A kerosene heater, also known as a paraffin heater, is typically a portable, unvented, kerosene-fueled, space (i.e., convectional) heating device. In Japan and other countries, they are a primary source of home heat. In the United States and Australia, they are a supplemental heat or a source of emergency heat during a power outage. Most kerosene heaters produce between 3.3 and 6.8 kilowatts (11,000 and 23,000 BTU/h).
An oil heater, also known as an oil-filled heater, oil-filled radiator, or column heater, is a common form of convection heater used in domestic heating. Although filled with oil, it is electrically heated and does not involve burning any oil fuel; the oil is used as a heat reservoir (buffer), not as a fuel.
Imperial Oil Limited (French: Compagnie Pétrolière Impériale Ltée) is a Canadian petroleum company.[2] It is Canada's second-biggest integrated oil company. It is majority owned by American oil company ExxonMobil with around 69.6 percent ownership stake in the company. It is a significant producer of crude oil, diluted bitumen and natural gas, Canada's major petroleum refiner, a key petrochemical producer and a national marketer with coast-to-coast supply and retail networks.[2] It supplies Esso-brand service stations.[2][5]
It is also known for its holdings in the Alberta Oil Sands.[6] Imperial owns 25 percent of Syncrude, which is one of the world's largest oil sands operations.[2] Imperial is also in a joint venture oil sands mining operation with ExxonMobil, called Kearl Oil Sands.[7]
Imperial Oil is headquartered in Calgary, Alberta. It was based in Toronto, Ontario, until 2005.[8] Most of Imperial's production is from its vast natural resource holdings in the Alberta oil sands[9][self-published source?] and the Norman Wells oil field in the Northwest Territories.[10]
In 2021, Imperial Oil was ranked no. 34 out of 120 oil, gas, and mining companies involved in resource extraction north of the Arctic Circle in the Arctic Environmental Responsibility Index (AERI).[11]
History
Founding and early years
In April 1880, Jacob Lewis Englehart and sixteen prominent oil refiners in London and Petrolia formed Imperial Oil in response to Standard Oil's growing dominance of the oil market.[12] Englehart was the driving force behind the partnership, hoping to emulate John D. Rockefeller and merge the entire Canadian oil industry into one conglomerate.[13] Although the majority of Ontario's top oil producers agreed to join in the enterprise, notable exceptions were John Henry Fairbank, then Canada's largest oil producer, and James Miller Williams, founder of the Canadian Oil Company.[14] Englehart and the refiners established Imperial Oil as a joint-stock company with a capitalized value of $500,000.[15] In addition to Englehart, the original shareholders included Frederick A. Fitzgerald, Isaac and Herman Waterman, William Spencer and his sons, William and Charles, Thomas and Edward Hodgins, John Geary, Joseph Fallows, John Minhinnick, William English and John Walker.[16] Together, the shareholders possessed twelve oil refineries and controlled eighty-five percent of the refining capacity in Canada.[17] Fitzgerald and Englehart were the two largest stakeholders in the company and were named the president and vice president respectively.[18] Imperial Oil's charter noted that its goal was to "find, produce, refine and distribute petroleum and its products throughout Canada".[14]
Despite a smooth start, Imperial Oil struggled to make a profit and issue dividends in the early 1880s.[19] The discovery of new oil fields in Pennsylvania and New York drove down the price of oil, and the creation of the Standard Oil Trust resulted in an increase of American oil imports into Canada.[19] In a deliberate move to boost kerosene prices, Imperial closed down ten of the twelve refineries it had acquired through the merger, leaving only the Silver Star refinery in Petrolia and the Victor works in London.[19] In 1883, the Victor works was struck by lightning and burned to the ground, and under Englehart's direction, the company concentrated its refining efforts at Petrolia.[14][20]
Herman Frasch and the Sulphur Dilemma
In 1884, Imperial Oil purchased the exclusive use of Herman Frasch's fractional distillation patent, which was more efficient at separating crude into usable products.[21] Imperial initially offered Frasch $10,000 and Imperial Oil stock, but he persuaded the company to offer him a salary that matched Fitzgerald's, and a seat on the Board of Directors.[21] Frasch had taken the position primarily to supervise the installation of his refining method at the Silver Star refinery and resigned in February 1885 once the work was complete.[22] Frasch then joined John Minhinnick in forming a separate venture called the Empire Oil Company.[21] The pair purchased an idle refinery in London, and Frasch began experimenting on a way to remove the sulphur content in the oil pumped at Lambton County.[21] The high sulphur content in Canadian oil placed it at a disadvantage compared to the oil mined at Pennsylvania due to its "distinctive odour" when burned.[23] Canadians called the product "skunk oil".[23] Between 1885 and 1887, Frasch discovered that mixing copper oxide with the oil during the distilling process would remove the sulphur content and odour from the refined product.[24]
By this time, Standard Oil had also become interested in the desulphurization process after moving production to oil fields in Ohio that had a similar sulphur content to Lambton County.[25] In 1886, Standard Oil persuaded Frasch to return to the United States and join their company by offering "a salary higher than that of any other scientist in the country", and an exchange of his shares in the Empire Oil Company for an equivalent amount in Standard Oil.[25] After returning to the United States, Frasch perfected his desulphurization strategy, and Standard Oil held a monopoly on the process until 1905.[26] The loss of Frasch and the desulphurization process was a major blow to the long-term future of Imperial Oil.[25][27]
The 1890s and the Standard Oil buyout
In spite of rising revenue and growth in the 1890s, Imperial Oil faced continuing challenges in its markets, most notability from Standard Oil, which operated a series of subsidiary companies across Canada.[28][29] Although Imperial dominated the Western Canadian market, the company could not establish a strong foothold in the Maritimes or Quebec as Standard supplied these regions through long term contracts with local companies.[30] While the Conservative Party's National Policy had stopped Standard Oil from fully entering the Canadian market, the economic policy came under attack by Standard Oil lobbyists and Canadian consumers, who wanted a cheaper and higher quality product.[31][32] In 1893, Ottawa reduced import duties on refined oil products from 7.2 cents to 6 cents per wine gallon, and in 1896, Wilfrid Laurier's government reduced the tariff again to 5 cents.[31] More importantly, Laurier removed restrictions on tank cars and tank steamers, allowing foreign companies to bulk ship oil into Canada by rail or sea.[31] Before Ottawa lifted the restriction, foreign companies had to repackage their product into oil barrels before entering Canada.[31] This process added roughly five cents in shipping and handling charges to each gallon of imported oil.[32]
In 1895, Imperial Oil's Board of Directors began negotiations to sell the company to the Colonial Development Corporation- a British company.[33] After three years, the deal collapsed, and the Board of Directors instead chose to sell the company to Standard Oil.[33] The agreement specified that Standard Oil would acquire 75 percent of Imperial Oil's shares, Imperial Oil would acquire all of Standard Oil's Canadian subsidiary companies, Imperial's capitalization would be increased to $1 million, and Imperial shareholders would receive a dividend of $93,000.[33][34] Following the deal, Imperial Oil shut down the Silver Star refinery in Petrolia and moved its refining operations to Sarnia, Ontario.[33]
Later years
Fifth Avenue Place, former Imperial Oil headquarters
In a landmark 1911 anti-trust case, the U.S. Supreme Court ordered Standard Oil to break up into 34 separate companies. Ownership of Imperial Oil, as well Standard Oil's other subsidiaries outside the U.S., were all transferred to only one of those 34 successor firms, Jersey Standard (later renamed Exxon).[35]
Imperial Oil discovered the Leduc Woodbend Devonian oil reef in 1947, marking the beginning of the contemporary period in Canadian oil and gas development.[36] Drilling began on the landmark discovery well Leduc No. 1 on November 20, 1946.[36]
In 1989, Imperial Oil acquired Texaco's Canadian operations.[37]
When Exxon and Mobil merged in 1999 to form ExxonMobil, the combined company continued to maintain Mobil's Canadian operations as a separate subsidiary, independent of Imperial Oil.[38]
Film and television
From the 1934-35 season through the 1975-76 season, Imperial Oil was a sponsor of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation program Hockey Night in Canada for both radio and television broadcasts.[39][40] Esso had three stars on their signs and leveraged it by sponsoring Hockey Night in Canada's three stars of the game.
In the same era, the company was also involved in film production, frequently providing funding support for the production of independent documentary films. Calgary's Glenbow Museum holds a large collection of Imperial Oil's film inventory.[41]
Halifax is the capital and largest municipality of the Canadian province of Nova Scotia, and the largest municipality in Atlantic Canada. Halifax is one of Canada's fastest growing municipalities,[6] and as of 2022, it is estimated that the CMA population of Halifax was 480,582,[7]with 348,634 people in its urban area.[3] The regional municipality consists of four former municipalities that were amalgamated in 1996: Halifax, Dartmouth, Bedford, and Halifax County.
Halifax is a major economic centre in Atlantic Canada, with a large concentration of government services and private sector companies. Major employers and economic generators include the Department of National Defence, Dalhousie University, Nova Scotia Health Authority, Saint Mary's University, the Halifax Shipyard, various levels of government, and the Port of Halifax. Agriculture, fishing, mining, forestry, and natural gas extraction are major resource industries found in the rural areas of the municipality.