Firefighting
Firefighters douse a burning convent in Massueville, Canada.
Firefighting is a profession aimed at controlling and extinguishing fire.[1] A person who engages in firefighting is known as a firefighter or fireman.[2] Firefighters typically undergo a high degree of technical training.[2][3] This involves structural firefighting and wildland firefighting. Specialized training includes aircraft firefighting, shipboard firefighting, aerial firefighting, maritime firefighting, and proximity firefighting.
Firefighting is a dangerous profession due to the toxic environment created by combustible materials, with major risks being smoke, oxygen deficiency, elevated temperatures, poisonous atmospheres, and violent air flows.[4] To combat some of these risks, firefighters carry self-contained breathing apparatus. Additional hazards include falls — a constant peril while navigating unfamiliar layouts or confined spaces amid shifting debris under limited visibility – and structural collapse that can exacerbate the problems encountered in a toxic environment.
The first step in a firefighting operation is reconnaissance to search for the origin of the fire and to identify the specific risks. Fires can be extinguished by water, fuel or oxidant removal, or chemical flame inhibition; though, because fires are classified depending on the elements involved, such as grease, paper, electrical, etcetera, a specific type of fire extinguisher may be required. The classification is based on the type of fires that the extinguisher is more suitable for. In the United States, the types of fire are described by the National Fire Protection Association.
History
Bulgarian firefighters in action, 1930s
Ottawa Fire Department motor pump, Ottawa, Ontario, taken by the Topley Studio, May 1915.
Main article: History of firefighting
The earliest known firefighters were in the city of Rome. In 60 A.D., emperor Nero established a Corps of Vigils (Vigiles) to protect Rome after a disastrous fire. It consisted of 7,000 people equipped with buckets and axes who fought fires and served as police.[5]
Historic tactics and tools
In the 3rd century B.C., an Alexandrian Greek named Ctesibius made a double force pump called a siphona. As water rose in the chamber, it compressed the air inside, which forced the water to eject in a steady stream through a pipe and nozzle.[5]
In the 16th century, syringes were also used as firefighting tools, the larger ones being mounted on wheels.[5] Another traditional firefighting method that survived was the bucket brigade, involving two lines of people formed between the water source and the fire. Typically, men in one of the lines would pass along the full buckets of water toward the fire while in the other line women and children would pass back the empty buckets to be refilled.[5]
In the 17th century the first "fire engines" were made, notably in Amsterdam.[5] In 1721, the English inventor Richard Newsham made a popular fire engine that was essentially a rectangular box on wheels filled using a bucket brigade to provide a reservoir while hand-powered pumps supplied sufficient water pressure to douse fires at a distance.[5]
Ancient Rome
Ancient Rome did not have municipal firefighters. Instead, private individuals relied on their slaves or supporters to take action. They would not only form bucket brigades or attempt to smother smaller fires, but would also demolish or raze nearby buildings to slow the spread of the fire. However, there is no mention of fires being extinguished, rather they were contained and burned themselves out. Ancient Rome did not have an organized firefighting force until the Vigiles were formed during the reign of Augustus.[6]
The first ever Roman fire brigade was created by Marcus Licinius Crassus. Fires were almost a daily occurrence in Rome, and Crassus took advantage of the fact that Rome had no fire department, by creating his own brigade—500 men strong—which rushed to burning buildings at the first cry of alarm. Upon arriving at the scene, however, the firefighters did nothing while Crassus offered to buy the burning building from the distressed property owner, at a miserable price. If the owner agreed to sell the property, his men would put out the fire; if the owner refused, then they would simply let the structure burn to the ground. After buying many properties this way, he rebuilt them, and often leased the properties to their original owners or new tenants.[7][8][9][10]
United Kingdom
Prior to the Great Fire of London in 1666, some parishes in the UK had begun to organize rudimentary firefighting crews. After the Great Fire, Nicholas Barbon introduced the first fire insurance. In order to reduce insurance costs, Barbon also formed his own fire brigade, and other companies followed suit.
By the start of the 1800s, insured buildings were identified with a badge or mark indicating that they were eligible for a company's firefighting services. It is a common belief that buildings not insured with a particular company were left by its firefighters to burn,[11] unless they happened to be adjacent to an insured building, in which case it was often in the company's interest to prevent the fire from spreading. This is a common misconception.[11] In 1833 fire insurance companies in London merged to form The London Fire Company Establishment.
Steam-powered apparatuses were first introduced in the 1850s, allowing a greater quantity of water to be directed onto a fire; in the early 1930s they were superseded by versions powered by an internal combustion engine.
In World War II the Auxiliary Fire Service, and later the National Fire Service, were established to supplement local fire services. Before 1938, there was no countrywide standard for firefighting terms, procedures, ranks, or equipment (such as hose couplings). In the month of August in 1939 with war looking very possible the Fire Service's act of 1938 came into effect. This unified Great Britain's fire service and prepared them for the German war machine. During the London Blitz, 700 fire men and 20 fire women, as known during the time period died as a result of heavy bombing, 91 of these perished at the same time defending London. By the end of the London Blitz, 327 firefighters had lost their lives.
United States
In January 1608, a fire destroyed many colonists' provisions and lodgings in Jamestown, Virginia. By the mid-1600s, Boston, New Amsterdam (later New York City), and Philadelphia were all plagued by fires, and volunteer fire brigades began to form.[12]
Firefighters onboard the USS Forrestal in 1967.
In 1736, Benjamin Franklin founded the Union Fire Company in Philadelphia, which became the standard for volunteer fire organizations. These firefighters had two critical tools: salvage bags and so-called bed keys. Salvage bags were used to quickly collect and save valuables, and bed keys were used to separate the wooden frame of a bed (often the most valuable item in a home at the time) into pieces for safe and rapid removal from the fire.[13]
The first American attempt at fire insurance failed after a large fire in Charlestown, Massachusetts in 1736. Later in 1740, Benjamin Franklin organized the Philadelphia Contributionship to provide fire insurance, which was more successful. The Contributionship adopted "fire marks" to easily identify insured buildings. Firefighting started to become formalized with rules for providing buckets, ladders, and hooks, and with the formation of volunteer companies. A chain of command was also established.[12]
Firefighter duties
Aerial video of Firefighting
A firefighter's goals are to save lives, protect property, and protect the environment. A fire can rapidly spread and endanger many lives, but with modern firefighting techniques, catastrophe can often be avoided. To prevent fires from starting, a firefighter's duties may include public education about fire safety and conducting fire inspections of locations to verify their adherence to local fire codes.
Firefighter skills
A firefighter doing a ladder slide, which is used to quickly escape from a window
Firefighting requires technical proficiency of operational tactics, equipment, and scene awareness. Firefighters must also have, or be able to acquire, knowledge of department organizations, operations, and procedures,[5] and the district or city street system[5] they will have to negotiate in order to perform their duties.
They must meet minimum physical fitness standards and learn various firefighting duties within a reasonable period[5]
Examples are:
Building construction
Fire behavior
Firefighting PPE
Fire extinguishers
Ropes and knots
Ground ladders
Forcible entry
Search and rescue
Ventilation
Fire hose and streams
Fire suppression
Salvage and overhaul
Vehicle extrication and technical rescue
Hazardous materials response
Specialized skills
Main article: Special operations firefighters
Specialized areas of operations may require subject-specific training.[14][15]
A hose team training to fight an aircraft fire aboard a US aircraft carrier, 2006
A Chicago Fire Department firefighter can be seen wielding an axe amid the rooftop blaze
Examples are:
Fire apparatus driver/operator - trained to drive fire apparatus to and from fires and other emergencies, operate fire-apparatus pumps and aerial devices, and maintain apparatus.
Hazardous materials technician - certified to mitigate hazardous materials emergencies.
Rescue technician - certified to perform complex technical rescues.
Airport firefighter - trained in ARFF.
Wildland firefighter - trained to extinguish fires in outdoor vegetation, including the wildland/urban interface.
Shift hours
Full-time career firefighters typically follow a 24-hour shift schedule, although some fire departments work 8- or 12-hour shifts.[16] Australian firefighters work a 10/14 shift, in which the day shift works ten hours and the night shift works 14 hours.[17] Firefighting personnel are split up into alternating shifts. Usually, the 24-hour shifts are followed by two days off.[5] The shift personnel arrive for roll call at a specified time, ready to complete a regular tour of duty.[5] While on shift, the firefighter remains at the fire station unless relieved or assigned other duties.[5]
Fire wardens
A fire warden poster, circa 1940s.
In fire fighting, there are also people designated as fire wardens, also known as chief officers. Their duties vary, some may ensure evacuation of that part of the building for which they are responsible; others may be responsible for fire control in a particular area, direct a crew in the suppression of forest fires, or function as fire patrolmen in a logging area.[18]
The chief officer is in charge of their firefighters during fires or emergencies, and is expected to command and control the overall situation while effectively combating a fire or other emergency.[5] Chief officers must be able to evaluate their firefighters, use sound judgement when deciding when it is time to withdraw firefighters from a fire, and react calmly in emergency situations.[5] The chief officer must direct the activities of a fire department and supervise all firefighting activities, requiring extensive knowledge of city layouts, the location of streets, fire hydrants and fire alarm boxes, and the principal buildings.[5] A chief officer must be familiar with sources of fires, including explosives, hazardous chemicals, and the combustion qualities of materials in buildings, homes, and industrial plants.[5]
In certain jurisdictions, civilians can get certified to be a Fire Warden, and some cities require certain types of buildings, such as high rises, to have a certain number of Fire Wardens. For example, the city of Houston in the United States requires every tenant in a high-rise to have at least one Fire Warden for every 7500 sq. ft. occupied, and a minimum of two Fire Wardens per floor.[19] In this example, their duties include investigating any fire alarms (see if there really is a fire and if so, its nature), ensuring the fire department is contacted, directing the evacuation of the facility, activating or delaying activation of fire suppression equipment such as halon and sprinklers (delayed in case of a false alarm), meeting the fire department and taking them to the location of the alarm or to the fire past any security or locked doors, and, if necessary, fighting the fire until the fire department arrives.
Firefighter safety zone guidelines
The U.S. Forest Service publishes guidelines for the minimum distance a firefighter should be from a flame.[20] As stated in the National Wildfire Coordinating Group's Incident Response Pocket Guide: "A safety zone is an area where a firefighter can survive without a fire shelter" and should be "...at least four times the maximum continuous flame height."[21] However this figure only takes into account the effects of radiant heat and does not consider topography nor wind.
Safety Zones can be natural features such as rock screes, meadows, and river bars; or human-made features such a parking lots or areas that have been cleared of vegetation through mechanical means.
Hazards caused by fires
During a fire
Structure fire in Grand Rapids, Michigan, US
One of the major hazards associated with firefighting operations is the toxic environment created by combusting materials. The four major hazards are:[22]
Smoke, which is becoming increasingly dangerous due to the increased variety and amount of synthetic household materials
Oxygen deficient atmosphere (21% O2 is normal and 19.5% O2 is considered oxygen deficient)
Elevated temperatures
Toxic atmospheres
To deal with such hazards, firefighters carry a self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA; an open-circuit positive pressure system) to prevent smoke inhalation. These are not oxygen tanks (oxygen as a powerful fire accelerant would represent a grave risk when combined with virtually anything combustible in the presence of fire) but use compressed air in a similar manner to SCUBA diving gear. A firefighter's SCBA usually hold 30 to 45 minutes of air, depending on the size of the tank and the rate of consumption during strenuous activities. While this gear helps to eliminate the risks, firefighters are still exposed to smoke, toxic dust, fumes and radiation that have contributed to firefighters being 14% more likely to develop cancer.
Obvious risks associated with the immense heat generated by a fire, even without direct contact with the flames (direct flame impingement), such as conductive heat and radiant heat, can cause serious burns even from great distances. There are a number of comparably serious heat-related risks, such as burns from hot gases (e.g., air), steam, and hot and/or toxic smoke. Prolonged, intense exertion in hot environments also increases firefighters' risk for health-related illnesses, such as rhabdomyolysis.[23] Accordingly, firefighters are equipped with personal protective equipment (PPE) that includes fire-resistant clothing such as Nomex or polybenzimidazole fiber (PBI) and helmets that limit the transmission of heat towards the body. No PPE, however, can completely protect the user from the effects of all possible fire conditions.[24]
Heat can cause flammable liquid contained in tanks to explode violently, producing what is called a BLEVE (boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion).[25] Some chemical products such as ammonium nitrate fertilizers can also explode, potentially causing physical trauma from blast or shrapnel injuries. Sufficient heat causes human flesh to burn as fuel, or the water within to boil, leading to potentially severe medical problems.
Furthers risks include the occurrences of backdrafts. Backdrafts occur when there is a large amount of oxygen introduced to an oxygen-depleted fire.[26] If a fire is compartmentalized and most or all of the oxygen has been burned up, there is a high risk of backdraft if something such as a window or door is opened. Introducing oxygen to a low burning fire can be devastating as it will ignite all of the oxygen along the way.[27] It can also be heard from miles away as it has a concussive blast that adds to the effect. Firefighters need to have extreme communication at all times on the fire ground as one broken window at the wrong time could seriously harm anyone operating on the building.
Depending on the heat of the fire, burns can occur in a fraction of a second.
Additional risks of fire are the obscuring of vision due to smoke, potentially causing a fall or disorientation; becoming trapped in a fire; and structural collapse.[28]
"Three hours of fighting a fire stiffens arteries and impairs cardiac function in firefighters" according to a study by Bo Fernhall, a professor in the department of kinesiology and community health in the College of Applied Health Sciences, and Gavin Horn, director of research at the Illinois Fire Service Institute. The conditions (observed in healthy male firefighters) are "also apparent found in weightlifters and endurance athletes..."[29]
During debris cleanup
Main article: Occupational hazards of fire debris cleanup
Firefighters at Ground Zero during the September 11 attacks
Once extinguished, fire debris cleanup poses several safety and health risks for workers.[30][31]
Many hazardous substances are commonly found in fire debris. Silica can be found in concrete, roofing tiles, or it may be a naturally occurring element. Occupational exposures to silica dust can cause silicosis, lung cancer, pulmonary tuberculosis, airway diseases, and some additional non-respiratory diseases.[32] Inhalation of asbestos can result in various diseases including asbestosis, lung cancer, and mesothelioma.[33] Sources of metals exposure include burnt or melted electronics, cars, refrigerators, stoves, etc. Fire debris cleanup workers may be exposed to these metals or their combustion products in the air or on their skin. These metals may include beryllium, cadmium, chromium, cobalt, lead, manganese, nickel, and many more.[30] Polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), some of which are carcinogenic, come from the incomplete combustion of organic materials and are often found as a result of structural and wildland fires.[34]
Safety hazards of fire cleanup include the risk of reignition of smoldering debris, electrocution from downed or exposed electrical lines or in instances where water has come into contact with electrical equipment. Structures that have been burned may be unstable and at risk of sudden collapse.[31][35]
Standard personal protective equipment for fire cleanup include hard hats, goggles or safety glasses, heavy work gloves, earplugs or other hearing protection, steel-toe boots, and fall protection devices.[35][36] Hazard controls for electrical injury include assuming all power lines are energized until confirmation they are de-energized, and grounding power lines to guard against electrical feedback, and using appropriate personal protective equipment.[35] Proper respiratory protection can protect against hazardous substances. Proper ventilation of an area is an engineering control that can be used to avoid or minimize exposure to hazardous substances. When ventilation is insufficient or dust cannot be avoided, personal protective equipment such as N95 respirators can be used.[35][37]
Reconnaissance and "reading" the fire
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The first step in a firefighting operation is reconnaissance to search for the origin of the fire (which may not be obvious for an indoor fire, especially if there are no witnesses), to identify any specific risks, and to detect possible casualties. An outdoor fire may not require reconnaissance, but a fire in a cellar or an underground car park with only a few centimeters of visibility may require long reconnaissance to identify the source of the fire.
The "reading" of a fire is the analysis by firefighters of indications of thermal events such as flashover, backdraft or smoke explosion. It is performed during reconnaissance and fire suppression maneuvers.
The main signs are:
Hot zones, which can be detected with a gloved hand, for example by touching a door before opening it;
Soot on windows, which usually means that combustion is incomplete, and thus, a lack of air in the room;
Smoke pulsing in and out around a door frame, as if the fire were breathing, which usually also means a lack of air to support combustion.
Spraying water on the ceiling in short pulses of a diffused spray (e.g., a cone with an opening angle of 60°) can be undertaken to test the heat of smoke: If the temperature is moderate, the water falls down in drops with a sound like rain; if the temperature is high, the water vaporizes with a hiss—the sign of a potentially extremely dangerous impending flashover.
Ideally, part of reconnaissance is consulting a plan for the building that provides information about structures, firefighter hazards, and in some cases the most appropriate strategies and tactics for fighting a fire in that context.
Science of extinguishment
See also: Fire Chemistry and Physical properties of wildfires
A fire helicopter is used to fight a wildfire
There are four elements[38] needed to start and sustain a fire and/or flame: temperature, a fuel, an oxidizing agent (oxygen), and a chemical reaction. A fire can be extinguished by taking away any of the four components.[38]
The fuel is the substance being oxidized or burned in the combustion process. The most common fuels contain carbon along with combinations of hydrogen and oxygen. Heat is the energy component of a fire. When it comes into contact with a fuel, it provides the energy necessary for ignition, causes the continuous production and ignition of fuel vapors or gases so that the combustion reaction can continue, and causes the vaporization of solid and liquid fuels. The resulting self-sustained chemical chain reaction is complex and requires fuel, an oxidizer, and heat energy to come together in a very specific way. An oxidizing agent is a material or substance that will release gases, including oxygen, when the proper conditions exist. It is crucial to the sustainment of a flame or fire.
Using water is one common method to extinguish a fire. Water extinguishes a fire by cooling, which removes heat because of water’s ability to absorb massive amounts of heat as it converts to water vapor. Without heat, the fuel cannot keep the oxidizer from reducing the fuel in order to sustain the fire. Water also extinguishes a fire by smothering it. When water is heated to its boiling point, it converts to water vapor. When this conversion takes place, it dilutes the oxygen in the air above the fire, thus removing one of the elements that the fire requires to burn. This can also be done with foam.
Another way to extinguish a fire is fuel removal. This can be accomplished by stopping the flow of liquid or gaseous fuel, by removing solid fuel in the path of a fire, or by allowing the fire to burn until all the fuel is consumed, at which point the fire will self-extinguish.
One final extinguishing method is chemical flame inhibition. This can be accomplished by applying dry chemical or halogenated agents that interrupt the chemical chain reaction and stop flaming. This method is effective on gas and liquid fuel because they must have flame to burn.
Sound waves have been successfully used in a device fabricated by two George Mason University senior engineering students, Viet Tran and Seth Robertson, but the procedure is still awaiting a patent (2015).[39]
Use of water
USMC firefighters neutralize a fire during a training exercise
A firefighting aircraft dumping water on a forest fire in South Africa.
One common way to extinguish a fire is to spray it with water. The water has two roles: It vaporizes when it comes in contact with fire, and this vapor displaces the oxygen (the volume of water vapor is 1,700 times greater than liquid water, at 1,000 °F (538 °C) it expands over 4,000 times). This leaves the fire without enough of the combustive agent, and it dies out.[25] The vaporization of water also absorbs heat; it thereby cools the smoke, air, walls, and objects that could act as further fuel, and thus prevents one of the means by which fires grow, which is by "jumping" to nearby heat/fuel sources to start new fires, which then combine. Water extinguishment is thus a combination of "asphyxia" (cutting off the oxygen supply) and cooling. The flame itself is suppressed by asphyxia, but the cooling is the most important element in mastering a fire in a closed area.
Water may be accessed from a pressurized fire hydrant, pumped from water sources such as lakes or rivers, delivered by tanker truck, or dropped from water bombers, which are aircraft adapted as tankers for fighting forest fires. An armored vehicle (firefighting tank) may be used where access to the area is difficult.
Open air fire
For outdoor fires, the seat of the fire is sprayed with a straight spray: the cooling effect immediately follows the "asphyxia" caused by vaporization and reduces the further amount of water required. This is because water droplets, upon forming in to water mist, increase their surface area by a large magnutude, greatly increasing the endothermic cooling effect and robbing the fire of oxygen.[40][41] A straight spray is used so the water arrives massively to the seat of the fire before it vaporizes. A strong spray may also have a mechanical effect; it can disperse the combustible product and thus prevent the fire from starting again. Spray is always aimed at a surface or an object. For this reason, the strategy is sometimes called a two-dimensional or 2D attack.
An outdoor fire is always fed with air, and the risk to people is limited as they can move away from it, except in the case of wildfires or bushfires where they risk being easily surrounded by the flames. It might, however, be necessary to protect specific objects like houses or gas tanks against infrared radiation, and thus to use a diffused spray between the fire and the object. Breathing apparatus is often required as there is still the risk of inhaling smoke or poisonous gases.
Closed volume fire
Iranian firefighters extinguish a fire at Bistoon Petrochemicals Powerhouse
Until the 1970s, fires were usually attacked while they declined, using the same strategy as for open air fires. Now fires are attacked in their development phase because firefighters arrive sooner at the site of a fire and because of changes in building construction. The increasing use of thermal insulation confines the heat, and modern materials, especially polymers, produce much more heat than do traditional materials like wood, plaster, stone, and bricks. Under these conditions, there is a greater risk of backdraft and flashover.
Directly spraying the seat of the fire in enclosed areas can have unfortunate consequences: the force of water pushes air in front of it, which supplies the fire with extra oxygen before the water. The most important issue is not combating the flames, but controlling the fire; for example, cooling the smoke so that it cannot spread and start fires further away, and endanger the lives of people, including the firefighters.
When a fire spreads beyond the building of its origin and spreads throughout the neighborhood, it is called a “conflagration.” Today, a conflagration is a large fire that is beyond the capability of the fire service to contain.[42]
The volume of the fire must be cooled before its seat is attacked. This strategy, originally of Swedish origin (Mats Rosander & Krister Giselsson), was adapted by London Fire Officer Paul Grimwood following a decade of operational use in the busy West End of London between 1984 and 1994[43] and termed the three-dimensional or 3D attack.
Use of a diffuse spray was first proposed by Chief Lloyd Layman of the Parkersburg Fire Department, at the 1950 Fire Department Instructors Conference (FDIC) held in Memphis. Using Grimwood's modified 3D attack strategy, the ceiling is first sprayed with short pulses of a diffuse spray. This cools the smoke which is then less likely to start a fire when it moves away. As gas cools it becomes denser (Charles's law); thus, it also reduces the mobility of the smoke and avoids a "backfire" of water vapor. Also, the diffuse spray creates an inert "water vapor sky", which prevents "roll-over" (rolls of flames on the ceiling created by hot burning gases).
Only short pulses of water need to be sprayed, otherwise the spraying modifies the equilibrium, and the gases mix instead of remaining stratified: the hot gases (initially at the ceiling) move around the room, and the temperature rises at the ground, which is dangerous for firefighters.
An alternative is to cool all the atmosphere by spraying the whole atmosphere as if drawing letters in the air ("penciling").
Modern methods for extinguishing an urban fire dictate the use of a massive initial water flow, e.g. 500 L/min for each fire hose. The aim is to absorb as much heat as possible at the beginning to stop the expansion of the fire and to reduce the smoke. If the flow is too low, the cooling is insufficient, and the steam that is produced can burn firefighters (the drop of pressure is too small and the vapor is pushed back in their direction).
Although it may seem paradoxical, the use of a strong flow with an efficient fire hose and an efficient strategy (diffuse spray, small droplets) requires a smaller amount of water. This is because once the temperature is lowered, only a limited amount of water is necessary to suppress the fire seat with a straight spray. For a living room of 50 m2 (60 sq yd), the required amount of water is estimated as 60 L (15 gal).
French firefighters used an alternative method in the 1970s: spraying water on the hot walls to create a water vapor atmosphere and asphyxiate the fire. This method is no longer used because it turned out to be risky; the pressure created pushed the hot gases and vapor towards the firefighters, causing severe burns, and pushed the hot gases into other rooms where they could start other fires.
Asphyxiating a fire
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In some cases, the use of water is undesirable. This is because some chemical products react with water to produce poisonous gases,[44] or they may even burn when they come into contact with water (e.g., sodium), see water-reactive substances. Another problem is that some products float on water, such as hydrocarbons (gasoline, oil, and alcohol, etc.); a burning layer can then be spread by the fire. If a pressurized fuel tank is endangered by fire it is necessary to avoid heat shocks that may damage the tank if it is sprayed with cooling water; the resulting decompression might produce a BLEVE (boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion).[45]
Electrical fires cannot be extinguished with water since the water could act as a conductor.
In such cases, it is necessary to asphyxiate the fire. This can be done in a variety of ways. Chemical products which react with the fuel can be used to stop the combustion. A layer of water-based fire retardant foam can be applied by the fire hose in order to separate the oxygen in the air from the fuel. carbon dioxide, halon, or sodium bicarbonate can be used. In the case of very small fires and in the absence of other extinguishing agents, covering the flame with a fire blanket can eliminate oxygen flow to the fire. A simple and usually effective way to put out a fire in a stove-top pan is to put a lid on the pan and leave it there.
Tactical ventilation or isolation of the fire
One of the main risks of a fire is the smoke; because, it carries heat and poisonous gases, and obscures vision. In the case of a fire in a closed location (building), the following two different strategies may be used: isolation of the fire or ventilation.
Paul Grimwood introduced the concept of tactical ventilation in the 1980s to encourage a better thought-out approach to this aspect of firefighting. Following work with Warrington Fire Research Consultants (FRDG 6/94) his terminology and concepts were adopted officially by the UK fire services, and are now referred to throughout revised Home Office training manuals (1996–97). Grimwood's original definition of his 1991 unified strategy stated that, "tactical ventilation is either the venting, or containment (isolation) actions by on-scene firefighters, used to take control from the outset of a fire's burning regime, in an effort to gain tactical advantage during interior structural firefighting operations."
When properly used, ventilation improves life safety, fire extinguishment, and property conservation by 'pulling' fire away from trapped occupants and objects.
In most cases of structural firefighting, a 4x4 foot opening is cut into the roof directly over the fire room. This allows hot smoke and gases to escape through the opening, returning the conditions inside the room to normal. It is important to coordinate the ventilation with an interior fire attack since the opening of a ventilation hole supplies more air, and thus oxygen, to the fire. Ventilation may also "limit fire spread by channeling fire toward nearby openings and allows fire fighters to safely attack the fire" as well as limit smoke, heat, and water damage.[46]
Positive pressure ventilation (PPV) consists of using a fan to create excess pressure in a part of the building. This pressure pushes the smoke and heat out of the building, and thus facilitates rescue and fire fighting operations. It is necessary to have an exit for the smoke, to know the building layout well to predict where the smoke will go, and to ensure that the doors ensuring the ventilation remain open by wedging or propping them. The main risk of this method is that it may accelerate the fire, or even create a flash-over; for example, if the smoke and the heat accumulate in a dead end.
Hydraulic ventilation is the process of directing a stream of water from the inside of a structure out the window using a fog pattern.[25] This will effectively pull smoke out of room. Smoke ejectors may also be used for this purpose.
Categorizing fires
United States
Main article: Multiple-alarm fire
In the US, fires are sometimes categorized as "one alarm", "all hands", "two alarm", "three alarm" (or higher) fires. There is no standard definition for what this means quantifiably; though, it always refers to the level of response by the local authorities. In some cities, the numeric rating refers to the number of fire stations that have been summoned to the fire. In others, it reflects the number of "dispatches" requesting additional personnel and equipment.[47][48]
Alarms levels are generally used to define the tiers of the response as to what resources are to be used. For example, a structure fire response draws the following equipment: four engine/pumper companies, one truck/ladder/aerial/quint company, and one battalion chief unit. This is referred to as an Initial Alarm or Box Alarm. A working fire request (for the same incident) would call for air/light units and chief officers/fireground commanders (if not provided in the original dispatch). This summarizes the response to a First Alarm fire. Second and subsequent alarms call for two engine companies and one truck company.
The reason behind the "Alarm" designation is so the Incident Commander does not have to list each apparatus required. He can simply say, "Give me a second alarm here", instead of "Give me a truck company and two engine companies" along with requesting where they should come from. Categorization of fires varies among fire departments. A single alarm for one department may be a second alarm for another. Response always depends on the size of the fire and the department.
United Kingdom
In the fire services in the United Kingdom, the scale of a fire is measured by the number of "pumps" (ordinary fire engines) that were present. For example, a fire which was attended by 4 engines would be recorded as a "4-pump fire".[49][50][51]
See also
Glossary of firefighting—list of firefighting terms and acronyms, with descriptions
Glossary of firefighting equipment—expansion of Glossary of firefighting
Glossary of wildfire terms—expansion of Glossary of firefighting
Index of firefighting articles—alphabetical list of firefighting articles
List of fire departments
Outline of firefighting—structured list of firefighting topics, organized by subject area
Occupational hazards of fire debris cleanup – Conditions caused by fire presenting health and safety hazards to cleanup crews
United States Air Force Fire Protection - United States Air Force Firefighting
Wildfire
References
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London Fire Brigade (2023). "Early fire brigades". Retrieved 16 August 2023.
"Fire History - A Historical Repository for the Fire Service of the United States of America". Fire History. Archived from the original on 17 November 2014. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
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"Fire & Rescue NSW - Annual Report 2012/13" (PDF). Fire.nsw.gov.au.
"7 key duties of a fire warden". healthandsafetyhandbook.com.au. Archived from the original on 12 March 2015. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Police, fire, and medical services at the scene of a traffic collision in New South Wales, Australia
Emergency services and rescue services[1] are organizations that ensure public safety, security, and health by addressing and resolving different emergencies. Some of these agencies exist solely for addressing certain types of emergencies, while others deal with ad hoc emergencies as part of their normal responsibilities. Many of these agencies engage in community awareness and prevention programs to help the public avoid, detect, and report emergencies effectively. Emergency services are often considered first responders, and typically have dedicated emergency vehicles.
Emergency services have one or more dedicated emergency telephone numbers reserved for critical emergency calls. In many countries, one number is used for all of the emergency services (e.g. 911 in many parts of the Americas, 999 in the United Kingdom, 112 in continental Europe, 000 in Australia). In some countries, each emergency service has its own emergency number (e.g. 110 for police, 118 for coast guard, 119 for fire and medical in Japan; 110 for police, 119 for fire, 120 for medical in China). Calls made to emergency services to report emergencies are called calls for service.
The availability of emergency services depends very heavily on location, and may in some cases also rely on the recipient giving payment or holding suitable insurance or other surety for receiving the service.
Types of emergency services
Multiple emergency services at the scene of a traffic accident in Vaughan, Ontario
Primary emergency services
Primary emergency services are emergency services that provide basic emergency assistance and care. They can be summoned directly by the public. There are three primary emergency services and they are listed in the following order.
Police – These agencies provide law enforcement, crime suppression and prevention, criminal investigation, and maintenance of public order. There are a variety of similar law enforcement agencies such as gendarmerie, but police are the most common. Law enforcement agencies may differ in jurisdiction (state police, county police, national police, etc.), specific role (highway patrol, special police, etc.), capabilities (auxiliary police, police tactical unit, etc.), and oversight (private police by private entities, military police by militaries, etc.), but generally share similar purposes.
Fire departments – These agencies provide fire suppression and protection, fire prevention, special operations and technical rescue response services, emergency medical response services and hazardous materials mitigation. They may be government organizations or private services.
Emergency medical services – These agencies provide emergency medicine, patient transport, and technical rescue services. They may be government organizations, private services, or even charity-run, and may be their own independent service or part of another agency such as a fire department or health ministry.
Specialized emergency services
Lifeguards on duty at Santa Monica State Beach in Los Angeles County, California
Ski patrol team at Ski Montcalm in Quebec, Canada
Park ranger in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda
Indian Coast Guard and Sri Lanka Coast Guard vessels fighting a ship fire
Specialized emergency services are emergency services that are not considered one of the three primary emergency services. They can be provided by one of the primary emergency services (often as a division or unit) or by a separate governmental or private body.
Specialized emergency services may typically be contacted and requested by the public, unless they are a division or unit of a primary emergency service. They may also often be requested by primary emergency services to handle certain emergencies or augment existing emergency services personnel. Some of these services may be location-specific and have jurisdiction over specific areas or situations, with little if any authority outside them.
In some jurisdictions, specialized emergency services may be allowed to use emergency lights on their vehicles, often yellow or amber lights unless they are already part of a primary emergency service, in which case they typically use the emergency lighting configuration used by their respective emergency service.
Animal control service – Animal assistance, ensuring public safety around animals
Bomb squad – Bomb disposal, hazardous material disposal, weapons and munitions disposal
Border guard – Border control, border security, border protection
Bylaw enforcement – Enforcement of local ordinance
Civil defense – Disaster protection, wartime civilian protection, rescue aid
Coast guard – Maritime law enforcement and rescue within national waters
Conservation officer – Wildlife protection, wildlife law enforcement, hunting and fishing enforcement
Coroner – Death confirmation, cause of death identification
Medical examiner – Death investigation
Emergency management – Incident management, coordination in major emergencies
Firefighter – Rescue, fire suppression and prevention
Humanitarian aid – Basic aid and care for people in need
Incident response team – Specialized incident response
Lifeguards – Medical aid and rescue at pools, beaches, shorelines, dive spots
Military forces – National defense, internal security, emergency assistance (in certain situations and jurisdictions)
National Guard – Internal security
Paramedics – Medical aid, assistance and rescue of injured people
Park rangers – Law enforcement in parks and nature reserves
Poison control center – Advice on poison exposure
Police officer – Law enforcement, crime suppression, protection of the general public
Police tactical unit – Hostage rescue, counter-terrorism, dangerous situation resolution, combat
Prison officer – Law enforcement and first response within correctional facilities
Public utilities – Safeguarding and maintaining utilities and infrastructure
Public works – Assessing, cleaning, and repairing infrastructure
Roadside assistance – Aiding motorists in need of assistance, conducting vehicle maintenance and repairs
Search and rescue – Rescue of missing, trapped, or at-risk victims
Avalanche rescue – Rescue of victims in avalanches
Cave rescue – Rescue of victims in caves and underground areas
Mountain rescue – Rescue of victims on mountains or in wilderness areas
Urban search and rescue – Rescue of victims in urban areas
Security forces – Internal security
Security guards – Asset protection, property protection, private enforcement
Ski patrol – Medical aid and rescue at ski resorts and mountain resorts
Tow truck – Moving disabled, impounded, or illegally-parked vehicles
Wildland firefighting – Wildfire suppression
Cooperation
EPA staff coordinate with local agencies in 2014 environmental disaster simulation
Effective emergency service management requires agencies from many different services to work closely together and to have open lines of communication. Most services do, or should, have procedures and liaisons in place to ensure this, although absence of these can be severely detrimental to good working. There can sometimes be tension between services for a number of other reasons, including professional versus voluntary crew members, or simply based on area or division. To aid effective communications, different services may share common practices and protocol for certain large-scale emergencies. In the UK, commonly used shared protocols include CHALET and ETHANE while in the US, the Department of Homeland Security has called for nationwide implementation of the National Incident Management System (NIMS),[2] of which the Incident Command System (ICS) is a part.[3]
Disaster response technologies
Smart Emergency Response System (SERS)[4] prototype was built in the SmartAmerica Challenge 2013–2014,[5] a United States government initiative. SERS was created by a team of nine organizations. The project was featured at the White House in June 2014 and called an exemplary achievement by Todd Park (U.S. Chief Technology Officer).
The SmartAmerica initiative challenges the participants to build cyber-physical systems as a glimpse of the future to save lives, create jobs, foster businesses, and improve the economy. SERS primarily saves lives. The system provides the survivors and the emergency personnel with information to locate and assist each other during a disaster. SERS allows organization to submit help requests to a MATLAB-based mission center connecting first responders, apps, search-and-rescue dogs, a 6-feet-tall humanoid, robots, drones, and autonomous aircraft and ground vehicles. The command and control center optimizes the available resources to serve every incoming requests and generates an action plan for the mission. The Wi-Fi network is created on the fly by the drones equipped with antennas. In addition, the autonomous rotorcrafts, planes, and ground vehicles are simulated with Simulink and visualized in a 3D environment (Google Earth) to unlock the ability to observe the operations on a mass scale.[6]
Response time
Timely responses by emergency services are crucial. In this image, a Nevada State Police cruiser leaves a police station with its lights and sirens on.
A common measurement in benchmarking the efficacy of emergency services is response time, the amount of time that it takes for emergency responders to arrive at the scene of an incident after the emergency response system was activated. Due to the nature of emergencies, fast response times are often a crucial component of the emergency service system.[7]
See also
Civil defense
Emergency management
Emergency service response codes
Incident response team
Public security
Public service
Rescue squad
Sources
"Rescue services definition and meaning - Collins English Dictionary". www.collinsdictionary.com. Retrieved 19 March 2018.
Federal Emergency Management System: About NIMS Archived 2011-09-25 at the Wayback Machine
Federal Emergency Management System: Incident Command System Archived 2011-09-23 at the Wayback Machine
Smart Emergency Response System [1], team website.
SmartAmerica Challenge [2], website.
Video [3] Smart Emergency Response System
Davis, Robert (20 May 2005). "The price of just a few seconds lost: People die". USA Today. Retrieved 5 February 2013.
Authority control databases: National Edit this at Wikidata
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Category: Emergency services
Fireman
A brave individual trained to extinguish fires and save lives.
Firefighter
A professional who responds to fires and other emergencies to protect life and property.
Hose
A flexible tube used to direct water or other substances onto fires.
Axe
A tool used by firefighters to break down doors or remove obstacles during rescue operations.
Helmet
A protective headgear worn by firefighters to safeguard against falling debris and heat.
Uniform
A standardized attire worn by firefighters to identify them and promote team unity.
Fire station
A designated building where firefighters are based and emergency equipment is stored.
Firetruck
A specialized vehicle equipped with firefighting apparatus and tools.
Siren
An audible warning device used on firetrucks to alert people of an emergency.
Alarm
An electronic device that emits a loud sound to warn of potential fires or emergencies.
Rescue
The act of saving individuals from dangerous situations or life-threatening conditions.
Extinguisher
A handheld device used to put out small fires by discharging fire-suppressing substances.
Smoke
A visible suspension of particles in the air resulting from the combustion of materials.
Heat
The intense energy produced by fire, capable of causing burns and damage.
Flames
The visible, glowing and often destructive aspect of fire.
Ash
Ash is the residue left behind after something has been burned.
Burn
Burn refers to the process of combustion that produces heat and light.
Emergency
Emergency refers to a sudden and dangerous situation that requires immediate action.
Bravery
Bravery is the quality of being courageous and fearless in the face of danger.
Courage
Courage is the ability to confront fear, pain, or danger with bravery.
Training
Training involves the process of acquiring knowledge and skills through practice and education.
Fire hose
A fire hose is a high-pressure hose used to extinguish fires by directing water or other firefighting agents.
Fire hydrant
A fire hydrant is a device connected to a water supply to provide water for firefighting purposes.
Fireproof
Fireproof refers to materials or substances that are resistant to catching fire or being damaged by fire.
Fire safety
Fire safety involves measures and precautions taken to prevent and protect against fires.
Fire escape
A fire escape is a designated route or structure used to evacuate a building during a fire.
Fire drill
A fire drill is a practice exercise conducted to prepare individuals for an organized evacuation in case of a fire.
Fire prevention
Fire prevention refers to the measures and actions taken to reduce the risk of fires occurring.
Fire investigation
Fire investigation involves determining the cause, origin, and circumstances of a fire.
Fire marshal
A fire marshal is an official responsible for enforcing fire safety regulations and investigating fires.
Fire academy
A training institution for firefighters.
Fire chief
The highest-ranking officer in a fire department.
Fire ladder
A portable ladder used by firefighters to access elevated areas.
Fire engine
A vehicle equipped with firefighting equipment and water supply.
Fire shelter
A protective device used by firefighters in emergency situations.
Fireproof suit
A garment designed to protect against high heat and flames.
Fire hose reel
A device used for winding and storing fire hoses.
Fire alarm system
A network of devices that detect and alert people to the presence of fire.
Fire suppression
The act of controlling or extinguishing fires.
Fire risk assessment
An evaluation of potential fire hazards and their likelihood of occurrence.
Fire behavior
The study of how fires spread and behave.
Fire safety plan
A documented strategy for preventing and responding to fires.
Fire apparatus
Various vehicles and equipment used in firefighting operations.
Fire hose nozzle
A device attached to the end of a fire hose to control the flow of water.
Fire inspection
An examination of buildings and premises to ensure compliance with fire safety regulations.
Fire Safety Training
Training sessions and courses focused on educating individuals on how to prevent and respond to fires.
Fire Response
The actions and procedures taken to address and handle a fire incident.
Fire Code
A set of regulations and standards that outline fire safety requirements for buildings and structures.
Fire Brigade
An organized group of trained firefighters responsible for extinguishing fires and providing emergency assistance.
Fire Investigation Unit
A specialized team that examines fire incidents to determine their causes and origins.
Fire Safety Equipment
Tools, devices, and gear designed to prevent, detect, and suppress fires, such as fire alarms, extinguishers, and sprinkler systems.
Fire Protection
Measures and systems put in place to minimize the risk of fires and protect people, property, and the environment.
Fire Warden
An individual assigned with specific fire safety responsibilities, including evacuation coordination and ensuring compliance with fire safety protocols.
Fire Safety Regulations
Official rules and guidelines established by authorities to ensure fire safety compliance in various settings.
Fire Safety Standards
Accepted benchmarks and criteria that define the minimum requirements for fire safety measures and practices.
Fire Extinguishing System
An automated or manual setup designed to extinguish fires, such as sprinkler systems, fire blankets, or fire suppression agents.
Fire Response Team
A group of trained individuals responsible for quickly responding to fire incidents and implementing necessary actions to control and extinguish the fire.
Fire Safety Protocol
A predetermined set of procedures and guidelines to be followed in case of a fire emergency.
Fire Safety Awareness
The level of knowledge and understanding individuals have regarding fire prevention, safety measures, and appropriate responses.
Fire Prevention Campaign
A coordinated effort aimed at raising awareness and promoting actions to prevent fires through education, outreach, and community engagement.
Fire Safety Guidelines
Following these guidelines can help prevent and manage fire incidents effectively.
Firefighter Gear
The specialized equipment and clothing worn by firefighters to protect themselves during firefighting operations.
Fire Emergency
A situation where there is an immediate threat of fire that requires immediate action to ensure safety.
Fire Suppression System
An integrated system designed to detect, control, and extinguish fires in buildings or other structures.
Fire Evacuation
The organized process of safely leaving a building or area due to a fire threat.
Fire Hazard
Any condition or material that increases the risk of a fire occurring or spreading.
Fire Escape Plan
A pre-determined strategy outlining the actions to be taken in case of a fire, including evacuation routes and meeting points.
Fire Alarm Panel
The central control unit that receives and indicates signals from fire detection devices, alerting occupants of a fire.
Firefighter Training Academy
An institution that provides comprehensive training programs to individuals aspiring to become firefighters.
Fire Safety Inspection
A systematic evaluation of a building or premises to identify and address fire safety risks and compliance with regulations.
Fire Safety Awareness Month
A designated period aimed at promoting awareness and education about fire safety practices and prevention.
Fire Service Ladder
A specialized ladder used by firefighters to gain access to elevated areas during firefighting operations.
Firefighter Helmet
A protective headgear worn by firefighters to shield against falling debris and other hazards.
Fire Safety Signage
Clear and visible signs that provide information and instructions related to fire safety measures and emergency procedures.
Firefighter Badge
A distinctive emblem or insignia worn by firefighters to represent their authority and affiliation.
Fire Hose Coupling
The device used to connect two sections of fire hose together.
Fire Safety Education
The process of teaching individuals about fire prevention, safety measures, and emergency response.
Fire Safety Coordinator
An individual responsible for overseeing and coordinating fire safety efforts within an organization or facility.
Fire Training Exercise
A simulated drill or practice session designed to train firefighters and other emergency personnel in firefighting techniques.
Firefighter Boots
Specially designed boots worn by firefighters to protect their feet from heat, water, and other hazards.
Fire Safety Consultant
A professional who provides expert advice and guidance on fire safety measures and compliance with regulations.
Firefighter Gloves
Protective gloves worn by firefighters to shield their hands from heat, flames, and other dangers.
Fire Safety Audit
An assessment or inspection of a building or facility to evaluate its compliance with fire safety standards and identify potential hazards.
Firefighter Mask
A protective mask worn by firefighters to filter out smoke, toxic gases, and other airborne contaminants during firefighting operations.
Fire Hose Cabinet
A storage unit or enclosure designed to hold and protect fire hoses, typically installed in buildings or fire stations.
Fire Safety Program
A comprehensive set of policies, procedures, and initiatives aimed at preventing fires, minimizing risks, and ensuring the safety of occupants in a specific environment.
Firefighter Ladder
A specialized ladder used by firefighters to access elevated areas, rescue individuals, and perform firefighting operations.
Fire Safety Manual
A document containing guidelines, instructions, and information on fire safety practices, procedures, and emergency response protocols.
Firefighter Uniform
The standard clothing and protective gear worn by firefighters, typically consisting of a fire-resistant jacket, pants, helmet, and other accessories.
Fire Safety Checklist
A systematic list of items, tasks, or requirements to be checked or completed to ensure compliance with fire safety regulations and best practices.
Firefighter rescue tool
A tool used by firefighters to assist in rescuing individuals in emergency situations.
Fire safety training program
A program designed to educate individuals on how to prevent and respond to fires.
Firefighter flashlight
A specialized flashlight used by firefighters for enhanced visibility in dark or smoky environments.
Fire safety policy
A set of rules and guidelines implemented to ensure the safety and prevention of fires in a specific setting.
Firefighter radio
A communication device used by firefighters to maintain contact and coordinate during emergency operations.
Fire safety signage
Signs and symbols displayed to provide information and instructions related to fire safety in a particular area.
Firefighter academy
An educational institution or training facility that prepares individuals for a career as a firefighter.
Fire safety course
An instructional program that covers various aspects of fire prevention, safety measures, and emergency response.
Firefighter training center
A dedicated facility equipped with resources and simulations to train aspiring and current firefighters.
Fire safety awareness campaign
An organized effort to promote knowledge and understanding of fire safety among the general public.
Firefighter recruitment
The process of seeking and selecting individuals to join the firefighting profession.
Conclusion
The words related to firemen capture the bravery, dedication, and selflessness exhibited by these courageous individuals who put their lives on the line to protect others. From their iconic red trucks to their specialized equipment, firemen are trained professionals who possess a unique set of skills to combat fires and save lives.
Throughout history, firemen have been hailed as heroes in their communities, responding swiftly to emergencies and providing assistance during times of crisis. Their commitment to public safety is unwavering, as they work tirelessly to extinguish flames, rescue trapped individuals, and prevent further damage.
Moreover, the language associated with firemen reflects the immense respect and admiration society has for these brave individuals. Words such as “brave,” “courageous,” and “fearless” are often used to describe firemen, highlighting their willingness to face danger head-on and protect others at any cost.
Furthermore, the words related to firemen also encompass the camaraderie and teamwork that are essential in their line of work. Firefighters rely on each other in high-pressure situations, forming tight-knit bonds and fostering a sense of unity. Terms like “brotherhood,” “comrade,” and “teamwork” are often used to describe the close relationships among firemen.
In conclusion, the words related to firemen not only represent the physical aspects of their profession but also the intangible qualities that make them true heroes. These words serve as a reminder of the sacrifices and bravery exhibited by firemen every day, and they inspire us to appreciate and support these extraordinary individuals who ensure our safety and well-being.
Category:Films about firefighting
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to Films about firefighting.
See also: List of firefighting films Films about firefighting.
Pages in category "Films about firefighting"
The following 116 pages are in this category, out of 116 total. This list may not reflect recent changes.
*
List of firefighting films
0–9
9/11 (2017 film)
9/11 (2002 film)
15 Minutes
A
Ablaze (2001 film)
The Accidental Husband
Along with the Gods: The Two Worlds
Always (1989 film)
Answering the Call: Ground Zero's Volunteers
As the Light Goes Out
B
Backdraft (film)
Backdraft 2
Bad Day on the Block
The Bells Go Down
Blaze Busters
Blue Blazes
The Bravest
Burn (2012 film)
C
Chernobyl: Abyss
City on Fire (1979 film)
Collateral Damage (2002 film)
Cuibul salamandrelor
Cupid's Fireman
D
A Dangerous Summer
F
False Alarms (film)
Fiery Firemen
Fire (2020 film)
The Fire Alarm
The Fire Brigade
Fire Chief (film)
The Fire Fighters (1930 film)
Fire Serpent
Fire Squad (film)
Fire with Fire (2012 film)
Fire! (1901 film)
Fire! (1977 film)
Firefighter (film)
Firefighter! Daigo of Fire Company M
Fireheart
Firehouse (1987 film)
Firehouse (1997 film)
Firehouse Dog
Firehouse Frenzy
Fireman Sam: The Great Fire of Pontypandy
Fireman Save My Child (1918 film)
Fireman Save My Child (1954 film)
Fireman, Save My Child (1927 film)
Fireman, Save My Child (1932 film)
The Fireman (1916 film)
The Fireman (1931 film)
The Firemen's Ball
Fireproof (film)
Fires Were Started
Firestorm (1998 film)
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Frequency (2000 film)
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Going to Blazes
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Harvey Middleman, Fireman
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I Now Pronounce You Chuck & Larry
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Ladder 49
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Libera Me (2000 film)
Life of an American Fireman
Lifeline (film)
Love 911
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The Man in the Fire
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Mickey's Fire Brigade
My Boyfriend in Orange
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Neruppu Da
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On Deadly Ground
Only the Brave (2017 film)
Out of Inferno
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Pine Canyon Is Burning
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Quarantine (2008 film)
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Red Hot Music
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Somewhere Over the Chemtrails
Soup to Nuts
Station 58
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The Third Alarm
Those Who Wish Me Dead
Titane
The Tower (2012 South Korean film)
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Trespass (1992 film)
Trial by Fire (2008 film)
The Triangle Factory Fire Scandal
The Trump Prophecy
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Uch Qahramon
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Volcano (1997 film)
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Where's That Fire?
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Categories:
Films by topicFirefighting in fictionFilms about firesFilms about occupations Coins are pieces of hard material used primarily as a medium of exchange or legal tender. They are standardized in weight, and produced in large quantities at a mint in order to facilitate trade. They are most often issued by a government. Coins are usually metal or alloy metal, or sometimes made of synthetic materials. They are usually disc shaped. Coins made of valuable metal are stored in large quantities as bullion coins. Other coins are used as money in everyday transactions, circulating alongside banknotes: these coins are usually worth less than banknotes: usually the highest value coin in circulation (i.e. excluding bullion coins) is worth less than the lowest-value note. In the last hundred years, the face value of circulation coins has occasionally been lower than the value of the metal they contain, for example due to inflation. If the difference becomes significant, the issuing authority may decide to withdraw these coins from circulation, or the general public may decide to melt the coins down or hoard them (see Gresham's law). Exceptions to the rule of face value being higher than content value also occur for some bullion coins made of silver or gold (and, rarely, other metals, such as platinum or palladium), intended for collectors or investors in precious metals. Examples of modern gold collector/investor coins include the British sovereign minted by the United Kingdom, the American Gold Eagle minted by the United States, the Canadian Gold Maple Leaf minted by Canada, and the Krugerrand, minted by South Africa. The American Gold Eagle has a face value of US$50, and the Canadian Gold Maple Leaf coins also have nominal (purely symbolic) face values (e.g. C$50 for 1 oz.); but the Krugerrand does not. Historically, a great quantity of coinage metals (including alloys) and other materials (e.g. porcelain) have been used to produce coins for circulation, collection, and metal investment: bullion coins often serve as more convenient stores of assured metal quantity and purity than other bullion.[1] Today, the term coin can also be used in reference to digital currencies which are not issued by a state. As of 2013, examples include BitCoin and LiteCoin, among others. As coins have long been used as money, in some languages the same word is used for "coin" and "currency".
Numismatics Claudius II coin (colourised).png Currency Coins ·
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The first coins were developed independently in Iron Age Anatolia and Archaic Greece, India & China around 600-700 BC. Coins spread rapidly in the 6th and 5th centuries BC, throughout Greece and Persia, and further to the Balkans.[2] Standardized Roman currency was used throughout the Roman Empire. Important Roman gold and silver coins were continued into the Middle Ages (see Gold dinar, Solidus, Aureus, Denarius). Ancient and early medieval coins in theory had the value of their metal content, although there have been many instances throughout history of the metal content of coins being debased, so that the inferior coins were worth less in metal than their face value. Fiat money first arose in medieval China, with the jiaozi paper money. Early paper money was introduced in Europe in the later Middle Ages, but some coins continued to have the value of the gold or silver they contained throughout the Early Modern period. The penny was mint (coin)ed as a silver coin until the 17th century. The first copper pennies were minted in the United States in the 1790s.[3][citation needed] Silver content was reduced in many coins in the 19th century (use of billon), and the first coins made entirely of base metal (e.g. nickel, cupronickel, aluminium bronze), representing values higher than the value of their metal, were minted in the mid 19th century. Bronze Age predecessors[edit]
An Oxhide ingot from Crete. Late Bronze Age metal ingots were given standard shapes, such as the shape of an "ox-hide", suggesting that they represented standardized values.
Coins were an evolution of "currency" systems of the Late Bronze Age, where standard-sized ingots, and tokens such as knife money, were used to store and transfer value. In the late Chinese Bronze Age, standardized cast tokens were made, such as those discovered in a tomb near Anyang.[4][5] These were replicas in bronze of earlier Chinese money, cowrie shells, so they were named Bronze Shell.[6][7][8] These, as well as later Chinese bronzes, were replicas of knives, spades, and hoes, but not "coins" in the narrow sense, as they did not carry a mark or marks certifying them to be of a definite exchange value.[9] Iron Age[edit] Further information: Archaic period of ancient Greek coinage
1/3rd stater from Lydia, 6th century BC.
Electrum coin from Ephesus, 620-600 BC. Obverse: Forepart of stag. Reverse: Square incuse punch.
Anatolian gold coin from 4th century BC Mysia.
Greek drachma of Aegina. Obverse: Land Chelone / Reverse: ΑΙΓ(INA) and dolphin. The oldest Aegina Chelone coins depicted sea turtles and were minted ca. 700 BC.[10]
The earliest coins are mostly associated with Iron Age Anatolia, especially with the kingdom of Lydia.[11] Early electrum coins were not standardized in weight, and in their earliest stage may have been ritual objects, such as badges or medals, issued by priests.[12] Many early Lydian and Greek coins were minted under the authority of private individuals and are thus more akin to tokens or badges than to modern coins,[13] though due to their numbers it is evident that some were official state issues, with King Alyattes of Lydia being a frequently mentioned originator of coinage.[14] The first Lydian coins were made of electrum, a naturally occurring alloy of silver and gold that was further alloyed with added silver and copper.[15] Most of the early Lydian coins include no writing ("legend" or "inscription"), only an image of a symbolic animal. Therefore the dating of these coins relies primarily on archaeological evidence, with the most commonly cited evidence coming from excavations at the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, also called the Ephesian Artemision (which would later evolve into one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World). Because the oldest lion head "coins" were discovered in that temple, and they do not appear to have been used in commerce, these objects may not have been coins but badges or medals issued by the priests of that temple. Anatolian Artemis was the Πὀτνια Θηρῶν (Potnia Thêrôn, "Mistress of Animals"), whose symbol was the stag. A small percentage of early Lydian/Greek coins have a legend.[16] A famous early electrum coin, the most ancient inscribed coin at present known, is from nearby Caria. This coin has a Greek legend reading phaenos emi sema [17] interpreted variously as "I am the badge of Phanes", or "I am the sign of light",[18] or "I am the tomb of light", or "I am the tomb of Phanes". The coins of Phanes are known to be amongst the earliest of Greek coins, a hemihekte of the issue was found in the foundation deposit of the temple of Artemis at Ephesos (the oldest deposit of electrum coins discovered). One assumption is that Phanes was a wealthy merchant, another that this coin is associated with Apollo-Phanes and, due to the Deer, with Artemis (twin sister of the god of light Apollo-Phaneos). Although only seven Phanes type coins were discovered, it is also notable that 20% of all early electrum coins also have the lion of Artemis and the sun burst of Apollo-Phaneos. Alternatively, Phanes may have been the Halicarnassian mercenary of Amasis mentioned by Herodotus, who escaped to the court of Cambyses, and became his guide in the invasion of Egypt in 527 or 525 BC. According to Herodotus, this Phanes was buried alive by a sandstorm, together with 50,000 Persian soldiers, while trying to conquer the temple of Amun–Zeus in Egypt.[19] The fact that the Greek word "Phanes" also means light (or lamp), and the word "sema" also means tomb makes this coin a famous and controversial one.[20] Another candidate for the site of the earliest coins is Aegina, where Chelone ("turtle") coins were first minted on 700 BC,[21] either by the local Aegina people or by Pheidon king of Argos (who first set the standards of weights and measures). In the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, there is a unique electrum stater of Aegina.[10][22][unreliable source?] Coins from Athens and Corinth appeared shortly thereafter, known to exist at least since the late 6th century BC.[23] Classical Antiquity[edit] Further information: Ancient Greek coinage, Achaemenid coinage, Illyrian coinage, Roman currency, Coinage of India, Aureus, Solidus (coin), Denarius, and Antoninianus
Set of three roman aurei depicting the rulers of the Flavian dynasty. Top to bottom: Vespasian, Titus and Domitian. 69-96 AD.
Coinage followed Greek colonization and influence first around the Mediterranean and soon after to North Africa (including Egypt), Syria, Persia, and the Balkans.[24] Coins were minted in the Achaemenid Empire, including the gold darics and silver sigloi. and with the Achemenid conquest of Gandhara under Darius the Great ca. 520 BC, the practice spread to the Indo-Gangetic Plain. The coins of this period were called Puranas, Karshapanas or Pana.[25] These earliest Indian coins, however, are unlike those circulated in Persia, which were derived from the Greek/Anatolian type; they not disk-shaped but rather stamped bars of metal, suggesting that the innovation of stamped currency was added to a pre-existing form of token currency which had already been present in the Mahajanapada kingdoms of the Indian Iron Age. Mahajanapadas that minted their own coins included Gandhara, Kuntala, Kuru, Panchala, Shakya, Surasena and Surashtra.[26] In China, early round coins appear in the 4th century BC. The first Roman coins, which were crude, heavy cast bronzes, were issued ca. 289 B Most coins presently are made of a base metal, and their value comes from their status as fiat money. This means that the value of the coin is decreed by government fiat (law), and thus is determined by the free market only inasmuch as national currencies are used in domestic trade and also traded internationally on foreign exchange markets. Thus these coins are monetary tokens, just as paper currency is: they are usually not backed by metal, but rather by some form of government guarantee. Some have suggested that such coins not be considered to be "true coins" (see below). Thus there is very little economic difference between notes and coins of equivalent face value. Coins may be in circulation with fiat values lower than the value of their component metals, but they are never initially issued with such value, and the shortfall only arises over time due to inflation, as market values for the metal overtake the fiat declared face value of the coin. Examples are the pre-1965 US dime, quarter, half dollar, and dollar, US nickel, and pre-1982 US penny. As a result of the increase in the value of copper, the United States greatly reduced the amount of copper in each penny. Since mid-1982, United States pennies are made of 97.5% zinc, with the remaining 2.5% being a coating of copper. Extreme differences between fiat values and metal values of coins causes coins to be hoarded or removed from circulation by illicit smelters in order to realise the value of their metal content. This is an example of Gresham's law. The United States Mint, in an attempt to avoid this, implemented new interim rules on December 14, 2006, subject to public comment for 30 days, which criminalized the melting and export of pennies and nickels.[30] Violators can be fined up to $10,000 and/or imprisoned for up to five years. A coin's value as a collector's item or as an investment generally depends on its condition, specific historical significance, rarity, quality/beauty of the design and general popularity with collectors. If a coin is greatly lacking in all of these, it is unlikely to be worth much. The value of bullion coins is also influenced to some extent by those factors, but is largely based on the value of their gold, silver, or platinum content. Sometimes non-monetized bullion coins such as the Canadian Maple Leaf and the American Gold Eagle are minted with nominal face values less than the value of the metal in them, but as such coins are never intended for circulation, these face values have no relevance. Coins can be used as creative medium of expression – from fine art sculpture to the penny machines that can be found in most amusement parks. In the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) in the United States there are some regulations specific to nickels and pennies that are informative on this topic. 31 CFR § 82.1 foroffers unauthorized persons from exporting, melting, or treating any 5 or 1 cent coins. This has been a particular problem with nickels and dimes (and with some comparable coins in other currencies) because of their relatively low face value and unstable commodity prices. For a while the copper in US pennies was worth more than one cent, so people would hoard pennies then melt them down for their metal value. It costs more than face value to manufacture pennies or nickels, so any widespread loss of the coins in circulation could be expensive for the Treasury. This was more of a problem when coins were still made of precious metals like silver and gold, so historically strict laws against alteration make more sense. 31 CFR § 82.2 goes on to state that: "(b) The prohibition contained in § 82.1 against the treatment of 5-cent coins and one-cent coins shall not apply to the treatment of these coins for educational, amusement, novelty, jewelry, and similar purposes as long as the volumes treated and the nature of the treatment makes it clear that such treatment is not intended as a means by which to profit solely from the value of the metal content of the coins." Ancient Rome was an Italic civilization that began on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 8th century BC. Located along the Mediterranean Sea and centered on the city of Rome, it expanded to become one of the largest empires in the ancient world[1] with an estimated 50 to 90 million inhabitants (roughly 20% of the world's population[2][3][4]) and covering 6.5 million square kilometers (2.5 million sq mi) during its height between the first and second centuries AD.[5][6][7] In its approximately 12 centuries of existence, Roman civilization shifted from a monarchy to a classical republic to an increasingly autocratic empire. Through conquest and assimilation, it came to dominate Southern Europe, Western Europe, Asia Minor, North Africa, parts of Northern Europe, and parts of Eastern Europe. Rome was preponderant throughout the Mediterranean region and was one of the most powerful entities of the ancient world. It is often grouped into "Classical Antiquity" together with ancient Greece, and their similar cultures and societies are known as the Greco-Roman world. The Romans are still remembered today, including names such as Julius Caesar, Cicero, and Augustus. Ancient Roman society contributed greatly to government, law, politics, engineering, art, literature, architecture, technology, warfare, religion, language, society and more in the Western world. A civilization highly developed for its time, Rome professionalized and greatly expanded its military and created a system of government called res publica, the inspiration for modern republics[8][9][10] such as the United States and France. It achieved impressive technological and architectural feats, such as the construction of an extensive system of aqueducts and roads, as well as large monuments, palaces, and public facilities. By the end of the Republic, Rome had conquered the lands around the Mediterranean and beyond: its domain extended from the Atlantic to Arabia and from the mouth of the Rhine to North Africa. The Roman Empire emerged under the leadership of Augustus Caesar. Under Trajan, the Empire reached its territorial peak. Republican mores and traditions started to decline during the imperial period, with civil wars becoming a common ritual for a new emperor's rise.[11][12][13] States, such as Palmyra, temporarily divided the Empire in a third-century crisis. Soldier emperors reunified it, by dividing the empire between Western and Eastern halves. Plagued by internal instability and attacked by various migrating peoples, the western part of the empire broke up into independent kingdoms in the 5th century. This splintering is a landmark historians use to divide the ancient period of universal history from the pre-mediaeval "Dark Ages" of Europe. The Eastern Roman Empire survived this crisis and was governed from Constantinople after the division of the Empire. It comprised Greece, the Balkans, Asia Minor, Syria and Egypt. Despite the later loss of Syria and Egypt to the Arab-Islamic Empire, the Eastern Roman Empire continued for another millennium, until its remnants were annexed by the emerging Turkish Ottoman Empire. This eastern, Christian, medieval stage of the Empire is usually called the Byzantine Empire by historians.
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She-wolf suckles Romulus and Remus.jpg
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Manuel I Komnenos ·
Alexios II Komnenos ·
Andronikos I Komnenos ·
Isaac II Angelos ·
Alexios III Angelos ·
Alexios IV Angelos ·
Alexios V Doukas
Empire of Nicaea
1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris ·
Theodore I Laskaris ·
John III Doukas Vatatzes ·
Theodore II Laskaris ·
John IV Laskaris
Eastern/
Byzantine Empire
1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos ·
Andronikos II Palaiologos ·
Michael IX Palaiologos ·
Andronikos III Palaiologos ·
John V Palaiologos ·
John VI Kantakouzenos ·
Matthew Kantakouzenos ·
Andronikos IV Palaiologos ·
John VII Palaiologos ·
Andronikos V Palaiologos ·
Manuel II Palaiologos ·
John VIII Palaiologos ·
Constantine XI Palaiologos
Ancient Greece was a Greek civilization belonging to a period of Greek history that lasted from the Archaic period[citation needed] of the 8th to 6th centuries BC to the end of antiquity (ca. 600 AD). Immediately following this period was the beginning of the Early Middle Ages and the Byzantine era.[1] Included in ancient Greece is the period of Classical Greece, which flourished during the 5th to 4th centuries BC. Classical Greece began with the repelling of a Persian invasion by Athenian leadership. Because of conquests by Alexander the Great, Hellenistic civilization flourished from Central Asia to the western end of the Mediterranean Sea. Classical Greek culture, especially philosophy, had a powerful influence on the Roman Empire, which carried a version of it to many parts of the Mediterranean region and Europe, for which reason Classical Greece is generally considered to be the seminal culture which provided the foundation of modern Western culture.[ Ancient Greece
Outline ·
Timeline
Periods Cycladic civilization ·
Minoan civilization ·
Mycenaean civilization ·
Greek Dark Ages ·
Archaic period ·
Classical Greece ·
Hellenistic Greece ·
Roman Greece
Geography Aegean Sea ·
Aeolis ·
Alexandria ·
Antioch ·
Crete ·
Cyprus ·
Cappadocia ·
Doris ·
Hellespont ·
Ephesus ·
Epirus ·
Ionian Sea ·
Ionia ·
Macedonia ·
Magna Graecia ·
Miletus ·
Pergamon ·
Peloponnesus ·
Pontus ·
Ancient Greek colonies
City states Argos ·
Athens ·
Byzantium ·
Chalkis ·
Corinth ·
Megalopolis ·
Rhodes ·
Syracuse ·
Sparta ·
Thebes
Politics Athenian democracy (Agora ·
Areopagus ·
Ecclesia ·
Graphē paranómōn ·
Heliaia ·
Ostracism)
·
Boeotarch ·
Boule ·
Koinon ·
Proxeny ·
Spartan Constitution (Apella ·
Ephor ·
Gerousia ·
Harmost)
·
Strategos ·
Synedrion ·
Tagus ·
Tyrant ·
Amphictyonic League
Rulers Kings of Argos ·
Archons of Athens ·
Kings of Athens ·
Kings of Commagene ·
Diadochi ·
Kings of Lydia ·
Kings of Macedonia ·
Kings of Paionia ·
Attalid kings of Pergamon ·
Kings of Pontus ·
Kings of Sparta ·
Tyrants of Syracuse
Life Agriculture ·
Calendar ·
Clothing ·
Cuisine ·
Economy ·
Education ·
Festivals ·
Homosexuality ·
Law ·
Marriage ·
Funeral and burial practices ·
Olympic Games ·
Pederasty ·
Philosophy ·
Prostitution ·
Religion ·
Slavery ·
Warfare ·
Wine
Military Wars ·
Athenian military ·
Antigonid Macedonian army ·
Army of Macedon ·
Ballista ·
Cretan archers ·
Hellenistic armies ·
Hippeis ·
Hoplite ·
Hetairoi ·
Macedonian phalanx ·
Phalanx formation ·
Peltast ·
Pezhetairos ·
Sarissa ·
Sacred Band of Thebes ·
Sciritae ·
Seleucid army ·
Spartan army ·
Toxotai ·
Xiphos ·
Xyston
People Philosophers Anaxagoras ·
Anaximander ·
Anaximenes ·
Antisthenes ·
Aristotle ·
Democritus ·
Diogenes of Sinope ·
Epicurus ·
Empedocles ·
Heraclitus ·
Hypatia ·
Leucippus ·
Gorgias ·
Parmenides ·
Plato ·
Protagoras ·
Pythagoras ·
Socrates ·
Thales ·
Zeno
Authors Aeschylus ·
Aesop ·
Alcaeus ·
Archilochus ·
Aristophanes ·
Bacchylides ·
Euripides ·
Herodotus ·
Hesiod ·
Hipponax ·
Homer ·
Ibycus ·
Lucian ·
Menander ·
Mimnermus ·
Pindar ·
Plutarch ·
Polybius ·
Sappho ·
Simonides ·
Sophocles ·
Stesichorus ·
Thucydides ·
Theognis ·
Timocreon ·
Tyrtaeus ·
Xenophon
Others Agesilaus II ·
Agis II ·
Alexander the Great ·
Alcibiades ·
Aratus ·
Archimedes ·
Aspasia ·
Demosthenes ·
Epaminondas ·
Euclid ·
Hipparchus ·
Hippocrates ·
Leonidas ·
Lycurgus ·
Lysander ·
Milo of Croton ·
Miltiades ·
Pausanias ·
Pericles ·
Philip of Macedon ·
Philopoemen ·
Ptolemy ·
Pyrrhus ·
Solon ·
Themistocles
Groups Playwrights ·
Poets ·
Philosophers ·
Tyrants
Cultures Ancient Greek tribes ·
Greeks ·
Thracian Greeks ·
Ancient Macedonians
Arts Architecture ·
Coinage ·
Literature ·
Music ·
Pottery ·
Sculpture ·
Theatre
Religion Funeral and burial practices ·
Greek mythology ·
Greek temple ·
Greek underworld ·
Mythological figures ·
Twelve Olympians
Sacred places Eleusis ·
Delphi ·
Delos ·
Dodona ·
Mount Olympus ·
Olympia
Sciences Astronomy ·
Mathematics ·
Medicine ·
Technology
Structures Temple of Artemis ·
Temple of Athena Nike ·
Athenian Treasury ·
Erechtheion ·
Lion Gate ·
Long Walls ·
Parthenon ·
Philippeion ·
Samothrace temple complex ·
Temple of Aphaea ·
Temple of Hephaestus ·
Temple of Hera, Olympia ·
Temple of Zeus, Olympia ·
Theatre of Dionysus ·
Tunnel of Eupalinos
Language Proto-Greek ·
Mycenaean ·
Homeric ·
Dialects (Aeolic ·
Arcadocypriot ·
Attic ·
Doric ·
Ionic ·
Locrian ·
Macedonian ·
Pamphylian)
·
Koine
Writing Linear A ·
Linear B ·
Cypriot syllabary ·
Greek alphabet ·
Greek numerals ·
Attic numerals
Lists Cities ·
Cities in Epirus ·
Greek temples ·
Place names ·
Sroae ·
Theatres
Category Category ·
Portal Portal ·
WikiProject WikiProject
[hide]
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Classical antiquity by region
Europa Graecia ·
Italia ·
Gallia ·
Dacia ·
Thracia ·
Illyria ·
Hispania ·
Britannia ·
Germania
Asia Scythia ·
Anatolia ·
Syria ·
Arabia
Africa Libya ·
Aegyptus
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Ancient Greek and Roman wars
Wars of ancient Greece Trojan War ·
First Messenian War ·
Second Messenian War ·
Lelantine War ·
Sicilian Wars ·
Greco-Persian Wars ·
Aeginetan War ·
Wars of the Delian League ·
Samian War ·
Peloponnesian War ·
Corinthian War ·
Sacred Wars (First, Second, Third) ·
Social War (357–355 BC) ·
Rise of Macedon ·
Wars of Alexander the Great ·
Wars over Alexander's empire ·
Lamian War ·
Chremonidean War ·
Cleomenean War ·
Social War (220–217 BC) ·
Cretan War ·
Aetolian War ·
War against Nabis ·
Maccabean Revolt
Wars of the Roman Republic Roman-Latin wars (First Latin War (Battle of Lake Regillus)
·
Second Latin War)
·
Samnite Wars ·
Pyrrhic War ·
Punic Wars (First, Second, Third) ·
Macedonian Wars (Illyrian ·
First Macedonian ·
Second Macedonian ·
Seleucid ·
Third Macedonian ·
Fourth Macedonian)
·
Jugurthine War ·
Cimbrian War ·
Roman Servile Wars (First ·
Second ·
Third)
·
Social War ·
Civil wars of Lucius Cornelius Sulla (First ·
Second)
·
Mithridatic Wars (First ·
Second ·
Third)
·
Gallic Wars ·
Julius Caesar's civil war ·
End of the Republic (Post-Caesarian ·
Liberators' ·
Sicilian ·
Fulvia's ·
Final)
Wars of the Roman Empire Germanic Wars (Marcomannic ·
Alamannic ·
Gothic ·
Visigothic)
·
Wars in Britain ·
Wars of Boudica ·
Armenian War ·
Civil War of 69 ·
Jewish Wars ·
Domitian's Dacian War ·
Trajan's Dacian Wars ·
Parthian Wars ·
Roman–Persian Wars ·
Civil Wars of the Third Century ·
Wars of the Fall of the Western Roman Empire