The Countries I Send to Include Afghanistan * Albania * Algeria * American Samoa (US) * Andorra * Angola * Anguilla (GB) * Antigua and Barbuda * Argentina * Armenia * Aruba (NL) * Australia * Austria * Azerbaijan * Bahamas * Bahrain * Bangladesh * Barbados * Belarus * Belgium * Belize * Benin * Bermuda (GB) * Bhutan * Bolivia * Bonaire (NL) * Bosnia and Herzegovina * Botswana * Bouvet Island (NO) * Brazil * British Indian Ocean Territory (GB) * British Virgin Islands (GB) * Brunei * Bulgaria * Burkina Faso * Burundi * Cambodia * Cameroon * Canada * Cape Verde * Cayman Islands (GB) * Central African Republic * Chad * Chile * China * Christmas Island (AU) * Cocos Islands (AU) * Colombia * Comoros * Congo * Democratic Republic of the Congo * Cook Islands (NZ) * Coral Sea Islands Territory (AU) * Costa Rica * Croatia * Cuba * Curaçao (NL) * Cyprus * Czech Republic * Denmark * Djibouti * Dominica * Dominican Republic * East Timor * Ecuador * Egypt * El Salvador * Equatorial Guinea * Eritrea * Estonia * Ethiopia * Falkland Islands (GB) * Faroe Islands (DK) * Fiji Islands * Finland * France * French Guiana (FR) * French Polynesia (FR) * French Southern Lands (FR) * Gabon * Gambia * Georgia * Germany * Ghana * Gibraltar (GB) * Greece * Greenland (DK) * Grenada * Guadeloupe (FR) * Guam (US) * Guatemala * Guernsey (GB) * Guinea * Guinea-Bissau * Guyana * Haiti * Heard and McDonald Islands (AU) * Honduras * Hong Kong (CN) * Hungary * Iceland * India * Indonesia * Iran * Iraq * Ireland * Isle of Man (GB) * Israel * Italy * Ivory Coast * Jamaica * Jan Mayen (NO) * Japan * Jersey (GB) * Jordan * Kazakhstan * Kenya * Kiribati * Kosovo * Kuwait * Kyrgyzstan * Laos * Latvia * Lebanon * Lesotho * Liberia * Libya * Liechtenstein * Lithuania * Luxembourg * Macau (CN) * Macedonia * Madagascar * Malawi * Malaysia * Maldives * Mali * Malta * Marshall Islands * Martinique (FR) * Mauritania * Mauritius * Mayotte (FR) * Mexico * Micronesia * Moldova * Monaco * Mongolia * Montenegro * Montserrat (GB) * Morocco * Mozambique * Myanmar * Namibia * Nauru * Navassa (US) * Nepal * Netherlands * New Caledonia (FR) * New Zealand * Nicaragua * Niger * Nigeria * Niue (NZ) * Norfolk Island (AU) * North Korea * Northern Cyprus * Northern Mariana Islands (US) * Norway * Oman * Pakistan * Palau * Palestinian Authority * Panama * Papua New Guinea * Paraguay * Peru * Philippines * Pitcairn Island (GB) * Poland * Portugal * Puerto Rico (US) * Qatar * Reunion (FR) * Romania * Russia * Rwanda * Saba (NL) * Saint Barthelemy (FR) * Saint Helena (GB) * Saint Kitts and Nevis * Saint Lucia * Saint Martin (FR) * Saint Pierre and Miquelon (FR) * Saint Vincent and the Grenadines * Samoa * San Marino * Sao Tome and Principe * Saudi Arabia * Senegal * Serbia * Seychelles * Sierra Leone * Singapore * Sint Eustatius (NL) * Sint Maarten (NL) * Slovakia * Slovenia * Solomon Islands * Somalia * South Africa * South Georgia (GB) * South Korea * South Sudan * Spain * Sri Lanka * Sudan * Suriname * Svalbard (NO) * Swaziland * Sweden * Switzerland * Syria * Taiwan * Tajikistan * Tanzania * Thailand * Togo * Tokelau (NZ) * Tonga * Trinidad and Tobago * Tunisia * Turkey * Turkmenistan * Turks and Caicos Islands (GB) * Tuvalu * U.S. Minor Pacific Islands (US) * U.S. Virgin Islands (US) * Uganda * Ukraine * United Arab Emirates * United Kingdom * United States * Uruguay * Uzbekistan * Vanuatu * Vatican City * Venezuela * Vietnam * Wallis and Futuna (FR) * Yemen * Zambia * Zimbabwe
Apollo 11
Mission type Crewed lunar landing
Operator NASA
COSPAR ID
CSM: 1969-059A
LM: 1969-059C
SATCAT no.
CSM: 4039
LM: 4041
Mission duration 8 days, 3 hours, 18 minutes, 35 seconds
Spacecraft properties
Spacecraft
Apollo CSM-107
Apollo LM-5
Manufacturer
CSM: North American Rockwell
LM: Grumman
Launch mass 100,756 pounds (45,702 kg)
Landing mass 10,873 pounds (4,932 kg)
Crew
Crew size 3
Members
Neil A. Armstrong
Michael Collins
Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr.
Callsign
CSM: Columbia
LM: Eagle
On surface: Tranquility Base
Start of mission
Launch date July 16, 1969, 13:32:00 UTC[1]
Rocket Saturn V SA-506
Launch site Kennedy Space Center LC-39A
End of mission
Recovered by USS Hornet
Landing date July 24, 1969, 16:50:35 UTC
Landing site North Pacific Ocean
13°19′N 169°9′W
Orbital parameters
Reference system Selenocentric
Pericynthion altitude 100.9 kilometers (54.5 nmi)[2]
Apocynthion altitude 122.4 kilometers (66.1 nmi)[2]
Inclination 1.25 degrees[2]
Period 2 hours[2]
Epoch July 19, 1969, 21:44 UTC[2]
Lunar orbiter
Spacecraft component Command and service module
Orbital insertion July 19, 1969, 17:21:50 UTC[3]
Orbital departure July 22, 1969, 04:55:42 UTC[4]
Orbits 30
Lunar lander
Spacecraft component Apollo Lunar Module
Landing date July 20, 1969, 20:17:40 UTC[5]
Return launch July 21, 1969, 17:54 UTC
Landing site Mare Tranquillitatis
0.67408°N 23.47297°E[6]
Sample mass 21.55 kilograms (47.51 lb)
Surface EVAs 1
EVA duration 2 hours, 31 minutes, 40 seconds
Docking with LM
Docking date July 16, 1969, 16:56:03 UTC[3]
Undocking date July 20, 1969, 17:44:00 UTC[7]
Docking with LM ascent stage
Docking date July 21, 1969, 21:35:00 UTC[4]
Undocking date July 21, 1969, 23:41:31 UTC[4]
Circular
insignia: eagle with wings outstretched holds olive branch on Moon with
Earth in background, in blue and gold border. Three astronauts in
spacesuits without helmets sitting in front of a large photo of the
Moon.
Crew: Neil Armstrong, Michael Collins, Buzz Aldrin
Apollo program
Apollo
11 was the spaceflight that landed the first two humans on the Moon.
Commander Neil Armstrong and lunar module pilot Buzz Aldrin, both
American, landed the Apollo Lunar Module Eagle on July 20, 1969, at
20:17 UTC. Armstrong became the first person to step onto the lunar
surface six hours later on July 21 at 02:56:15 UTC; Aldrin joined him 19
minutes later. They spent about two and a quarter hours together
outside the spacecraft, and collected 47.5 pounds (21.5 kg) of lunar
material to bring back to Earth. Command module pilot Michael Collins
flew the command module Columbia alone in lunar orbit while they were on
the Moon's surface. Armstrong and Aldrin spent 21.5 hours on the lunar
surface at a site they named Tranquility Base before rejoining Columbia
in lunar orbit.
Apollo 11 was launched by a Saturn V rocket from
Kennedy Space Center on Merritt Island, Florida, on July 16 at 13:32
UTC, and was the fifth crewed mission of NASA's Apollo program. The
Apollo spacecraft had three parts: a command module (CM) with a cabin
for the three astronauts, and the only part that returned to Earth; a
service module (SM), which supported the command module with propulsion,
electrical power, oxygen, and water; and a lunar module (LM) that had
two stages – a descent stage for landing on the Moon, and an ascent
stage to place the astronauts back into lunar orbit.
After being
sent to the Moon by the Saturn V's third stage, the astronauts separated
the spacecraft from it and traveled for three days until they entered
lunar orbit. Armstrong and Aldrin then moved into Eagle and landed in
the Sea of Tranquillity. The astronauts used Eagle's ascent stage to
lift off from the lunar surface and rejoin Collins in the command
module. They jettisoned Eagle before they performed the maneuvers that
propelled the ship out of the last of its 30 lunar orbits on a
trajectory back to Earth.[4] They returned to Earth and splashed down in
the Pacific Ocean on July 24 after more than eight days in space.
Armstrong's
first step onto the lunar surface was broadcast on live TV to a
worldwide audience. He described the event as "one small step for [a]
man, one giant leap for mankind."[8][9] Apollo 11 effectively ended the
Space Race and fulfilled a national goal proposed in 1961 by President
John F. Kennedy: "before this decade is out, of landing a man on the
Moon and returning him safely to the Earth."[10]
Background
In
the late 1950s and early 1960s, the United States was engaged in the
Cold War, a geopolitical rivalry with the Soviet Union.[11] On October
4, 1957, the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1, the first artificial
satellite. This surprise success fired fears and imaginations around the
world. It demonstrated that the Soviet Union had the capability to
deliver nuclear weapons over intercontinental distances, and challenged
American claims of military, economic and technological superiority.[12]
This precipitated the Sputnik crisis, and triggered the Space Race.[13]
President Dwight D. Eisenhower responded to the Sputnik challenge by
creating the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), and
initiating Project Mercury,[14] which aimed to launch a man into Earth
orbit.[15] But on April 12, 1961, Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became
the first person in space, and the first to orbit the Earth.[16] It was
another body blow to American pride.[17] In spite of that, the Apollo
program faced the opposition of many Americans and was dubbed
"moondoggle".[18][19] Nearly a month later, on May 5, 1961, Alan Shepard
became the first American in space, completing a 15-minute suborbital
journey. After being recovered from the Atlantic Ocean, he received a
congratulatory telephone call from Eisenhower's successor, John F.
Kennedy.[20]
Kennedy believed that it was in the national
interest of the United States to be superior to other nations, and that
the perception of American power was at least as important as the
actuality. It was therefore intolerable that the Soviet Union was more
advanced in the field of space exploration. He was determined that the
United States should compete, and sought a challenge that maximized its
chances of winning.[11] Since the Soviet Union had better booster
rockets, he required a challenge that was beyond the capacity of the
existing generation of rocketry, one where the US and Soviet Union would
be starting from a position of equality. Something spectacular, even if
it could not be justified on military, economic or scientific grounds.
After consulting with his experts and advisors, he chose such a
project.[21] On May 25, 1961, he addressed the United States Congress on
"Urgent National Needs" and declared:
I believe that this
nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is
out, of landing a man on the moon and returning him safely to the
Earth. No single space project in this period will be more impressive to
mankind, or more important for the long-range exploration of space; and
none will be so difficult or expensive to accomplish. We propose to
accelerate the development of the appropriate lunar space craft. We
propose to develop alternate liquid and solid fuel boosters, much larger
than any now being developed, until certain which is superior. We
propose additional funds for other engine development and for unmanned
explorations – explorations which are particularly important for one
purpose which this nation will never overlook: the survival of the man
who first makes this daring flight. But in a very real sense, it will
not be one man going to the Moon – if we make this judgment
affirmatively, it will be an entire nation. For all of us must work to
put him there.
— Kennedy's speech to the congress[22]
The
effort to land a man on the Moon already had a name: Project Apollo.[23]
An early and crucial decision was choosing lunar orbit rendezvous over
both direct ascent and Earth orbit rendezvous. A space rendezvous is an
orbital maneuver in which two spacecraft navigate through space and meet
up. In July 1962 NASA head James Webb announced that lunar orbit
rendezvous would be used[24][25] and that the Apollo spacecraft would
have three major parts: a command module (CM) with a cabin for the three
astronauts, and the only part that returned to Earth; a service module
(SM), which supported the command module with propulsion, electrical
power, oxygen, and water; and a lunar module (LM) that had two stages – a
descent stage for landing on the Moon, and an ascent stage to place the
astronauts back into lunar orbit.[26] This design meant that the
spacecraft could be launched by a single Saturn V rocket that was then
under development.[27]
Technologies and technics required for
Apollo were developed by Project Gemini.[28] Project Apollo was abruptly
halted by the Apollo 1 fire on January 27, 1967, in which astronauts
Gus Grissom, Ed White, and Roger B. Chaffee died, and the subsequent
investigation.[29] In October 1968, Apollo 7 evaluated the command
module in Earth orbit,[30] and in December Apollo 8 tested it in lunar
orbit.[31] In March 1969, Apollo 9 put the lunar module through its
paces in Earth orbit,[32] and in May Apollo 10 conducted a "dress
rehearsal" in lunar orbit. By July 1969, all was in readiness for Apollo
11 to take the final step onto the Moon.[33]
The Soviet Union
competed with the US in the Space Race, but its early lead was lost
through repeated failures in development of the N1 launcher, which was
comparable to the Saturn V.[34] The Soviets tried to beat the US to
return lunar material to the Earth by means of unmanned probes. On July
13, three days before Apollo 11's launch, the Soviet Union launched Luna
15, which reached lunar orbit before Apollo 11. During descent, a
malfunction caused Luna 15 to crash in Mare Crisium about two hours
before Armstrong and Aldrin took off from the Moon's surface to begin
their voyage home. The Nuffield Radio Astronomy Laboratories radio
telescope in England recorded transmissions from Luna 15 during its
descent, and these were released in July 2009 for the 40th anniversary
of Apollo 11.[35]
Personnel
Prime crew
Position Astronaut
Commander Neil A. Armstrong
Second and last spaceflight
Command Module Pilot Michael Collins
Second and last spaceflight
Lunar Module Pilot Edwin "Buzz" E. Aldrin Jr.
Second and last spaceflight
The
initial crew assignment of Commander Neil Armstrong, Command Module
Pilot (CMP) Jim Lovell, and Lunar Module Pilot (LMP) Buzz Aldrin on the
backup crew for Apollo 9 was officially announced on November 20,
1967.[36] Lovell and Aldrin had previously flown together as the crew of
Gemini 12. Due to design and manufacturing delays in the LM, Apollo 8
and Apollo 9 swapped prime and backup crews, and Armstrong's crew became
the backup for Apollo 8. Based on the normal crew rotation scheme,
Armstrong was then expected to command Apollo 11.[37]
There would
be one change. Michael Collins, the CMP on the Apollo 8 crew, began
experiencing trouble with his legs. Doctors diagnosed the problem as a
bony growth between his fifth and sixth vertebrae, requiring
surgery.[38] Lovell took his place on the Apollo 8 crew, and when
Collins recovered he joined Armstrong's crew as CMP. In the meantime,
Fred Haise filled in as backup LMP, and Aldrin as backup CMP for Apollo
8.[39] Apollo 11 was the second American mission where all the
crewmembers had prior spaceflight experience,[40] the first being Apollo
10.[41] The next was STS-26 in 1988.[40]
Deke Slayton gave
Armstrong the option to replace Aldrin with Lovell, since some thought
Aldrin was difficult to work with. Armstrong had no issues working with
Aldrin, but thought it over for a day before declining. He thought
Lovell deserved to command his own mission (eventually Apollo 13).[42]
The
Apollo 11 prime crew had none of the close cheerful camaraderie that
characterized that of Apollo 12. Instead they forged an amiable working
relationship. Armstrong in particular was notoriously aloof, but
Collins, who considered himself a loner, confessed to rebuffing Aldrin's
attempts to create a more personal relationship.[43] Aldrin and Collins
described the crew as "amiable strangers".[44] Armstrong did not agree
with the assessment, and said "...all the crews I was on worked very
well together."[44]
Backup crew
Position Astronaut
Commander James A. Lovell Jr.
Command Module Pilot William A. Anders
Lunar Module Pilot Fred W. Haise Jr.
The
backup crew consisted of Lovell as Commander, William Anders as CMP,
and Haise as LMP. Anders had flown with Lovell on Apollo 8.[40] In early
1969, he accepted a job with the National Aeronautics and Space Council
effective August 1969, and announced that he would retire as an
astronaut at that time. Ken Mattingly was moved from the support crew
into parallel training with Anders as backup CMP in case Apollo 11 was
delayed past its intended July launch date, at which point Anders would
be unavailable. Lovell, Haise, and Mattingly were later assigned as the
prime crew of Apollo 13.[45]
Support crew
During Projects
Mercury and Gemini, each mission had a prime and a backup crew. For
Apollo, a third crew of astronauts was added, known as the support crew.
The support crew maintained the flight plan, checklists and mission
ground rules, and ensured that the prime and backup crews were apprised
of changes. They developed procedures, especially those for emergency
situations, so these were ready for when the prime and backup crews came
to train in the simulators, allowing them to concentrate on practicing
and mastering them.[46] For Apollo 11, the support crew consisted of Ken
Mattingly, Ronald Evans and Bill Pogue.[47]
Capsule communicators
CAPCOM Charles Duke, with backup crewmen Jim Lovell and Fred Haise listening in during Apollo 11's descent
The
capsule communicator (CAPCOM) was an astronaut at the Mission Control
Center in Houston, Texas, who was the only person who communicated
directly with the flight crew.[48] For Apollo 11, the CAPCOMs were:
Charles Duke, Ronald Evans, Bruce McCandless II, James Lovell, William
Anders, Ken Mattingly, Fred Haise, Don L. Lind, Owen K. Garriott and
Harrison Schmitt.[47]
Flight directors
The flight directors for this mission were:[49][50][51][52][53][54]
Name Shift Team Activities
Clifford E. Charlesworth 1 Green Launch and extravehicular activity (EVA)
Gerald D. Griffin 1 Gold Backup for shift 1
Gene Kranz 2 White Lunar landing
Glynn Lunney 3 Black Lunar ascent
Milton Windler 4 Maroon Planning
Preparations
Insignia
Apollo 11 insignia
The
Apollo 11 mission emblem was designed by Collins, who wanted a symbol
for "peaceful lunar landing by the United States". At Lovell's
suggestion, he chose the bald eagle, the national bird of the United
States, as the symbol. Tom Wilson, a simulator instructor, suggested
that they put an olive branch in its beak to represent their peaceful
mission. Collins added a lunar background with the Earth in the
distance. The sunlight in the image was coming from the wrong direction;
the shadow should have been in the lower part of the Earth instead of
the left. Aldrin, Armstrong and Collins decided that the Eagle and the
Moon would be in their natural colours, and decided on a blue and gold
border. Armstrong was concerned that "eleven" would not be understood by
non-English speakers, so they went with "Apollo 11",[55] and they
decided not to put their names on the patch, so it would "be
representative of everyone who had worked toward a lunar landing".[56]
An
illustrator at the MSC did the artwork, which was then sent off to NASA
officials for approval.[55] The design was rejected. Bob Gilruth, the
director of the MSC felt that the talons of the eagle looked "too
warlike".[57] After some discussion, the olive branch was moved to the
talons.[57] When the Eisenhower dollar coin was released in 1971, the
patch design provided the eagle for its reverse side.[58] The design was
also used for the smaller Susan B. Anthony dollar unveiled in 1979.[59]
Call signs
After
the crew of Apollo 10 named their spacecraft Charlie Brown and Snoopy,
assistant manager for public affairs Julian Scheer wrote to George M.
Low, the Manager of the Apollo Spacecraft Program Office at the Manned
Spacecraft Center (MSC), to suggest the Apollo 11 crew be less flippant
in naming their craft. The name Snowcone was used for the CM and
Haystack was used for the LM in both internal and external
communications during early mission planning.[60]
The LM was
named Eagle after the motif which was featured prominently on the
mission insignia. At Scheer's suggestion, the CM was named Columbia
after Columbiad, the giant cannon that launched a spacecraft (also from
Florida) in Jules Verne's 1865 novel From the Earth to the Moon. It also
referenced Columbia, a historical name of the United States. [61][62]
In Collins' 1976 book, he said Columbia was in reference to Christopher
Columbus.[63]
Mementos
Apollo 11 space-flown silver Robbins medallion
The
astronaut had personal preference kits (PPKs), small bags containing
personal items of significance that they wanted to take with them on the
mission.[64] Five 0.5-pound (0.23 kg) PPKs were carried on Apollo 11:
three (one for each astronaut) were stowed on Columbia before launch,
and two on Eagle.[65]
Neil Armstrong's LM PPK contained a piece
of wood from the Wright brothers' 1903 Wright Flyer's left propeller and
a piece of fabric from its wing,[66] along with a diamond-studded
astronaut pin originally given to Slayton by the widows of the Apollo 1
crew. This pin had been intended to be flown on that mission and given
to Slayton afterwards, but following the disastrous launch pad fire and
subsequent funerals, the widows gave the pin to Slayton. Armstrong took
it with him on Apollo 11.[67]
Site selection
Map of Moon showing prospective sites for Apollo 11. Site 2 was chosen.
NASA's
Apollo Site Selection Board announced five potential landing sites on
February 8, 1968. These were the result of two years' worth of studies
based on high-resolution photography of the lunar surface by the five
unmanned probes of the Lunar Orbiter program and information about
surface conditions provided by the Surveyor program.[68] The best
Earth-bound telescopes could not resolve features with the resolution
Project Apollo required.[69] The landing site had to be close to the
lunar equator to minimize the amount of propellant required; clear of
obstacles to minimize maneuvering, and flat to simplify the task of the
landing radar. Scientific value was not a consideration.[70]
Areas
that appeared promising on photographs taken on Earth were often found
to be totally unacceptable. The original requirement that the site be
free of craters had to be relaxed, as no such site was found.[71] Five
sites were considered: Sites 1 and 2 were in the Sea of Tranquility
(Mare Tranquilitatis); Site 3 was in the Central Bay (Sinus Medii); and
Sites 4 and 5 were in the Ocean of Storms (Oceanus Procellarum).[68] The
final site selection was based on seven criteria:
The site needed to be smooth, with relatively few craters;
with approach paths free of large hills, tall cliffs or deep craters
that might confuse the landing radar and cause it to issue incorrect
readings;
reachable with a minimum amount of propellant;
allowing for delays in the launch countdown;
providing the Apollo spacecraft with a free-return trajectory, one that
would allow it to coast around the Moon and safely return to Earth
without requiring any engine firings should a problem arise on the way
to the Moon;
with good visibility during the landing approach, meaning that the Sun would be between 7 and 20 degrees behind the LM; and
a general slope of less than 2 degrees in the landing area.[68]
The
requirement for the Sun angle was particularly restrictive, limiting
the launch date to one day per month.[68] A landing just after dawn was
chosen to limit the temperature extremes the astronauts would
experience.[72] The Apollo Site Selection Board selected Site 2, with
Sites 3 and 5 as backups in the event of the launch being delayed. In
May 1969, Apollo 10's lunar module flew to within 15 kilometers (9.3 mi)
of Site 2, and reported that it was acceptable.[73][74]
First step decision
During
the first press conference after the Apollo 11 crew was announced, the
first question a reporter asked was, "Which one of you gentlemen will be
the first man to step onto the lunar surface?"[75][76] Slayton told the
reporter that it had not been decided, and Armstrong added that it was
"not based on individual desire".[75]
One of the first versions
of the egress checklist had the lunar module pilot exit the spacecraft
before the command module pilot, which matched what had been done in
previous missions.[77] The commander had never performed the
spacewalk.[78] Reporters wrote in early 1969 that Aldrin would be the
first to walk on the Moon, and Associate Administrator George Mueller
told reporters he would be the first as well. Aldrin heard that
Armstrong would be the first to step on the Moon because Armstrong was a
civilian, which made Aldrin livid. Aldrin attempted to persuade other
lunar module pilots he should be first, but they responded cynically
about what they perceived as a lobbying campaign. Attempting to stem
interdepartmental conflict, Slayton told Aldrin that Armstrong would be
first since he was the commander. The decision was announced in a press
conference on April 14, 1969.[79]
For decades, Aldrin believed
the final decision was largely driven by the lunar module's hatch
location. Because the astronauts had their spacesuits on and the
spacecraft was so small, maneuvering to exit the spacecraft was
difficult. The crew tried a simulation in which Aldrin left the
spacecraft first, but he damaged the simulator while attempting to
egress. While this was enough for mission planners to make their
decision, Aldrin and Armstrong were left in the dark on the decision
until late spring.[80] Slayton told Armstrong the plan was to have him
leave the spacecraft first, if he agreed. Armstrong said, "Yes, that’s
the way to do it."[81]
The media accused Armstrong of exercising
his commander's prerogative to exit the spacecraft first.[82] Chris
Kraft revealed in his 2001 autobiography that a meeting occurred between
Gilruth, Slayton, Low, and himself to make sure Aldrin would not be the
first to walk on the Moon. They argued that the first person to walk on
the Moon should be like Charles Lindbergh, a calm and quiet person.
They made the decision to change the flight plan so the commander was
the first to egress from the spacecraft.[83]
Pre-launch
Saturn V
SA-506, the rocket carrying the Apollo 11 spacecraft, moves out of the
Vehicle Assembly Building towards Launch Complex 39
The ascent
stage of lunar module LM-5 arrived at the Kennedy Space Center on
January 8, 1969, followed by the descent stage four days later, and
Command and Service Module CM-107 on January 23.[1] There were several
differences between LM-5 and Apollo 10's LM-4; LM-5 had a VHF radio
antenna to facilitate communication with the astronauts during their EVA
on the lunar surface; a lighter ascent engine; more thermal protection
on the landing gear; and a package of scientific experiments known as
the Early Apollo Scientific Experiments Package (EASEP). The only change
in the configuration of the command module was the removal of some
insulation from the forward hatch.[84][85] The command and service
modules were mated on January 29, and moved from the Operations and
Checkout Building to the Vehicle Assembly Building on April 14.[1]
The
S-IVB third stage of Saturn V AS-506 had arrived on January 18,
followed by the S-II second stage on February 6, S-IC first stage on
February 20, and the Saturn V Instrument Unit on February 27. At 1230 on
May 20, the 5,443-tonne (5,357-long-ton; 6,000-short-ton) assembly
departed the Vehicle Assembly Building atop the crawler-transporter,
bound for Launch Pad 39A, part of Launch Complex 39, while Apollo 10 was
still on its way to the Moon. A countdown test commenced on June 26,
and concluded on July 2. The launch complex was floodlit on the night of
July 15, when the crawler-transporter carried the mobile service
structure back to its parking area.[1] In the early hours of the
morning, the fuel tanks of the S-II and S-IVB stages were filled with
liquid hydrogen.[86] Fueling was completed by three hours before
launch.[87] Launch operations were partly automated, with 43 programs
written in the ATOLL programming language.[88]
Slayton roused the
crew shortly after 0400, and they showered, shaved, and had the
traditional pre-flight breakfast of steak and eggs with Slayton and the
backup crew. They then donned their space suits and began breathing pure
oxygen. At 0630, they headed out to Launch Complex 39.[89] Haise
entered Columbia about three hours and ten minutes before launch time.
Along with a technician, he helped Armstrong into the left hand couch at
06:54. Five minutes later, Collins joined him, taking up his position
on the right hand couch. Finally, Aldrin entered, taking the center
couch.[87] Haise left around two hours and ten minutes before
launch.[90] The closeout crew sealed the hatch, and the cabin was purged
and pressurized. The closeout crew then left the launch complex about
an hour before launch time. The countdown became automated at three
minutes and twenty seconds before launch time.[87] Over 450 personnel
were at the consoles in the firing room.[86]
Mission
Launch and flight to lunar orbit
The
Apollo 11 Saturn V space vehicle lifts off with Astronauts Neil A.
Armstrong, Michael Collins and Edwin E. Aldrin Jr. at 9:32 a.m. EDT July
16, 1969, from Kennedy Space Center's Launch Complex 39A.
An
estimated one million spectators watched the launch of Apollo 11 from
the highways and beaches in the vicinity of the launch site. Dignitaries
included the Chief of Staff of the United States Army, General William
Westmoreland, four cabinet members, 19 state governors, 40 mayors, 60
ambassadors and 200 congressmen. Vice President Spiro Agnew viewed the
launch with the former president, Lyndon B. Johnson and his wife Lady
Bird Johnson.[86][91] Around 3,500 media representatives were
present.[92] About two-thirds were from the United States; the rest came
from 55 other countries. The launch was televised live in 33 countries,
with an estimated 25 million viewers in the United States alone.
Millions more around the world listened to radio broadcasts.[91][86]
President Richard Nixon viewed the launch from his office in the White
House with his NASA liaison officer, Apollo astronaut Frank Borman.[93]
Saturn
V AS-506 launched Apollo 11 on July 16, 1969, at 13:32:00 UTC (9:32:00
EDT).[1] At 13.2 seconds into the flight, the launch vehicle began to
roll into its flight azimuth of 72.058°. Full shutdown of the
first-stage engines occurred at about 2 minutes and 42 seconds into the
mission, followed by separation of the S-IC and ignition of the S-II
engines. The second stage engines then cut-off and separated at about 9
minutes and 8 seconds, allowing the first ignition of the S-IVB engine a
few seconds later.[3]
Apollo 11 entered Earth orbit at an
altitude of 100.4 nautical miles (185.9 km) by 98.9 nautical miles
(183.2 km), twelve minutes into its flight. After one and a half orbits,
a second ignition of the S-IVB engine pushed the spacecraft onto its
trajectory toward the Moon with the trans-lunar injection (TLI) burn at
16:22:13 UTC. About 30 minutes later, with Collins in the left seat and
at the controls, the transposition, docking, and extraction maneuver was
performed. This involved separating Columbia from the spent S-IVB
stage, turning around, and docking with Eagle still attached to the
stage. After the LM was extracted, the combined spacecraft headed for
the Moon, while the rocket stage flew on a trajectory past the
Moon.[94][3] This was done to avoid colliding with the spacecraft, the
Earth, or the Moon. A slingshot effect from passing around the Moon
threw it into an orbit around the Sun.[95]
On July 19 at 17:21:50
UTC, Apollo 11 passed behind the Moon and fired its service propulsion
engine to enter lunar orbit.[3] In the thirty orbits that followed, the
crew saw passing views of their landing site in the southern Sea of
Tranquillity about 12 miles (19 km) southwest of the crater Sabine D.
The site was selected in part because it had been characterized as
relatively flat and smooth by the automated Ranger 8 and Surveyor 5
landers and the Lunar Orbiter mapping spacecraft and unlikely to present
major landing or EVA challenges.[96] It lay about 25 kilometers (16 mi)
southeast of the Surveyor 5 landing site, and 68 kilometers (42 mi)
southwest of Ranger 8's crash site.[97]
Lunar descent
The top of the silvery command module is seen over a grey, cratered lunar surface
Columbia in lunar orbit, photographed from Eagle
At
12:52:00 UTC on July 20, Aldrin and Armstrong entered Eagle, and began
the final preparations for lunar descent.[3] At 17:44:00 Eagle separated
from Columbia.[7] Collins, alone aboard Columbia, inspected Eagle as it
pirouetted before him to ensure the craft was not damaged, and that the
landing gear was correctly deployed.[98][99] Armstrong exclaimed: "The
Eagle has wings!"[99]
As the descent began, Armstrong and Aldrin
found that they were passing landmarks on the surface two or three
seconds early, and reported that they were "long"; they would land miles
west of their target point. Eagle was traveling too fast. The problem
could have been mascons – concentrations of high mass that could have
altered the trajectory. Flight Director Gene Kranz speculated that it
could have resulted from extra air pressure in the docking tunnel. Or it
could have been the result of Eagle's pirouette maneuver.[100][101]
Five
minutes into the descent burn, and 6,000 feet (1,800 m) above the
surface of the Moon, the LM guidance computer (LGC) distracted the crew
with the first of several unexpected 1201 and 1202 program alarms.
Inside Mission Control Center, computer engineer Jack Garman told
Guidance Officer Steve Bales it was safe to continue the descent, and
this was relayed to the crew. The program alarms indicated "executive
overflows", meaning the guidance computer could not complete all of its
tasks in real time and had to postpone some of them.[102][103] Margaret
Hamilton, the Director of Apollo Flight Computer Programming at the MIT
Charles Stark Draper Laboratory later recalled:
Eagle in lunar orbit photographed from Columbia
To blame the computer for the Apollo 11 problems is like blaming the
person who spots a fire and calls the fire department. Actually, the
computer was programmed to do more than recognize error conditions. A
complete set of recovery programs was incorporated into the software.
The software's action, in this case, was to eliminate lower priority
tasks and re-establish the more important ones. The computer, rather
than almost forcing an abort, prevented an abort. If the computer hadn't
recognized this problem and taken recovery action, I doubt if Apollo 11
would have been the successful Moon landing it was.[104]
During
the mission, the cause was diagnosed as the rendezvous radar switch
being in the wrong position, causing the computer to process data from
both the rendezvous and landing radars at the same time.[105][106]
Software engineer Don Eyles concluded in a 2005 Guidance and Control
Conference paper that the problem was due to a hardware design bug
previously seen during testing of the first unmanned LM in Apollo 5.
Having the rendezvous radar on (so that it was warmed up in case of an
emergency landing abort) should have been irrelevant to the computer,
but an electrical phasing mismatch between two parts of the rendezvous
radar system could cause the stationary antenna to appear to the
computer as dithering back and forth between two positions, depending
upon how the hardware randomly powered up. The extra spurious cycle
stealing, as the rendezvous radar updated an involuntary counter, caused
the computer alarms.[107]
Landing
Landing site relative to West crater
When
Armstrong again looked outside, he saw that the computer's landing
target was in a boulder-strewn area just north and east of a 300-foot
(91 m) diameter crater (later determined to be West crater), so he took
semi-automatic control.[108][109] Armstrong considered landing short of
the boulder field so they could collect geological samples from it, but
could not since their horizontal velocity was too fast. Throughout the
descent, Aldrin called out navigation data to Armstrong, who was busy
piloting Eagle. Now 107 feet (33 m) above the surface, Armstrong knew
their propellant supply was dwindling and was determined to land at the
first possible landing site.[110]
Armstrong found a clear patch
of ground and maneuvered the spacecraft towards it. As he got closer,
now 250 feet (76 m) above the surface, he discovered his new landing
site had a crater in it. He cleared the crater and found another patch
of level ground. They were now 100 feet (30 m) from the surface, with
only 90 seconds of propellant remaining. Lunar dust kicked up by the
LM's engine began to obfuscate his ability to determine the spacecraft's
motion. Some large rocks jutted out of the dust cloud, and Armstrong
focused on them during his descent so he could determine the
spacecraft's speed.[111]
A few moments before the landing, a
light informed Aldrin that at least one of the 67-inch (170 cm) probes
hanging from Eagle's footpads had touched the surface, and he said:
"Contact light!" Armstrong was supposed to immediately shutdown the
engine, as the engineers suspected the pressure caused by the engine's
own exhaust reflecting off the lunar surface could make it explode, but
he forgot. Three seconds later, Eagle landed and Armstrong shutdown the
engine.[112] Aldrin immediately said "Okay, engine stop. ACA – out of
detent." Armstrong acknowledged: "Out of detent. Auto." Aldrin
continued: "Mode control – both auto. Descent engine command override
off. Engine arm – off. 413 is in."[113]
File:AP11 FINAL APPROACH.ogvPlay media
Landing on the Moon, July 20, 1969
ACA
was the attitude control assembly, the LM's control stick. Output went
to the LGC to command the reaction control system (RCS) jets to fire.
"Out of Detent" meant that the stick had moved away from its centered
position; it was spring-centered like the turn indicator in a car. LGC
address 413 contained the variable that indicated that the LM had
landed.[5]
Eagle landed at 20:17:40 UTC on Sunday July 20 with
216 pounds (98 kg) of usable fuel remaining. Information available to
the crew and mission controllers during the landing showed that the LM
had enough fuel for another 25 seconds of powered flight before an abort
without touchdown would have become unsafe,[5][114] but post-mission
analysis showed that the real figure was probably closer to 50
seconds.[115] Apollo 11 landed with less fuel than most subsequent
missions, and the astronauts encountered a premature low fuel warning.
This was later found to be the result of greater propellant 'slosh' than
expected, uncovering a fuel sensor. On subsequent missions, extra
anti-slosh baffles were added to the tanks to prevent this.[5]
Armstrong
acknowledged Aldrin's completion of the post landing checklist with
"Engine arm is off", before responding to the CAPCOM, Charles Duke, with
the words, "Houston, Tranquility Base here. The Eagle has landed."
Armstrong's unrehearsed change of call sign from "Eagle" to "Tranquility
Base" emphasized to listeners that landing was complete and
successful.[116] Duke mispronounced his reply as he expressed the relief
at Mission Control: "Roger, Twan– Tranquility, we copy you on the
ground. You got a bunch of guys about to turn blue. We're breathing
again. Thanks a lot."[5][117]
File:A New Look at the Apollo 11 Landing Site.ogvPlay media
The
Apollo 11 landing site visualized in three dimensions using photography
and a stereo digital elevation model from the LRO camera.
Two and a half hours after landing, before preparations began for the EVA, Aldrin radioed to Earth:
This is the LM pilot. I'd like to take this opportunity to ask every
person listening in, whoever and wherever they may be, to pause for a
moment and contemplate the events of the past few hours and to give
thanks in his or her own way.[118]
He then took communion
privately. At this time NASA was still fighting a lawsuit brought by
atheist Madalyn Murray O'Hair (who had objected to the Apollo 8 crew
reading from the Book of Genesis) demanding that their astronauts
refrain from broadcasting religious activities while in space. As such,
Aldrin chose to refrain from directly mentioning taking communion on the
Moon. Aldrin was an elder at the Webster Presbyterian Church, and his
communion kit was prepared by the pastor of the church, Dean Woodruff.
Webster Presbyterian possesses the chalice used on the Moon and
commemorates the event each year on the Sunday closest to July 20.[119]
The schedule for the mission called for the astronauts to follow the
landing with a five-hour sleep period, but they chose to begin the
preparations for the EVA early, thinking that they would be unable to
sleep.[120]
Lunar surface operations
A photograph of Armstrong
taken by Aldrin. This is one of the few photographs of Armstrong on the
lunar surface; most of the time he had the camera.
Preparations
for the EVA began at 23:43.[7] These took longer than expected; three
and a half hours instead of two.[121] During training on Earth,
everything required had been neatly laid out in advance, but on the Moon
the cabin contained a large number of other items as well, such as
checklists, food packets and tools.[122] Once Armstrong and Aldrin were
ready to go outside, Eagle was depressurized.[123] The hatch was opened
at 02:39:33.[7] Armstrong initially had some difficulties squeezing
through the hatch with his portable life support system (PLSS).[121]
Some of the highest heart rates recorded from Apollo astronauts occurred
during LM egress and ingress.[124] At 02:51 Armstrong began his descent
to the lunar surface. The remote control unit controls on his chest
kept him from seeing his feet. Climbing down the nine-rung ladder,
Armstrong pulled a D-ring to deploy the modular equipment stowage
assembly (MESA) folded against Eagle's side and activate the TV
camera.[125][9]
Apollo 11 used slow-scan television (TV)
incompatible with broadcast TV, so it was displayed on a special monitor
and a conventional TV camera viewed this monitor, significantly
reducing the quality of the picture.[126] The signal was received at
Goldstone in the United States, but with better fidelity by Honeysuckle
Creek Tracking Station near Canberra in Australia. Minutes later the
feed was switched to the more sensitive Parkes radio telescope in
Australia.[127] Despite some technical and weather difficulties, ghostly
black and white images of the first lunar EVA were received and
broadcast to at least 600 million people on Earth.[127] Copies of this
video in broadcast format were saved and are widely available, but
recordings of the original slow scan source transmission from the lunar
surface were likely destroyed during routine magnetic tape re-use at
NASA.[126]
The plaque left on the ladder of Eagle
That's one small step ...
Menu
0:00
Problems playing this file? See media help.
While
still on the ladder, Armstrong uncovered a plaque mounted on the LM
descent stage bearing two drawings of Earth (of the Western and Eastern
Hemispheres), an inscription, and signatures of the astronauts and
President Nixon. The inscription read:
Here men from the planet Earth first set foot upon the Moon, July 1969 A.D. We came in peace for all mankind.[9]
After
describing the surface dust as "very fine-grained" and "almost like a
powder",[9] at 02:56:15, six and a half hours after landing, Armstrong
stepped off Eagle's footpad and declared: "That's one small step for [a]
man, one giant leap for mankind."[8][128][129]
Armstrong
intended to say "That's one small step for a man", but the word "a" is
not audible in the transmission, and thus was not initially reported by
most observers of the live broadcast. When later asked about his quote,
Armstrong said he believed he said "for a man", and subsequent printed
versions of the quote included the "a" in square brackets. One
explanation for the absence may be that his accent caused him to slur
the words "for a" together; another is the intermittent nature of the
audio and video links to Earth, partly because of storms near Parkes
Observatory. More recent digital analysis of the tape claims to reveal
the "a" may have been spoken but obscured by static.[130][131][132]
About
seven minutes after stepping onto the Moon's surface, Armstrong
collected a contingency soil sample using a sample bag on a stick. He
then folded the bag and tucked it into a pocket on his right thigh. This
was to guarantee there would be some lunar soil brought back in case an
emergency required the astronauts to abandon the EVA and return to the
LM.[133] Twelve minutes after the sample was collected,[128] he removed
the TV camera from the MESA and made a panoramic sweep, then mounted it
on a tripod.[121] The TV camera cable remained partly coiled and
presented a tripping hazard throughout the EVA. Still photography was
accomplished with a Hasselblad camera which could be operated hand held
or mounted on Armstrong's Apollo/Skylab A7L space suit.[134] Aldrin
joined Armstrong on the surface. He described the view with the simple
phrase: "Magnificent desolation."[9]
Armstrong said that moving
in the lunar gravity, one-sixth of Earth's, was "even perhaps easier
than the simulations ... It's absolutely no trouble to walk around."[9]
Aldrin joined him on the surface and tested methods for moving around,
including two-footed kangaroo hops. The PLSS backpack created a tendency
to tip backward, but neither astronaut had serious problems maintaining
balance. Loping became the preferred method of movement. The astronauts
reported that they needed to plan their movements six or seven steps
ahead. The fine soil was quite slippery. Aldrin remarked that moving
from sunlight into Eagle's shadow produced no temperature change inside
the suit, but the helmet was warmer in sunlight, so he felt cooler in
shadow.[9] The MESA failed to provide a stable work platform and was in
shadow, slowing work somewhat. As they worked, the moonwalkers kicked up
gray dust which soiled the outer part of their suits.[134]
Aldrin salutes the deployed United States flag on the lunar surface.
The
astronauts planted the Lunar Flag Assembly containing a flag of the
United States on the lunar surface, in clear view of the TV camera.
Aldrin remembered, "Of all the jobs I had to do on the Moon the one I
wanted to go the smoothest was the flag raising."[135] But the
astronauts struggled with the telescoping rod and could only jam the
pole a couple of inches (5 cm) into the hard lunar surface. Aldrin was
afraid it might topple in front of TV viewers. But he gave "a crisp West
Point salute".[135] Before Aldrin could take a photo of Armstrong with
the flag, President Richard Nixon spoke to them through a
telephone-radio transmission which Nixon called "the most historic phone
call ever made from the White House."[136] Nixon originally had a long
speech prepared to read during the phone call, but Frank Borman, who was
at the White House as a NASA liaison during Apollo 11, convinced Nixon
to keep his words brief.[137]
Nixon: Hello, Neil and Buzz.
I'm talking to you by telephone from the Oval Room at the White House.
And this certainly has to be the most historic telephone call ever made.
I just can't tell you how proud we all are of what you've done. For
every American, this has to be the proudest day of our lives. And for
people all over the world, I am sure they too join with Americans in
recognizing what an immense feat this is. Because of what you have done,
the heavens have become a part of man's world. And as you talk to us
from the Sea of Tranquillity, it inspires us to redouble our efforts to
bring peace and tranquillity to Earth. For one priceless moment in the
whole history of man, all the people on this Earth are truly one: one in
their pride in what you have done, and one in our prayers that you will
return safely to Earth.
Armstrong: Thank you, Mr. President.
It's a great honor and privilege for us to be here, representing not
only the United States, but men of peace of all nations, and with
interest and curiosity, and men with a vision for the future. It's an
honor for us to be able to participate here today.[138]
Aldrin's bootprint; part of an experiment to test the properties of the lunar regolith
They
deployed the EASEP, which included a passive seismic experiment package
used to measure moonquakes and a retroreflector array used for the
lunar laser ranging experiment.[139] Then Armstrong walked 196 feet (60
m) from the LM to snap photos at the rim of Little West Crater while
Aldrin collected two core samples. He used the geologist's hammer to
pound in the tubes – the only time the hammer was used on Apollo 11, but
was unable to penetrate more than 6 inches (15 cm) deep. The astronauts
then collected rock samples using scoops and tongs on extension
handles. Many of the surface activities took longer than expected, so
they had to stop documenting sample collection halfway through the
allotted 34 minutes. Aldrin shoveled 6 kilograms (13 lb) of soil into
the box of rocks in order to pack them in tightly.[140] Two types of
rocks were found in the geological samples: basalt and breccia.[141]
Three new minerals were discovered in the rock samples collected by the
astronauts: armalcolite, tranquillityite, and pyroxferroite. Armalcolite
was named after Armstrong, Aldrin, and Collins. All have subsequently
been found on Earth.[142]
Mission Control used a coded phrase to
warn Armstrong that his metabolic rates were high, and that he should
slow down. He was moving rapidly from task to task as time ran out. As
metabolic rates remained generally lower than expected for both
astronauts throughout the walk, Mission Control granted the astronauts a
15-minute extension.[139] In a 2010 interview, Armstrong explained that
NASA limited the first moonwalk's time and distance because there was
no empirical proof of how much cooling water the astronauts' PLSS
backpacks would consume to handle their body heat generation while
working on the Moon.[143]
Lunar ascent
Aldrin entered Eagle
first. With some difficulty the astronauts lifted film and two sample
boxes containing 21.55 kilograms (47.5 lb) of lunar surface material to
the LM hatch using a flat cable pulley device called the Lunar Equipment
Conveyor (LEC). This proved to be an inefficient tool, and later
missions preferred to carry equipment and samples up to the LM by
hand.[121] Armstrong reminded Aldrin of a bag of memorial items in his
sleeve pocket, and Aldrin tossed the bag down. Armstrong then jumped
onto the ladder's third rung, and climbed into the LM. After
transferring to LM life support, the explorers lightened the ascent
stage for the return to lunar orbit by tossing out their PLSS backpacks,
lunar overshoes, an empty Hasselblad camera, and other equipment. The
hatch was closed again at 05:01. They then pressurized the LM and
settled down to sleep.[144]
Aldrin next to the Passive Seismic Experiment Package with Eagle in the background
Nixon's
speech writer William Safire had prepared In Event of Moon Disaster for
the President to read on television in the event the Apollo 11
astronauts were stranded on the Moon.[145] The contingency plan
originated in a memo from Safire to Nixon's White House Chief of Staff
H. R. Haldeman, in which Safire suggested a protocol the administration
might follow in reaction to such a disaster.[146][147] According to the
plan, Mission Control would "close down communications" with the LM, and
a clergyman would "commend their souls to the deepest of the deep" in a
public ritual likened to burial at sea. The last line of the prepared
text contained an allusion to Rupert Brooke's First World War poem, "The
Soldier".[147]
While moving inside the cabin, Aldrin
accidentally damaged the circuit breaker that would arm the main engine
for lift off from the Moon. There was a concern this would prevent
firing the engine, stranding them on the Moon. However, a felt-tip pen
was sufficient to activate the switch; had this not worked, the LM
circuitry could have been reconfigured to allow firing the ascent
engine.[144]
After more than 21 1⁄2 hours on the lunar surface,
in addition to the scientific instruments, the astronauts left behind:
an Apollo 1 mission patch in memory of astronauts Roger Chaffee, Gus
Grissom, and Edward White, who died when their command module caught
fire during a test in January 1967; a memorial bag containing a gold
replica of an olive branch as a traditional symbol of peace; and a
silicon message disk carrying the goodwill statements by Presidents
Eisenhower, Kennedy, Johnson, and Nixon along with messages from leaders
of 73 countries around the world. The disk also carries a listing of
the leadership of the US Congress, a listing of members of the four
committees of the House and Senate responsible for the NASA legislation,
and the names of NASA's past and present top management.[148]
Map showing landing site and photos taken
After
about seven hours of rest, the crew was awakened by Houston to prepare
for the return flight. Two and a half hours later, at 17:54:00 UTC, they
lifted off in Eagle's ascent stage to rejoin Collins aboard Columbia in
lunar orbit.[128] Film taken from the LM ascent stage upon liftoff from
the Moon reveals the American flag, planted some 25 feet (8 m) from the
descent stage, whipping violently in the exhaust of the ascent stage
engine. Aldrin looked up in time to witness the flag topple: "The ascent
stage of the LM separated ... I was concentrating on the computers, and
Neil was studying the attitude indicator, but I looked up long enough
to see the flag fall over."[149] Subsequent Apollo missions usually
planted the American flags further from the LM to prevent them being
blown over by the ascent engine exhaust.[150]
Columbia in lunar orbit
During
his day flying solo around the Moon, Collins never felt lonely.
Although it has been said "not since Adam has any human known such
solitude",[151] Collins felt very much a part of the mission. In his
autobiography he wrote: "this venture has been structured for three men,
and I consider my third to be as necessary as either of the other
two".[151] In the 48 minutes of each orbit when he was out of radio
contact with the Earth while Columbia passed round the far side of the
Moon, the feeling he reported was not fear or loneliness, but rather
"awareness, anticipation, satisfaction, confidence, almost
exultation".[151]
One of Collins' first tasks was to identify the
lunar module on the ground. To give Collins an idea where to look,
Mission Control radioed that they believed the lunar module landed about
four miles off target. Each time he passed over the suspected lunar
landing site, he tried in vain to find the module. On his first orbits
on the back side of the Moon, Collins performed maintenance activities
such as dumping excess water produced by the fuel cells and preparing
the cabin for Armstrong and Aldrin to return.[152]
Just before he
reached the dark side on the third orbit, Mission Control informed
Collins that there was a problem with the temperature of the coolant. If
it became too cold, parts of Columbia might freeze. Mission Control
advised him to assume manual control and implement Environmental Control
System Malfunction Procedure 17. Instead, Collins flicked the switch on
the offending system from automatic to manual and back to automatic
again, and carried on with normal housekeeping chores, while keeping an
eye on the temperature. When Columbia came back around to the near side
of the Moon again, he was able to report that the problem had been
resolved. For the next couple of orbits, he described his time on the
back side of the Moon as "relaxing". After Aldrin and Armstrong
completed their EVA, Collins slept so he could be rested for the
rendezvous. While the flight plan called for Eagle to meet up with
Columbia, Collins was prepared for certain contingencies in which he
would fly Columbia down to meet Eagle.[153]
Return
Eagle's ascent stage approaching Columbia
Eagle
rendezvoused with Columbia at 21:24 UTC on July 21, and the two docked
at 21:35. Eagle's ascent stage was jettisoned into lunar orbit at
23:41.[4] Just before the Apollo 12 flight, it was noted that Eagle was
still likely to be orbiting the Moon. Later NASA reports mentioned that
Eagle's orbit had decayed, resulting in it impacting in an "uncertain
location" on the lunar surface.[154]
On July 23, the last night before splashdown, the three astronauts made a television broadcast in which Collins commented:
... The Saturn V rocket which put us in orbit is an incredibly
complicated piece of machinery, every piece of which worked flawlessly
... We have always had confidence that this equipment will work
properly. All this is possible only through the blood, sweat, and tears
of a number of people ... All you see is the three of us, but beneath
the surface are thousands and thousands of others, and to all of those, I
would like to say, "Thank you very much."[155]
Aldrin added:
This has been far more than three men on a mission to the Moon; more,
still, than the efforts of a government and industry team; more, even,
than the efforts of one nation. We feel that this stands as a symbol of
the insatiable curiosity of all mankind to explore the unknown ...
Personally, in reflecting on the events of the past several days, a
verse from Psalms comes to mind. "When I consider the heavens, the work
of Thy fingers, the Moon and the stars, which Thou hast ordained; What
is man that Thou art mindful of him?"[155][156]
Armstrong concluded:
The responsibility for this flight lies first with history and with the
giants of science who have preceded this effort; next with the American
people, who have, through their will, indicated their desire; next with
four administrations and their Congresses, for implementing that will;
and then, with the agency and industry teams that built our spacecraft,
the Saturn, the Columbia, the Eagle, and the little EMU, the spacesuit
and backpack that was our small spacecraft out on the lunar surface. We
would like to give special thanks to all those Americans who built the
spacecraft; who did the construction, design, the tests, and put their
hearts and all their abilities into those craft. To those people
tonight, we give a special thank you, and to all the other people that
are listening and watching tonight, God bless you. Good night from
Apollo 11."[155]
On the return to Earth, a bearing at the Guam
tracking station failed, potentially preventing communication on the
last segment of the Earth return. A regular repair was not possible in
the available time but the station director, Charles Force, had his
ten-year-old son Greg use his small hands to reach into the housing and
pack it with grease. Greg was later thanked by Armstrong.[157]
Splashdown and quarantine
Columbia floats on the ocean as Navy divers assist in retrieving the astronauts
The
aircraft carrier USS Hornet, under the command of Captain Carl J.
Seiberlich,[158] was selected as the primary recovery ship (PRS) for
Apollo 11 on June 5, replacing its sister ship, the LPH USS Princeton,
which had recovered Apollo 10 on May 26. Hornet was then at her home
port of Long Beach, California.[159] On reaching Pearl Harbor on July 5,
Hornet embarked the Sikorsky SH-3 Sea King helicopters of HS-4, a unit
which specialized in recovery of Apollo spacecraft, specialized divers
of UDT Detachment Apollo, a 35-man NASA recovery team, and about 120
media representatives. To make room, most of Hornet's air wing was left
behind in Long Beach. Special recovery equipment was also loaded,
including a boilerplate command module used for training.[160]
On
July 12, with Apollo 11 still on the launch pad, Hornet departed Pearl
Harbor for the recovery area in the central Pacific,[161] in the
vicinity of 10°36′N 172°24′E.[162] A presidential party consisting of
Nixon, Borman, Secretary of State William P. Rogers and National
Security Advisor Henry Kissinger flew to Johnston Atoll on Air Force
One, then to the command ship USS Arlington in Marine One. After a night
on board, they would fly to Hornet in Marine One for a few hours of
ceremonies. On arrival aboard Hornet, the party was greeted by the
Commander-in-Chief, Pacific Command (CINCPAC), Admiral John S. McCain
Jr., and NASA Administrator Thomas O. Paine, who flew to Hornet from
Pago Pago in one of Hornet's carrier onboard delivery aircraft.[163]
Weather
satellites were not yet common, but US Air Force Captain Hank Brandli
had access to top secret spy satellite images. He realized that a storm
front was headed for the Apollo recovery area. Poor visibility was a
serious threat to the mission; if the helicopters could not locate
Columbia, the spacecraft, its crew, and its priceless cargo of Moon
rocks might be lost. Brandli alerted Navy Captain Willard S. Houston
Jr., the commander of the Fleet Weather Center at Pearl Harbor, who had
the required security clearance. On their recommendation, Rear Admiral
Donald C. Davis, the commander of Manned Spaceflight Recovery Forces,
Pacific, advised NASA to change the recovery area. This was done; a new
one was designated,[164] 215 nautical miles (398 km) northeast of the
original.[165]
This altered the flight plan. A different sequence
of computer programs was used, one never before attempted. In a
conventional entry, P64 was followed by P67. For a skip-out re-entry,
P65 and P66 were employed to handle the exit and entry parts of the
skip. In this case, because they were extending the re-entry but not
actually skipping out, P66 was not invoked and instead P65 led directly
to P67. The crew were also warned that they would not be in a full-lift
(heads-down) attitude when they entered P67.[165] The first program's
acceleration subjected the astronauts to 6.5 standard gravities (64
m/s2); the second, to 6.0 standard gravities (59 m/s2).[166]
Before
dawn on July 24, Hornet launched four Sea King helicopters and three
Grumman E-1 Tracers. Two of the E-1s were designated as "air boss" while
the third acted as a communications relay aircraft. Two of the Sea
Kings carried divers and recovery equipment. The third carried
photographic equipment, and the fourth carried the decontamination
swimmer and the flight surgeon.[167] At 16:44 UTC (05:44 local time)
Columbia's drogue parachutes were deployed. This was observed by the
helicopters. Seven minutes later Columbia struck the water forcefully
2,660 km (1,440 nmi) east of Wake Island, 380 km (210 nmi) south of
Johnston Atoll, and 24 km (13 nmi) from Hornet,[4][165] at 13°19′N
169°9′W.[168] During splashdown, Columbia landed upside down but was
righted within ten minutes by flotation bags activated by the
astronauts.[169] A diver from the Navy helicopter hovering above
attached a sea anchor to prevent it from drifting.[170] More divers
attached flotation collars to stabilize the module and positioned rafts
for astronaut extraction.[171]
The crew of Apollo 11 in quarantine after returning to Earth, visited by Richard Nixon
The
divers then passed biological isolation garments (BIGs) to the
astronauts, and assisted them into the life raft. The possibility of
bringing back pathogens from the lunar surface was considered remote,
but NASA took precautions at the recovery site. The astronauts were
rubbed down with a sodium hypochlorite solution and Columbia wiped with
Betadine to remove any lunar dust that might be present. The astronauts
were winched on board the recovery helicopter. BIGs were worn until they
reached isolation facilities on board Hornet. The raft containing
decontamination materials was intentionally sunk.[169]
After
touchdown on Hornet at 17:53 UTC, the helicopter was lowered by the
elevator into the hangar bay, where the astronauts walked the 30 feet
(9.1 m) to the Mobile Quarantine Facility (MQF), where they would begin
the Earth-based portion of their 21 days of quarantine.[172] This
practice would continue for two more Apollo missions, Apollo 12 and
Apollo 14, before the Moon was proven to be barren of life, and the
quarantine process dropped.[173] Nixon welcomed the astronauts back to
Earth. He told them: "As a result of what you've done, the world has
never been closer together before."[174]
After Nixon departed,
Hornet was brought alongside the 5-short-ton (4.5 t) Columbia, which was
lifted aboard by the ship's crane, placed on a dolly and moved next to
the MQF. It was then attached to the MQF with a flexible tunnel,
allowing the lunar samples, film, data tapes and other items to be
removed. Hornet returned to Pearl Harbor, where the MQF was loaded onto a
Lockheed C-141 Starlifter and airlifted to the Manned Spacecraft
Center. The astronauts arrived at the Lunar Receiving Laboratory at
10:00 UTC on July 28. Columbia was taken to Ford Island for
deactivation, and its pyrotechnics made safe. It was then taken to
Hickham Air Force Base, from whence it was flown to Houston in a Douglas
C-133 Cargomaster, reaching the Lunar Receiving Laboratory on July
30.[175]
In accordance with the Extra-Terrestrial Exposure Law, a
set of regulations promulgated by NASA on July 16 to codify its
quarantine protocol,[176] the astronauts continued in quarantine. After
three weeks in confinement (first in the Apollo spacecraft, then in
their trailer on Hornet, and finally in the Lunar Receiving Laboratory),
the astronauts were given a clean bill of health.[177] On August 10,
1969, the Interagency Committee on Back Contamination met in Atlanta and
lifted the quarantine on the astronauts, on those who had joined them
in quarantine (NASA physician William Carpentier and MQF project
engineer John Hirasaki),[178] and on Columbia itself. Loose equipment
from the spacecraft remained in isolation until the lunar samples were
released for study.[179]
Celebrations
Ticker tape parade in New York City
On
August 13, the three astronauts rode in ticker-tape parades in their
honor in New York and Chicago, with an estimated six million
attendees.[180][181] On the same evening in Los Angeles there was an
official state dinner to celebrate the flight, attended by members of
Congress, 44 governors, the Chief Justice of the United States, and
ambassadors from 83 nations at the Century Plaza Hotel. Nixon and Agnew
honored each astronaut with a presentation of the Presidential Medal of
Freedom.[180][182]
The three astronauts spoke before a joint
session of Congress on September 16, 1969. They presented two US flags,
one to the House of Representatives and the other to the Senate, that
had been carried to the surface of the Moon with them.[183] The flag of
American Samoa on Apollo 11 is on display at the Jean P. Haydon Museum
in Pago Pago, the capital of American Samoa.[184]
This
celebration was the beginning of a 38-day world tour that brought the
astronauts to 22 foreign countries and included visits with the leaders
of many countries.[185] The crew toured from September 29 to November
5.[185][186][187] Many nations honored the first human Moon landing with
special features in magazines or by issuing Apollo 11 commemorative
postage stamps or coins.[188]
Legacy
Cultural significance
Humans
walking on the Moon and returning safely to Earth accomplished
Kennedy's goal set eight years earlier. In Mission Control during the
Apollo 11 landing, Kennedy's speech flashed on the screen, followed by
the words "TASK ACCOMPLISHED, July 1969".[189] The success of Apollo 11
demonstrated the United States' technological superiority over other
nations.[189] With the success of Apollo 11, America had won the Space
Race.[190][191]
New phrases permeated into the English language.
"If they can send a man to the Moon, why can't they..." became a common
saying following Apollo 11.[192] Armstrong's famous words on the lunar
surface also spun off countless parodies.[190]
While most
celebrated the accomplishment, disenfranchised Americans saw it as a
symbol of the divide in America, evidenced by protesters outside of
Kennedy Space Center the day before Apollo 11 launched.[193] This is not
to say that they were not awed by it. Ralph Abernathy, leading a
protest march, was so captivated by the spectacle of the Apollo 11
launch that he forgot what he was going to say.[92] Racial and financial
inequalities frustrated citizens who wondered why money spent on the
Apollo program was not spent taking care of humans on Earth. A poem by
Gil Scott-Heron called "Whitey on the Moon" illustrated the racial
inequality in the United States that was highlighted by the Space
Race.[190][194][195] The poem starts with:
A rat done bit my sister Nell.
(with Whitey on the moon)
Her face and arms began to swell.
(and Whitey’s on the moon)
I can’t pay no doctor bill.
(but Whitey’s on the moon)
Ten years from now I’ll be paying still.
(while Whitey’s on the moon)[195]
Twenty
percent of the world's population watched humans walk on the Moon for
the first time. While Apollo 11 sparked the interest of the world, the
follow-on Apollo missions did not hold the interest of the nation.[189]
One possible explanation was the shift in complexity. Landing someone on
the Moon was an easy goal to understand; lunar geology was too abstract
for the average person. Another is that Kennedy's goal of landing
humans on the Moon had already been accomplished.[196] A well-defined
objective helped Project Apollo accomplish its goal, but after it was
completed it was hard to justify continuing the lunar
missions.[197][198]
While most Americans were proud of their
nation's achievements in space exploration, only once during the late
1960s did the Gallup Poll indicate that a majority of Americans favored
"doing more" in space as opposed to "doing less". By 1973, 59 percent of
those polled favored cutting spending on space exploration. The Space
Race had ended, and Cold War tensions were easing as the US and Soviet
Union entered the era of détente. This was also a time when inflation
was rising, which put pressure on the government to reduce spending.
What saved the space program was that it was one of the few government
programs that had achieved something great. Drastic cuts, warned Caspar
Weinberger, the deputy director of the Office of Management and Budget,
might send a signal that "our best years are behind us".[199]
After
the Apollo 11 mission, officials from the Soviet Union said that
landing humans on the Moon was dangerous and unnecessary. At the time
the Soviet Union was attempting to retrieve lunar samples robotically.
The Soviets publicly denied there was a race to the Moon, and indicated
that they were not making an attempt.[200] Mstislav Keldysh said in July
1969 that, "We are concentrating wholly on the creation of large
satellite systems". It was revealed in 1989 that the Soviets had tried
to send people to the Moon, but were unable to due to technological
difficulties.[201] The public's reaction in the Soviet Union was mixed.
The Soviet government limited the release of information about the lunar
landing, which affected the reaction. A portion of the populace did not
give it any attention, and another portion was angered by it.[202]
Spacecraft
Columbia on display in the Milestones of Flight exhibition hall at the National Air and Space Museum
The
Command Module Columbia went on a tour of the United States, visiting
49 state capitals, the District of Columbia, and Anchorage, Alaska.[203]
In 1971, it was transferred to the Smithsonian Institution, and was
displayed at the National Air and Space Museum (NASM) in Washington,
DC.[204] It was in the central Milestones of Flight exhibition hall in
front of the Jefferson Drive entrance, sharing the main hall with other
pioneering flight vehicles such as the Wright Flyer, Spirit of St.
Louis, Bell X-1, North American X-15 and Friendship 7.[205]
Columbia
was moved in 2017 to the NASM Mary Baker Engen Restoration Hangar at
the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center in Chantilly, Virginia, to be readied
for a four-city tour titled Destination Moon: The Apollo 11 Mission.
This included Space Center Houston from October 14, 2017 to March 18,
2018, the Saint Louis Science Center from April 14 to September 3, 2018,
the Senator John Heinz History Center in Pittsburgh from September 29,
2018 to February 18, 2019, and its current location at the Seattle
Museum of Flight from March 16 to September 2, 2019.[206][207]
For
40 years Armstrong's and Aldrin's space suits were displayed in the
museum's Apollo to the Moon exhibit,[208] until it closed for good on
December 3, 2018, to be replaced by a new gallery which was scheduled to
open in 2022. A special display of Armstrong's suit is planned for the
50th anniversary of Apollo 11 in July 2019.[209] The quarantine trailer,
the flotation collar and the flotation bags are in the Smithsonian's
Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center annex near Washington Dulles International
Airport in Chantilly, Virginia, where they are on display along with a
test lunar module.[210][211][212]
The Apollo 11 Mobile Quarantine Facility on display at the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center in 2009
The
descent stage of the LM Eagle remains on the Moon. In 2009, the Lunar
Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) imaged the various Apollo landing sites on
the surface of the Moon, for the first time with sufficient resolution
to see the descent stages of the lunar modules, scientific instruments,
and foot trails made by the astronauts.[213] The remains of the ascent
stage lie at an unknown location on the lunar surface, after being
abandoned and impacting the Moon. The location is uncertain because
Eagle ascent stage was not tracked after it was jettisoned, and the
lunar gravity field is sufficiently non-uniform to make the orbit of the
spacecraft unpredictable after a short time.[214]
In March 2012 a
team of specialists financed by Amazon founder Jeff Bezos located the
F-1 engines from the S-IC stage that launched Apollo 11 into space. They
were found on the Atlantic seabed using advanced sonar scanning.[215]
His team brought parts of two of the five engines to the surface. In
July 2013, a conservator discovered a serial number under the rust on
one of the engines raised from the Atlantic, which NASA confirmed was
from Apollo 11.[216][217] The S-IVB third stage which performed Apollo
11's trans-lunar injection remains in a solar orbit near to that of
Earth.[218]
Moon rocks
The main repository for the Apollo Moon
rocks is the Lunar Sample Laboratory Facility at the Lyndon B. Johnson
Space Center in Houston, Texas. For safekeeping, there is also a smaller
collection stored at White Sands Test Facility near Las Cruces, New
Mexico. Most of the rocks are stored in nitrogen to keep them free of
moisture. They are handled only indirectly, using special tools. Over
100 research laboratories around the world conduct studies of the
samples, and approximately 500 samples are prepared and sent to
investigators every year.[219][220]
In November 1969, Nixon asked
NASA to make up about 250 presentation Apollo 11 lunar sample displays
for 135 nations, the fifty states of the United States and its
possessions, and the United Nations. Each display included Moon dust
from Apollo 11. The rice-sized particles were four small pieces of Moon
soil weighing about 50 mg and were enveloped in a clear acrylic button
about as big as a United States half dollar coin. This acrylic button
magnified the grains of lunar dust. The Apollo 11 lunar sample displays
were given out as goodwill gifts by Nixon in 1970.[221][222]
The
Passive Seismic Experiment ran until the command uplink failed on August
25, 1969. The downlink failed on December 14, 1969.[223] As of 2018,
the Lunar Laser Ranging experiment remains operational.[224]
40th anniversary events
Columbia at the Mary Baker Engen Restoration Hangar
On
July 15, 2009, Life.com released a photo gallery of previously
unpublished photos of the astronauts taken by Life photographer Ralph
Morse prior to the Apollo 11 launch.[225] From July 16 to 24, 2009, NASA
streamed the original mission audio on its website in real time 40
years to the minute after the events occurred.[226] It is in the process
of restoring the video footage and has released a preview of key
moments.[227] In July 2010, air-to-ground voice recordings and film
footage shot in Mission Control during the Apollo 11 powered descent and
landing was re-synchronized and released for the first time.[228] The
John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum set up an Adobe Flash
website that rebroadcasts the transmissions of Apollo 11 from launch to
landing on the Moon.[229]
On July 20, 2009, Armstrong, Aldrin,
and Collins met with U.S. President Barack Obama at the White
House.[230] "We expect that there is, as we speak, another generation of
kids out there who are looking up at the sky and are going to be the
next Armstrong, Collins, and Aldrin", Obama said. "We want to make sure
that NASA is going to be there for them when they want to take their
journey."[231] On August 7, 2009, an act of Congress awarded the three
astronauts a Congressional Gold Medal, the highest civilian award in the
United States. The bill was sponsored by Florida Senator Bill Nelson
and Florida Representative Alan Grayson.[232][233]
A group of British scientists interviewed as part of the anniversary events reflected on the significance of the Moon landing:
It was carried out in a technically brilliant way with risks taken ...
that would be inconceivable in the risk-averse world of today ... The
Apollo programme is arguably the greatest technical achievement of
mankind to date ... nothing since Apollo has come close [to] the
excitement that was generated by those astronauts – Armstrong, Aldrin
and the 10 others who followed them.[234]
50th anniversary events
Obverse of the 50th anniversary silver dollar
Further information: Apollo 11 50th Anniversary commemorative coins
On
June 10, 2015, Congressman Bill Posey introduced resolution H.R. 2726
to the 114th session of the United States House of Representatives
directing the United States Mint to design and sell commemorative coins
in gold, silver and clad for the 50th anniversary of the Apollo 11
mission. On January 24, 2019, the Mint released the Apollo 11 Fiftieth
Anniversary commemorative coins to the public on its website.[235][236]
A
documentary film, Apollo 11, with restored footage of the 1969 event,
premiered in IMAX on March 1, 2019, and broadly in theaters on March
8.[237][238]
Notes
In some of the following sources, times are
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to the mission's Ground Elapsed Time (GET),[239] based on the official
launch time of July 16, 1969, 13:32:00 UTC (000:00:00 GET).[90][1]
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David R. (December 11, 2003). "Apollo Landing Site Coordinates". NASA
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Orloff 2000, p. 107.
A NASA transcript explains that the "a"
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External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Apollo 11.
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Apollo 11
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
In Event of Moon Disaster
"Apollo 11 transcripts" at Spacelog
"Magnificent Desolation: The Apollo 11 Moonwalk Pictures" by Apollo
Lunar Surface Journal contributor Joseph O'Dea. Complete gallery of
Apollo 11 EVA pictures.
"Apollo 11" Detailed mission information by Dr. David R. Williams, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
"Apollo 11" Photographer Blaise Thirard's presentation of Apollo 11 photographs
Sylvester, Rachel; Coates, Sam. "Men on the Moon". The Times. London.
Archived from the original on May 31, 2010. Retrieved May 24, 2013.
Original reports from The Times (London)
"Apollo 40th
Anniversary". NASA. July 2009. Archived from the original on July 18,
2009. Retrieved July 18, 2009. NASA website honoring the mission
"The untold story: how one small silicon disc delivered a giant message to the Moon" at collectSPACE.com
"Coverage of the Flight of Apollo 11 – (1969)" provided by Todd
Kosovich for RadioTapes.com. Radio station recordings (airchecks)
covering the flight of Apollo 11.
"Space Missions" at Buzz Aldrin's official website
What You Didn’t Know About the Apollo 11 Mission, Smithsonian.
Apollo 11 in real time
NASA reports
"Apollo Program Summary Report" (PDF). NASA History Program Office. April 1975. Retrieved September 23, 2018. – 200+ pages
"Apollo 11 Mission Report" (PDF). NASA. 1971. – 230 pages
Multimedia
"'To the Moon and Back': LIFE Covers the Apollo 11 Mission". Time.
Archived from the original on July 20, 2013. Retrieved July 20, 2013. –
Life magazine Special Edition, August 11, 1969
"Apollo 11: Scenes
From the Moon". Archived from the original on July 17, 2009. Retrieved
June 13, 2013. – slideshow by Life magazine
Garner, Robert (ed.).
"Apollo 11 Partial Restoration HD Videos (Downloads)". NASA. Retrieved
June 13, 2013. – Remastered videos of the original landing.
Dynamic timeline of lunar excursion. Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Camera
Simon, Johnny (July 20, 2018). "Extremely high-res outtakes from Apollo
11's 1969 moon landing". Quartz. Retrieved July 20, 2018. – Extremely
high-resolution images (July 20, 2018).
Real-time audiovisual recreation of the lunar module landing with audio feeds from the crew of Apollo 11 and Ground Control
The short film Moonwalk One is available for free download at the Internet Archive
The short film The Eagle Has Landed: The Flight of Apollo 11 is available for free download at the Internet Archive
Apollo 11 Restored EVA Part 1 (1h of restored footage)
vte
Missions and tests of the Apollo program
Rocket tests
SA-1 SA-2 SA-3 SA-4 SA-5 AS-203
Apollo Program insignia
Abort tests
QTV Pad Abort Test-1 A-001 A-002 A-003 Pad Abort Test-2 A-004
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Failed missions
Apollo 1 (AS-204) Apollo 13
List of missions Mission types Kennedy Space Center
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vte
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Exploration
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Japanese Russian
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LADEE w flare - cropped.jpg LunarEclipse20070303CRH.JPG Bean Descends Intrepid - GPN-2000-001317.jpg
Active
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Orbiters
ARTEMIS Chang'e 5-T1 (service module) Longjiang-2 Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Queqiao (relay satellite at L2)
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Past
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Flybys
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Longjiang-1 Luna 1 3 Mariner 10 Nozomi Pioneer 4 Ranger 5 STEREO TESS
WMAP WIND Zond 3 5 6 7 8 PAS-22
Orbiters
Apollo 8
10 Chang'e 1 2 Chandrayaan-1 Clementine Explorer 35 49 GRAIL Hiten LADEE
Luna 10 11 12 14 19 22 Lunar Orbiter 1 2 3 4 5 Lunar Prospector PFS-1
PFS-2 SMART-1 SELENE (Kaguya, Okina & Ouna)
Impactors
LCROSS Luna 2 Moon Impact Probe Ranger 4 6 7 8 9
Landers
Apollo Lunar Module ×6 Chang'e 3 Luna 9 13 17 20 21 23 24 Surveyor 1 3 5 6 7
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Apollo 15 16 17 Lunokhod 1 2 Yutu
Sample return
Apollo 11 12 14 15 16 17 Luna 16 20 24
Human landing
Apollo 11 12 14 15 16 17 (List of Apollo astronauts)
Failed landing
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projects
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Network LEO LK Lunar-A Lunar Lander Lunar Mission One Lunar Observer
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Ukrselena
See also
Colonization of the Moon Google
Lunar X Prize List of lunar probes List of missions to the Moon List of
artificial objects on the Moon Moon landing conspiracy theories
Missions are ordered by launch date. Crewed missions are in italics.
vte
← 1968 · Orbital launches in 1969 · 1970 →
Venera
5 | Venera 6 | Kosmos 263 | Soyuz 4 | Soyuz 5 | 7K-L1 No.13L | OSO-5 |
OPS 7585 | Kosmos 264 | US-A No.5 | Isis 1 | Meteor-1 No.11 | OPS 3890 ·
OPS 2644 | Intelsat III F-3 | Kosmos 265 | OPS 0757 | Luna E-8 No.201 |
7K-L1S No.3 | Mariner 6 | Kosmos 266 | ESSA-9 | Kosmos 267 | Apollo 9 |
OPS 4248 | Kosmos 268 | Kosmos 269 | Kosmos 270 | Kosmos 271 | Kosmos
272 | OV1-17 · OV1-18 · OV1-19 · Orbiscal 2 | OPS 3722 · OPS 2285 |
Kosmos 273 | Kosmos 274 | Meteor-1 No.12 | 2M No.521 | Mariner 7 |
Kosmos 275 | 2M No.522 | Kosmos 276 | Kosmos 277 | Kosmos 278 |
Molniya-1 No.16 | OPS 3148 | Nimbus 3 · SECOR 13 | Kosmos 279 | OPS 5310
| Kosmos 280 | OPS 1101 · OPS 1721 | Kosmos 281 | Apollo 10 | Kosmos
282 | Intelsat III F-4 | OPS 6909 · OPS 6911 · ERS-29 · ERS-26 · OV5-9 |
Kosmos 283 | Kosmos 284 | Kosmos 285 | OPS 1077 | OGO-6 | Luna E-8-5
No.402 | Kosmos 286 | Explorer 41 | Kosmos 287 | Kosmos 288 |
Biosatellite 3 | STV-2 | 7K-L1S No.5 | Kosmos 289 | Luna 15 | Apollo 11 |
Kosmos 290 | Molniya-1 No.18 | OPS 1127 | DS-P1-Yu No.23 | OPS 3654 |
Intelsat III F-5 | OPS 8285 | Kosmos 291 | Zond 7 | OSO-6 · PAC-1 |
ATS-5 | Kosmos 292 | Kosmos 293 | Kosmos 294 | Kosmos 295 | OPS 7807 |
Pioneer E · ERS-32 | Kosmos 296 | Kosmos 297 | Kosmos 298 | Kosmos 299 |
Unnamed | OPS 3531 · OPS 4710 | Kosmos 300 | Kosmos 301 | OPS 7613 ·
NRL PL-161 · NRL PL-162 · NRL PL-163 · NRL PL-164 · NRL PL-176 ·
Timation 2 · Tempsat 2 · SOICAL Cone · SOICAL Cylinder | ESRO-1B |
Meteor-1 No.15 | Soyuz 6 | Soyuz 7 | Soyuz 8 | Interkosmos 1 | Kosmos
302 | Kosmos 303 | Kosmos 304 | Kosmos 305 | Kosmos 306 | Kosmos 307 |
OPS 8455 | Kosmos 308 | Azur | Kosmos 309 | Apollo 12 | Kosmos 310 |
Skynet 1A | Kosmos 311 | Kosmos 312 | 7K-L1e No.1 | Kosmos 313 | OPS
6617 | Kosmos 314 | Kosmos 315 | Kosmos 316 | Kosmos 317 | Interkosmos 2
| Unnamed
Payloads are separated by bullets ( · ), launches by pipes
( | ). Crewed flights are indicated in bold text. Uncatalogued launch
failures are listed in italics. Payloads deployed from other spacecraft
are denoted in brackets.
vte
NASA
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History
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Individual featured
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Past
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