For offer, rare early American works. Fresh from a prominent estate in Upstate, NY. Never offered on the market until now. Vintage, Old, Original - NOT a Reproduction - Guaranteed !! These were purchased at a book auction several years ago, which was selling books from various libraries and estates. Bound together are two works, titles given above. Lancaster : Frances Bailey, 1802. 53 [1] p.; [78 ] p, [8] folding plates, [iv] p. Complete. Small octavo. Full leather. Provenance / association : on ffep: Wardale G. McAllister, from John A [?] McAllister, with manuscript notes in ink. The McAllister family was a prominent family in Philadelphia. Overall in good condition. Boards separated but present, with leather flaking, chipping - pasted paper on edges; One plate separated, with old archival repair on back; manuscript pencil marks / notes in a few areas of margins in text. Previous owner library stamp. I could not locate a copy of this work for sale anywhere. Please see photos below. If you collect 19th century politics, early United States of America, Americana history, Early American imprints, military, etc., this is a treasure. Add this to your bibliophile book library or paper / ephemera collection. Genealogy research information as well! Combine shipping on multiple bid wins! International s/h is more. 2478

Francis Bailey (September 3, 1744 – November 1, 1817) was a Revolutionary War printer, publisher and journalist in Pennsylvania from 1771 to 1807. He began publication of the Lancaster Almanac in Lancaster, PA in 1771 and published the United States Magazine in 1778. In 1781, he became editor of the Freeman's Journal. In addition to printing editions of the Articles of Confederation and Thomas Paine's Common Sense, he acted as printer for Congress and the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. He was the first America publisher of the writings of Emanuel Swedenborg in 1787.

John McAllister, the father of optometry (1753-1830) - his son also important - 

John McAllister, Jr., one of Philadelphia's oldest and most respected citizens, died yesterday at his residence, on Merrick street, above Market, in the ninety-second year of his age. Some two or three years ago he was attacked with partial paralysis, and it was at that time feared that he could not recover, but, with the exception of a lose of eyesight and the general weakness incident to such extreme age, he has enjoyed fair health since until within a few weeks. Mr. McAllister was the oldest living graduate of the University of Pennsylvania at the time of his death, and was among the last survivors of that class of men who, by their business enterprise, purity of life and public usefulness, made themselves conspicuous in the Philadelphia of more than half a century ago.

The deceased was born at the northwest corner of Second and Market streets, in this city on the 27th day of June, 1786. He was a son of John McAllister, who was born in Scotland in February, 1753. John McAllister, Sr., came to New York in 1775, and moved to Philadelphia in 1781, where he went into business as a turner and manufacturer of whips and canes on Market street, between Front and Second. In 1798 the senior McAllister removed to No. 50 Chestnut street, on the south side above second. In 1800 he entered into partnership with James Matthews, of Baltimore, at No. 50 Chestnut street, as a manufacturer of whips and canes. In their announcement they said, "We mean always to keep a large assortment of spectacles, reading glasses, concave glasses, magnifiers, goggles, &c., and put new glasses in old spectacle frames."

This was the beginning of the elder McAllister's business as an optician, which subsequently became the exclusive branch, that of whips and canes being entirely abandoned. Matthews soon left the firm, and John McAllister, Sr., conducted the business entirely on his own account. In 1811 he took into partnership his son, John McAllister, Jr., the deceased.

They conducted the business under the name of McAllister & Son until the death of John McAllister, Sr., which took place May 12, 1830. After the death of his father, John McAllister, Jr., with Walter B. Dick and others, carried on the business under the firm name of John McAllister, Jr., & Co. In 1836 Mr. McAllister retired from the firm, which became William Y. McAllister & Co., and was carried on at No. 50 Chestnut street from 1836 to 1853. In the latter year Thomas H. McAllister, a son of John McAllister, Jr., was admitted to the firm, which was carried on for some years under the name of McAllister & Brother. Subsequently, business going west, they removed to their present location, No. 728 Chestnut street. Mr. Thomas H. McAllister, some years ago, removed to New York, and the business has since been conducted by Mr. William Y. McAllister.

Mr. John McAllister, Jr., was educated in Philadelphia, and graduated at the University of Pennsylvania in 1803. He had been for many years the oldest alumnus of that institution. He took great interest in historical studies, and particularly in local antiquities. He was well known to persons having antiquarian tastes for his accurate and extensive knowledge of Philadelphia history as regarded events, men, changes in business, buildings, and in fact, in anything relating to the past history of our city.

He had a very extensive library-literary, historical and miscellaneous, and the largest collection of books, newspapers, pamphlets and publications relating to Philadelphia and Pennsylvania of any person in the State. With these advantages, Mr. McAllister held his knowledge at the service of every one interested. He was applied to constantly for information on all local topics, and was always patient, attentive, obliging and anxious to comply with such requests.

Mr. McAllister married a daughter of William Young, bookseller and printer, the original publisher of the Columbian Magazine, whose establishment for some time was at the southwest corner of Second and Chestnut streets, adjoining the residence of John McAlister. Mr. Young was also a Scotchman, born in that country June 27, 1755. He arrived in this city the same day of the month in the year 1784, and died May 12, 1829. His printing office was well known to old-time citizens of Philadelphia by the name of "Whitehall." It was situated on Ridge road about where Spring Garden street now goes through, and was a famous old landmark for many years.

The wife of Mr. John McAllister, Jr., died some years ago. He had several children, among others being William Y. McAllister, Thomas H. McAllister, John A. McAllister and Wardale G. McAllister, now dead. One of his daughters married Dr. William R. Grant, who was at one time professor of anatomy and operative surgery in the Pennsylvania College. He died in Philadelphia March 28, 1852. Another daughter is married to a gentleman residing in Pittsburg. Mr. McAllister has not been active for some years, but he retained his memory with great vigor up to the time of his death. He leaves a large estate.

Thus, full of years and of honors, has passed away one of Philadelphia's most useful citizens, one who, during his long life, made hosts of friends and but few enemies; preserved through all the changing years of nearly three-quarters of a century an unblemished reputation for honor and integrity, and so treated all with whom he came in contact that to them his memory is now a greatful heritage."

The Philadelphia Inquirer. 18 December 1877

The Pennsylvania National Guard is one of the oldest and largest National Guards in the United States Department of Defense. It traces its roots to 1747 when Benjamin Franklin established the Associators in Philadelphia.

With more than 18,000 personnel, today the Pennsylvania National Guard is the second-largest of all the state National Guards. It has the second-largest Army National Guard and the fourth-largest Air National Guard.[1] These forces are respective components of the United States Army and Air Force.

The Pennsylvania National Guard is a component of the Pennsylvania Department of Military and Veterans Affairs, which is headed by Pennsylvania Adjutant General Major General Mark J. Schindler and headquartered at Fort Indiantown Gap.

History

1700s

The Pennsylvania National Guard dates back to 1747 when Ben Franklin created the Associators in Philadelphia. Having overcome the long pacifist tradition of Pennsylvania's founding Quakers, Benjamin Franklin lead approximately 600 "gentlemen and merchants" of Philadelphia in signing the “Articles of Association” to provide for a common defense against Indian raiders and French privateers. These "Associators" (today's 111th Infantry Regiment and 103rd Brigade Engineer Battalion) are recognized as the foundation of the Pennsylvania National Guard. Within months, the Philadelphia Associators had brother units throughout the commonwealth.

In 1755, the Pennsylvania Assembly passed the first Militia Act, formally authorizing a volunteer militia.

In 1775, at the start of the American Revolutionary War, that The First Troop, Philadelphia City Cavalry (FTPCC) escorted General George Washington to New York to take command of the Continental Army. The Army's first units included a regiment of rifle companies from Pennsylvania.

During the American Revolution, Pennsylvania supplied 6,000 troops (4,500 of them Associators) for military operations in New York. One unit, the Philadelphia Artillery Battalion, lives on as today's 103rd Brigade Engineer Battalion. In all, tens of thousands of Pennsylvania soldiers were called to service over the next seven years.

After the American Revolution, the nation was put to the test when the militia in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania was called upon to put down fellow citizens in the western part of the state during the Whiskey Rebellion. More than 4,000 militiamen from Pennsylvania served.

1800s

During the War of 1812, Pennsylvania forces again volunteered to defend the nation and the Commonwealth. Altogether, more than 14,000 Pennsylvanians actively served. During the Battle of Lake Erie, an artillery company provided volunteers to serve as cannoneers on Commodore Perry's fleet. That unit is known today as Wilkes-Barre's 109th Field Artillery Regiment.

During the Mexican War, Pennsylvania provided two regiments of volunteer militiamen from across the Commonwealth. Many of these companies that answered the call were already formed from existing regiments within Pennsylvania’s militia structure.

During the Civil War, after President Abraham Lincoln called for 75,000 volunteers to fight for the union, five units from the Lehigh Valley were quickly assembled and sent for protection. Lincoln called them “The First Defenders.” These guardsmen are the predecessors of today’s 213th Regional Support Group (RSG) based out of Allentown. More than 200 Pennsylvania Regiments took part in the American Civil War in 24 major campaigns.

On April 7, 1870, the term “militia” was replaced with the “National Guard of Pennsylvania."

In 1877, thousands of Pennsylvania Guardsman were called up to restore order during the Railroad Strike of 1877. The rioting was worst in Pittsburgh. Five Guardsman and 20 civilians were killed in the violence.

In 1898, the entire Pennsylvania division was mobilized and mustered into federal service at Mount Gretna for the Spanish-American War. Pennsylvania Guard units saw action in Puerto Rico and the Philippines.

1900s

In 1916, mobilization of the Commonwealth citizens occurred at Mt. Gretna for service on the Mexican Border. As troops began to come home, their mobilizations continued into the Great War, known today as World War I. The Pennsylvania division, now known as the 28th Division, was called up in the wake of America's entry into World War I. The division took part in six major campaigns in France and Belgium resulting in more than 14,000 battle casualties. With its entry into the war, the American forces helped turn the tide to the Allied victory. The 28th Division’s ferocity in combat earned it the title "Iron Division" from General John “Black Jack” Pershing, commander of the American Expeditionary Force.

In 1924, the 103rd Observation Squadron was organized at the Philadelphia Airport under the 28th Division. After World War II, the unit became the forerunner of today’s Pennsylvania Air National Guard.

Troops from Pennsylvania's 28th Infantry Division march down the Avenue des Champs-Élysées in Paris on Aug. 29, 1944.

By 1939, the world was once again at war. Ten months before the Attack on Pearl Harbor, the 28th Division was ordered into federal service. After America entered World War II, the division trained extensively, both in the homeland and abroad in England and Wales. Landing in France after D-Day, the division fought through Normandy, helped liberate Paris, and ended up bitterly engaged along the "West Wall" of Germany in November 1944. One month later, during the Battle of the Bulge, the division proved instrumental in stalling the last German offensive of the war. The German High Command nicknamed the division "Bloody Bucket" following the fierce battles of the Hurtgen Forest and the Bulge. The unit suffered more than 25,000 casualties of which 2,000 were killed in action. Elsewhere in the war, the division's 111th Regiment was detached to serve in the Pacific; Pennsylvania's 213th Regiment saw action in North Africa and Italy, while other units served across the globe.

In 1947, The Pennsylvania Air National Guard was formally established.

For its efforts during the Korean War, the 28th Infantry Division was mobilized to reinforce NATO forces and was sent to Germany. Several other Pennsylvania National Guard units saw active service in Korea.

On September 11, 1950, in route to Camp Atterbury, Indiana, the 109th Field Artillery was involved in a train wreck in which another train on the same track ran into the rear of the troop train, killing 33 service members from two different batteries. More than 1,000 National Guardsmen from various sections of the state, who had not been summoned for federal service, acted as a guard of honor for the bodies.

Pennsylvania Air National Guard airlift units flew 134 supply missions to Vietnam during 1966-1967, becoming the first reserve air force to ever enter a combat zone without being mobilized.

In 1972, the worst natural disaster to-date struck the Commonwealth occurred, Tropical Storm Agnes. As a result of the extensive damage caused by storms and flooding, the Pennsylvania National Guard was engaged in relief operations. The storm hit June 21, 1972. Guard units began relief operations from June 22 through August 6, 1972. It affected 122 communities in 35 out of the 67 Pennsylvania counties, with the hardest hit area being the Wyoming Valley region (Wilkes-Barre in Luzerne County). More than 55,000 homes were completely destroyed, thousands of additional homes damaged, and 126 bridges destroyed. There were more than $35 million in crop damages, more than 200,000 telephones out of service, 49 deaths, and property damages well over $3 billion dollars. For the National Guard, a major call up was ordered. There were 12,036 Army National Guard and 644 Air National Guard members, for a total of 12,680 Pennsylvania National Guard personnel on duty during the flood.

During the invasion of Grenada the Pennsylvania Air Guard's 193d Special Operations Group (today’s 193d Special Operations Wing) provided airborne broadcasting and surveillance during the U.S. invasion. Later missions in Panama, Haiti and elsewhere earned the 193rd the distinction of being the most-deployed unit in the entire Air Force.

After the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in August 1990, eight Army and Air Guard units from Pennsylvania[2] were mobilized for duty during Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm. Among ANG units involved were the 193rd Special Operations Wing, flying C-130s modified to transmit radio and television signals, and the 171st Air Refueling Wing. Seemingly the four Army units were scheduled to all return home by May 1991.[3] Every member returned home safely.

Following the end of the Cold War, National Guard State Partnership Programs were established across Europe.The Pennsylvania–Lithuania National Guard Partnership was initiated in 1993 as part of a U.S. initiative to promote the growth of democratic institutions among the newly independent states of the former Soviet Union.

2000s

Approximately 1,100 28th Infantry Division Soldiers became the command element of NATO peacekeeping operations in Bosnia from 2002-2003.

28th Infantry Division units become the first Guard command element for peacekeeping operations in eastern Kosovo from 2003-2004. The 213th Area Support Group, Co. G, 104th Aviation and several smaller support units deployed in support of Operations Enduring and Iraqi Freedom.

Approximately 2,000 Pennsylvania Soldiers and Airmen were deployed in 2004 in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom to search for weapons of mass destruction, provide convoy security, rebuild infrastructure, and protect senior officials.        

Approximately 750 Soldiers assigned to Task Force Dragoon helped to protect 29 polling locations during Iraq’s first free election in 2005. Task Force Dragoon units returned home in November. An additional 2,100 Soldiers from the 28th Infantry Division's 2d Brigade Combat Team, augmented by 2,000 Soldiers from 30 other states, touched down in Iraq in June. Known as the "Iron Brigade," Soldiers conducted convoy escorts and patrols, and provided training for Iraqi civil defense forces.

On September 1, 2005, Governor Edward G. Rendell mobilized 2,500 Pennsylvania Army and Air National Guard members to support hurricane disaster relief efforts along the Gulf Coast. Pennsylvania National Guard personnel arrived over the weekend of September 3-5. The relief mission lasted approximately 30 days.

2007 was a major year for the Pennsylvania National Guard. There were 380 Soldiers from 3d Battalion, 103d Armored Regiment that deployed to Afghanistan. At the same time, approximately 400 Soldiers of the 104th Cavalry departed for a deployment to the Sinai Peninsula. Members of these troops stood watch along the border between Egypt and Israel to ensure that the 1978 Camp David Accords peace agreement was upheld. Units from the 213th ADA Battalion, 131st Transportation Company, 104th Aviation, 228th Brigade Support Battalion, 107th Field Artillery, and 28th Division Support Command returned from their overseas deployments. Both Army and Air National Guard members deployed to the Mexican Border. Members of the 201st Red Horse Squadron (RHS) helped construct new roads and border wall sections.

In 2008, units from the 2nd Infantry Brigade, 28th Aviation Brigade, and 56th Stryker Brigade began training for overseas deployments. Units of the 55th Armored Brigade were currently overseas. Various Air Guard units including the 111th Fighter Wing, 171st Air Refueling Wing, and 193d Special Operations Wing conducted various support missions around the world.

In 2010 the governor of Pennsylvania mobilized members of the 193rd Special Operations Wing (SOW) to take part in a humanitarian assistance mission in Haiti, which was impacted by a major earthquake.

Major Units

Army

28th Infantry Division (Harrisburg)

2nd Infantry Brigade Combat Team (Washington, Pa.)

28th Expeditionary Combat Aviation Brigade (Fort Indiantown Gap)

55th Maneuver Enhancement Brigade (Scranton)

56th Stryker Brigade Combat Team (Willow Grove)

213th Regional Support Group (Allentown)

Eastern Army National Guard Aviation Training Site (Fort Indiantown Gap)

166th Regiment Regional Training Institute (Fort Indiantown Gap)

Air

111th Attack Wing (Willow Grove)

171st Air Refueling Wing (Pittsburgh)

193rd Special Operations Wing (Middletown)

Leadership

The command element of the Pennsylvania National Guard is the Joint Staff.[4]

Commander-in-Chief: Governor Tom Wolf

The Adjutant General: Major General Mark J. Schindler[5]

Deputy Adjutant General - Army: Vacant

Deputy Adjutant General - Air: Brigadier General Michael J. Regan Jr.

Friedrich Wilhelm August Heinrich Ferdinand von Steuben (born Friedrich Wilhelm Ludolf Gerhard Augustin von Steuben; September 17, 1730 – November 28, 1794), also referred to as Baron von Steuben (German: [fɔn ˈʃtɔʏbn̩]), was a Prussian and later an American military officer. He served as Inspector General and a Major General of the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War. He was one of the fathers of the Continental Army in teaching them the essentials of military drills, tactics, and discipline.[1] He wrote Regulations for the Order and Discipline of the Troops of the United States, the book that served as the Army's drill manual for decades. He served as General George Washington's chief of staff in the final years of the war.[2]

Early life and education

Baron von Steuben was born in the fortress town of Magdeburg, Germany, on September 17, 1730, the son of Royal Prussian Engineer Capt. Wilhelm von Steuben and his wife, Elizabeth von Jagvodin.[3] When his father entered the service of Empress Anna of Russia, young Friedrich went with him to Crimea and then to Kronstadt, staying until the Russian war against the Turks under General Burkhard Christoph von Münnich. In 1740, Steuben's father returned to Prussia and Friedrich was educated in the garrison towns Neisse and Breslau by Jesuits. Despite his education by a Catholic order, von Steuben remained critical of Roman Catholicism.[4]:63 Originally, von Steuben's family were Protestants in the Kingdom of Prussia, and after his emigration to America he became a member of the Reformed German Church, a Reformed congregation in New York.[5] It is said that at age 14 he served as a volunteer with his father in one of the campaigns of the War of the Austrian Succession.[6]

First military service

Baron von Steuben joined the Prussian Army at age 17.[7] He served as a second lieutenant during the Seven Years' War in 1756, and was wounded at the 1757 Battle of Prague.[7] He served as adjutant to the free battalion of General Johann von Mayr and was promoted to first lieutenant in 1759.[7] In August 1759 he was wounded a second time at the Battle of Kunersdorf.[7] In the same year, he was appointed deputy quartermaster at the general headquarters. In 1761 he became adjutant of the Major General Von Knobloch upon being taken prisoner by the Russians at Treptow.[7] He subsequently attained the rank of captain, and served as aide-de-camp to Frederick the Great; in 1762 he was one of 13 young officers chosen to participate in a special course of instruction delivered by the king himself.[8]

Upon the reduction of the army at the end of the war, in 1763, Steuben was one of many officers who found themselves unemployed.[8] Towards the end of his life, Steuben indicated in a letter that "an inconsiderate step and an implacable personal enemy" led to his leaving the Prussian army.[4]:61

Service in Hohenzollern-Hechingen

In 1764 Steuben became Hofmarschall to Fürst Josef Friedrich Wilhelm of Hohenzollern-Hechingen, a post he held until 1777.[9] In 1769 the Duchess of Wurttemberg, niece of Frederick the Great, presented him with the Cross of the Order of De la Fidelite.[10] In 1771 he began to use the title baron. That same year he accompanied the prince to France, hoping to borrow money. Failing to find funds, they returned to Germany in 1775, deeply in debt.[8]

In 1763 Steuben had been formally introduced to the future French Minister of War, Claude Louis, Comte de Saint-Germain, in Hamburg. They met again in Paris in 1777. The Count, fully realizing the potential of an officer with Prussian general staff training, introduced him to Benjamin Franklin. Franklin, however, was unable to offer Steuben a rank or pay in the American army. The Continental Congress had grown tired of foreign mercenaries coming to America and demanding a high rank and pay. Promoting these men over qualified American officers caused discontent in the ranks. Von Steuben would have to go to America strictly as a volunteer, and present himself to Congress. Steuben left these first meetings in disgust and returned to Prussia.[7] Steuben found waiting for him allegations that he engaged in homosexual relationships with young men while in the service of Prince Josef Friedrich Wilhelm of Hohenzollern-Hechingen. The allegations were never proven, but Steuben knew they would stymie his chances at an officer's position in Europe.[11] Threatened with prosecution for his alleged homosexuality, Steuben returned to Paris.[12] Rumors followed him from Prussia to America that he was homosexual, but there never was an investigation of von Steuben and he received a congressional pension after the war.[13]

Upon the Count's recommendation, Steuben was introduced to future president George Washington by means of a letter from Franklin as a "Lieutenant General in the King of Prussia's service", an exaggeration of his actual credentials that appears to be based on a mistranslation of his service record. He was advanced travel funds and left Europe from Marseilles on Friday, September 26, 1777, on board the frigate Flamand.[9]

American Revolution

Painting Steuben in uniform

Portrait of Major General von Steuben wearing the badge of the Society of the Cincinnati by Ralph Earl

The Baron, his Italian Greyhound Azor (which he took with him everywhere), his young aide-de-camp Louis de Pontière, his military secretary, Peter Stephen Du Ponceau (then called Pierre Etienne Du Ponceau), and two other companions, reached Portsmouth, New Hampshire, on December 1, 1777, where they were almost arrested for being British because Steuben had mistakenly outfitted them in red uniforms.[7] They were extravagantly entertained in Boston.[citation needed] On February 5, 1778, Steuben and his party arrived in York, Pennsylvania, where the Continental Congress had relocated after being ousted from Philadelphia by the British advance. Arrangements were made for Steuben to be paid following the successful completion of the war according to his contributions. He arrived at Valley Forge on February 23, 1778, and reported for duty as a volunteer. One soldier's first impression of the Baron was "of the ancient fabled God of War ... he seemed to me a perfect personification of Mars. The trappings of his horse, the enormous holsters of his pistols, his large size, and his strikingly martial aspect, all seemed to favor the idea. He turned the volunteers into a great army."[7]

Inspector General

Washington appointed von Steuben as temporary inspector general. He went out into the camp to talk with the officers and men, inspect their huts, and scrutinize their equipment. Steuben established standards of sanitation and camp layouts that would still be standard a century and a half later. There had previously been no set arrangement of tents and huts. Men relieved themselves where they wished, and when an animal died it was stripped of its meat and the rest was left to rot where it lay. Steuben laid out a plan to have rows for command, officers, and enlisted men. Kitchens and latrines were on opposite sides of the camp, with latrines on the downhill side. There was the familiar arrangement of company and regimental streets.

On May 5, 1778, on General Washington's recommendation, Congress appointed Steuben inspector general of the army, with the rank and pay of major general. The internal administration had been neglected, and no books had been kept either as to supplies, clothing, or men. Steuben became aware of the "administrative incompetence, graft, war profiteering" that existed.[14] He enforced the keeping of exact records and strict inspections. His inspections saved the army an estimated loss of five to eight thousand muskets.[10]

Training program

Painting, see caption

Baron von Steuben Drilling Troops at Valley Forge, by E. A. Abbey (c.1904), Pennsylvania State Capitol, Harrisburg

Steuben picked 120 men from various regiments to form an honor guard for General Washington, and used them to demonstrate military training to the rest of the troops.[10] These men in turn trained other personnel at regimental and brigade levels. Steuben's eccentric personality greatly enhanced his mystique. In full military dress uniform, he twice a day trained the soldiers who, at this point, were themselves greatly lacking in proper clothing.[15]

As he could only speak and write a small amount of English, Steuben originally wrote the drills in German, the military language of Europe at the time. His secretary, Du Ponceau, then translated the drills from German into French, and a secretary for Washington translated it to English. They did this every single night so Washington could command his soldiers in the morning. Colonel Alexander Hamilton and General Nathanael Greene were of great help in assisting Steuben in drafting a training program for the Army. The Baron's willingness and ability to work with the men, as well as his use of profanity (in several different languages), made him popular among the soldiers.[7] It is here he met his reputed future lover, Captain Benjamin Walker. Upon meeting Walker for the first time he exclaimed, "If I had seen an angel from Heaven I should not have more rejoiced." Within weeks, Walker was Steuben's aide-de-camp.[16]

Steuben introduced a system of progressive training, beginning with the school of the soldier, with and without arms, and going through the school of the regiment. This corrected the previous policy of simply assigning personnel to regiments. Each company commander was made responsible for the training of new men, but actual instruction was done by sergeants specifically selected for being the best obtainable.

In the earlier part of the war, the Americans used the bayonet mostly as a cooking skewer or tool rather than as a fighting instrument.[10] Steuben's introduction of effective bayonet charges became crucial. In the Battle of Stony Point, Continental Army soldiers attacked with unloaded muskets and won the battle solely on Steuben's bayonet training.[17]

The first results of Steuben's training were in evidence at the Battle of Barren Hill, May 20, 1778, and then again at the Battle of Monmouth in June 1778. Steuben, by then serving in Washington's headquarters, was the first to determine that the enemy was heading for Monmouth.[18]

During the winter of 1778–1779, Steuben prepared Regulations for the Order and Discipline of the Troops of the United States, commonly known as the "Blue Book".[19][20] Its basis was the training plan he had devised at Valley Forge.[21] It was used by the United States Army until 1814,[7] and affected U.S. drills and tactics until the Mexican–American War of 1846.[14]

On May 2, 1779, during the second Middlebrook encampment, a review of the army was held to honor the French minister Conrad Alexandre Gérard de Rayneval and the Spanish diplomat Juan de Miralles. Led by General William Smallwood, four battalions performed precise military formations to demonstrate their mastery of Steuben's training.[22] After the review, about sixty generals and colonels attended a dinner hosted by Steuben in a large tent near his headquarters at the Abraham Staats House.[23]

Southern campaign

Photo of stone and wood house

Mount Gulian, Fishkill, NY

In 1780 Steuben sat on the court-martial of the British Army officer Major John André, captured and charged with espionage in conjunction with the defection of General Benedict Arnold.[4]:289 He later traveled with Nathanael Greene, the new commander of the Southern campaign.[4]:344–345 He quartered in Virginia, since U.S. supplies and soldiers would be provided to the army from there. Steuben would help in the defense of Virginia with approximately 1,000 militia fighting a delaying action in the Battle of Blandford. During the spring of 1781, he aided Greene in the campaign in the South, culminating in the delivery of 450 Virginia Continentals to Lafayette in June.[24]

He was forced to take sick leave, rejoining the army for the final campaign at Yorktown, where his role was as commander of one of the three divisions of Washington's troops. In 1783, General Von Steuben joined General Knox at Vail's Gate, near West Point, in the fall of 1782 and in early 1783 moved to the Verplanck homestead, at Mount Gulian, across the Hudson River from Washington's headquarters in Newburgh.[14] Steuben gave assistance to Washington in demobilizing the army in 1783[25] as well as aiding in the defense plan of the new nation. In May 1783, Steuben presided over the founding of the Society of the Cincinnati.[14] He was discharged from the military with honor on March 24, 1784.[8]

Final years

Drawing of cabin

Steuben's log cabin summer residence, Steuben, New York[26]

The Steuben House & his "Jersey Estate" (c. 1752, enlarged 1767, in situ) a State Historic Site in River Edge, NJ.

Steuben became a U.S. citizen by act of the Pennsylvania legislature in March 1784 and later by the New York authorities in July 1786. With the war over, Steuben resigned from service and first settled with his longtime companion, William North, for whom he created a special room at his retreat he called the Louvre[27] on Manhattan Island, where he became a prominent figure and elder in the German Reformed Church. From 1785 until his death in 1794, he served as president of the German Society of the City of New York, a charitable society founded in 1784 to assist German immigrants.[28]

In 1786 during Shays' Rebellion, under the written name "Bellisarius", Steuben made suggestions of an oligarchy in the Massachusetts government.[29]

On December 23, 1783, the state of New Jersey presented him with the use of an estate in Bergen County now known as Steuben House,[30] which had been confiscated from Loyalist Jan Zabriskie in 1781. Located in the formerly strategic New Bridge Landing, the estate included a gristmill and about 40 acres (16 ha) of land. Legislators initially conditioned the grant, requiring Steuben to "hold, occupy and enjoy the said estate in person, and not by tenant." Gen. Philemon Dickinson of the New Jersey Militia informed the baron of this gift and responded to his inquiries that "there are on the premises an exceeding good House, an excellent barn, together with many useful outbuildings, all of which I am told, want some repairs...there is...a Grist-mill; a good Orchard, some meadow Ground, & plenty of Wood. The distance from N York by land 15 miles, but you may keep a boat & go from your own door to N York by water—Oysters, Fish & wild fowl in abundance—Possession will be given to you in the Spring, when you will take a view of the premises."[31] Von Steuben spent considerable sums to repair wartime damages to the house and restore its commercial operations under former aide Walker.

On September 5, 1788, the New Jersey Legislature gave Baron von Steuben full title to the former Zabriskie estate. A month later, recognizing his financial embarrassment, Steuben wrote another former aide-de-camp and companion, William North, recognizing: "The Jersey Estate must and is to be sold. Walker is my administrator, all debts are to be paid out of it." On November 6, 1788, Steuben again wrote North (at his new home in Duanesburg, New York), noting "My Jersey Estate is Advertised but not yet Sold, from this Walker Shall immediately pay to you the money, you so generously lend me and all my debts in New-York will be payed. I support my present poverty with more heroism than I Expected. All Clubs and parties are renounced, I seldom leave the House."[32] Steuben eventually sold the New Jersey property to a son of the previous owner, and it remained in the Zabriskie family until 1909. It is the only remaining eighteenth-century building that von Steuben owned.

Von Steuben was present at the first inauguration of George Washington in New York in 1789.[33]

Von Steuben moved upstate and settled in Oneida County on a small estate in the vicinity of Rome, New York, on land granted to him for his military service and where he had spent summers. He was later appointed a regent for what evolved into the University of the State of New York. In 1790, Congress awarded him a pension of $2,500 a year, which he kept until his death. [34]

Personal life and death

Von Steuben died on November 28, 1794, at his estate in Oneida County,[35] and was buried in a grove at what became the Steuben Memorial State Historic Site.[36] The estate became part of the town of Steuben, New York, which was named for him.

Von Steuben had arrived in the United States with his 17-year-old secretary, Peter Stephen Du Ponceau.[37] At Valley Forge, he began close relationships with Benjamin Walker and William North, then both military officers in their 20s.[38] Von Steuben formally adopted Walker and North and made them his heirs.[39] Some historians believe that these "extraordinary intense emotional relationships"[40] were romantic,[41] and, given Steuben's reported earlier behaviour, it has been suggested it would have been out-of-character for him if they were not.[42] However, based on the limited historical record, it is impossible to prove.[43] Because homosexuality was criminalized at the time, records of his relationships are limited to references in correspondences. Some 21st century publications, however, have embraced him as "a gay man",[44] "openly gay",[45] or as "the gay man who saved the American Revolution".[46]

In any case, von Steuben never married and had no children. He did not care much for his European relatives.[4] Thus, he left his estate to his companions and aides-de-camp, Captain Benjamin Walker and Major General William North, with whom he had had an "extraordinarily intense emotional relationship ... treating them as surrogate sons."[47] A third young man, John W. Mulligan (1774–1862), also considered himself one of Steuben's "sons"; he inherited Von Steuben's vast library, collection of maps and $2,500 in cash.[48] Following Baron Steuben's death, North divided the property bequeathed to him among his military companions.[49]

Legacy

Two cent postage stamp

General Von Steuben on a two-cent postage stamp, 1930 issue

Generally, Von Steuben Day takes place in September in many cities throughout the United States. It is often considered the German-American event of the year. Participants march, dance, wear German costumes and play German music, and the event is attended by millions of people. The German-American Steuben Parade is held annually in September in New York City. It is one of the largest parades in the city and is traditionally followed by an Oktoberfest in Central Park as well as celebrations in Yorkville, Manhattan, a historically German section of New York City. The German-American Steuben Parade has been taking place since 1958.[50] Chicago also hosts a von Steuben Day parade, which is featured in the U.S. film Ferris Bueller's Day Off.[51] Philadelphia hosts a smaller Steuben Parade in the Northeast section of the city.[52]

The Steuben Society was founded in 1919 as "an educational, fraternal, and patriotic organization of American citizens of German background". In the difficult post-World War I years the Society helped the German-American community to reorganize. It is now one of the largest organizations for Americans of German descent.[53]

A warship, a submarine, and an ocean liner (later pressed into military service) were named in von Steuben's honor. In World War I the captured German ship SS Kronprinz Wilhelm was renamed as USS Von Steuben,[54] and in World War II there was the Dampfschiff General von Steuben, an ill-fated German luxury passenger ship which was turned into an armed transport ship during the war.[55] During the Cold War, the U.S. Navy submarine USS Von Steuben was named for him.[56]

Several locations in the United States are also named Steuben, most of them in his honor. Examples include Steuben County, New York,[57] Steuben County, Indiana,[58] and the city of Steubenville, Ohio.[59] Several buildings are named for Steuben, among them Von Steuben Metropolitan High School in Chicago, Illinois,[60] as well as one of the cadet barracks buildings at Valley Forge Military Academy and College.[61]

Von Steuben was one of four European military leaders who assisted the U.S. cause during the Revolution and was honored with a statue in Lafayette Square, just north of the White House, in Washington, D.C. The statue by Albert Jaegers was dedicated in 1910.[62] A copy was dedicated in Potsdam, Germany in 1911, and destroyed during World War II. A new cast was given in honor of German-American friendship in 1987, and to celebrate the 750th anniversary of the founding of Berlin. It was installed in the Dahlem district, in what had been the U.S. sector of the formerly divided city.[63] An additional cast is in Steuben's home town of Magdeburg.[64] Statues of Steuben by J. Otto Schweizer can be found in Valley Forge, Pennsylvania, and Utica, New York,[65] in addition to an equestrian statue by Schweizer in Milwaukee, Wisconsin.[66] A bust of Steuben is in the garden of the German Embassy in Washington, D.C.[65]

The Steuben House, presented to Steuben as a gift for his services in the Continental Army, is located at New Bridge Landing in River Edge, New Jersey. The house and surrounding farmland were seized in 1781 from a Loyalist family. The house looks much as it did after Steuben renovated it. The State of New Jersey took possession of the historic mansion and one acre of ground for $9,000 on June 27, 1928. It was opened as a public museum in September 1939. The Bergen County Historical Society opens the building for special events. It is under the jurisdiction of the Historic New Bridge Landing Park Commission.[67]

Other tributes include Steuben Field, the stadium of the Hamilton College football team.[68] Von Steuben, acting as Alexander Hamilton's surrogate, laid the cornerstone of the school.[69]

The various depictions of Steuben in popular U.S. media include portrayals by Nehemiah Persoff in the 1979 U.S. TV miniseries The Rebels,[70] Kurt Knudson in the 1984 TV miniseries George Washington,[71] being voiced by Austrian-American Arnold Schwarzenegger in the animated series Liberty's Kids,[72] and by David Cross on the "Philadelphia" episode of Drunk History.[73]

In 2007, a popular documentary DVD was released by LionHeart FilmWorks and director Kevin Hershberger titled Von Steuben's Continentals: The First American Army. The 60-minute, live-action documentary details the life, uniforms, camp life, food, weapons, equipment and drill of the Continental soldier 1775–1781, as taught and developed by Baron von Steuben.[74]