the military
sphere, Probus' victories continued the succession of martial Illyrian emperors
begun by Claudius Gothicus, which restored the military supremacy of Rome after
defeats sustained during the crisis of the third century.
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