Gallienus - Roman Emperor : 253-268 A.D. -
Bronze Antoninianus 23mm (2.80 grams) Antioch mint 266 A.D.
Reference: RIC 623a, C 1250
GALLIENVS AVG, radiate draped bust right
 VIRTVS AVG Exe: VIIC•, Hercules standing left, holding club and apple.

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Eleventh Labour: Apples of the Hesperides

 

Hercules stealing the apples of the Hesperides (mosaic from Roman Spain , 3rd century CE)

After Hercules completed his first ten Labours, Eurystheus gave him two more claiming that neither the Hydra counted (because Iolaus helped Hercules) nor the Augean stables (either because he received payment for the job or because the rivers did the work). The first of these two additional Labours was to steal the apples from the garden of the Hesperides. Hercules first caught the Old Man of the Sea , the shape-shifting sea god, to learn where the Garden of the Hesperides was located.

In some variations, Hercules, either at the start or at the end of his task, meets Antaeus , who was invincible as long as he touched his mother, Gaia , the earth. Hercules killed Antaeus by holding him aloft and crushing him in a bearhug.

Herodotus claims that Hercules stopped in Egypt , where King Busiris decided to make him the yearly sacrifice, but Hercules burst out of his chains.

Finally making his way to the Garden of the Hesperides, Hercules tricked Atlas into retrieving some of the golden apples for him, by offering to hold up the heavens for a little while (Atlas was able to take them as, in this version, he was the father or otherwise related to the Hesperides). This would have made this task – like the Hydra and Augean stables – void because he had received help. Upon his return, Atlas decided that he did not want to take the heavens back, and instead offered to deliver the apples himself, but Hercules tricked him again by agreeing to take his place on condition that Atlas relieve him temporarily so that Hercules could make his cloak more comfortable. Atlas agreed, but Hercules reneged and walked away, carrying the apples. According to an alternative version, Hercules slew Ladon , the dragon-like guardian of the apples, instead. Furious that Hercules had accomplished something that Eurystheus thought could not possibly be done, he sent Hercules off to his final task, the capture of Cerberus , the three-headed guardian hound of the gates of the Underworld .

Gallienus (Latin: Publius Licinius Egnatius Gallienus Augustus; c. 218 – 268) was Roman Emperor with his father Valerian from 253 to 260 and alone from 260 to 268. He ruled during the Crisis of the Third Century that nearly caused the collapse of the empire. While he won a number of military victories, he was unable to prevent the secession of important provinces.

Life

Rise to power

The exact birth date of Gallienus is unknown. The Greek chronicler John Malalas and the Epitome de Caesaribus report that he was about 50 years old at the time of his death, meaning he was born around 218.^[2] He was the son of emperor Valerian and Mariniana , who may have been of senatorial rank, possibly the daughter of Egnatius Victor Marinianus , and his brother was Valerianus Minor . Inscriptions on coins connect him with Falerii in Etruria , which may have been his birthplace; it has yielded many inscriptions relating to his mother's family, the Egnatii.^[3] Gallienus married Cornelia Salonina about ten years before his accession to the throne. She was the mother of three princes: Valerian II , who died in 258; Saloninus , who was named co-emperor but was murdered in 260 by the army of general Postumus; and Marinianus , who was killed in 268, shortly after his father was assassinated.^[4]

When Valerian was proclaimed Emperor on 22 October 253, he asked the Senate to ratify the elevation of Gallienus to Caesar and Augustus . He was also designated Consul Ordinarius for 254. As Marcus Aurelius and his adopted brother Lucius Verus had done a century earlier, Gallienus and his father divided the Empire. Valerian left for the East to stem the Persian threat, and Gallienus remained in Italy to repel the Germanic tribes on the Rhine and Danube . Division of the empire had become necessary due to its sheer size and the numerous threats it faced, and it facilitated negotiations with enemies who demanded to communicate directly with the emperor.

Early reign and the revolt of Ingenuus

Gallienus spent most of his time in the provinces of the Rhine area (Germania Inferior, Germania Superior , Raetia , and Noricum ), though he almost certainly visited the Danube area and Illyricum during 253 to 258. According to Eutropius and Aurelius Victor, he was particularly energetic and successful in preventing invaders from attacking the German provinces and Gaul, despite the weakness caused by Valerian's march on Italy against Aemilianus in 253.^[5] According to numismatic evidence, he seems to have won many victories there,^[6] and a victory in Roman Dacia might also be dated to that period. Even the hostile Latin tradition attributes success to him at this time.^[7]

In 255 or 257, Gallienus was made Consul again, suggesting that he briefly visited Rome on those occasions, although no record survives.^[8] During his Danube sojourn (Drinkwater suggests in 255 or 256), he proclaimed his elder son Valerian II Caesar and thus official heir to himself and Valerian I; the boy probably joined Gallienus on campaign at that time, and when Gallienus moved west to the Rhine provinces in 257, he remained behind on the Danube as the personification of Imperial authority.^[9]

Sometime between 258 and 260 (the exact date is unclear), while Valerian was distracted with the ongoing invasion of Shapur in the East, and Gallienus was preoccupied with his problems in the West, Ingenuus , governor of at least one of the Pannonian provinces,^[10] took advantage and declared himself emperor. Valerian II had apparently died on the Danube, most likely in 258.^[11] Ingenuus may have been responsible for that calamity. Alternatively, the defeat and capture of Valerian at the battle of Edessa may have been the trigger for the subsequent revolts of Ingenuus, Regalianus , and Postumus .^[12] In any case, Gallienus reacted with great speed. He left his son Saloninus as Caesar at Cologne , under the supervision of Albanus (or Silvanus) and the military leadership of Postumus. He then hastily crossed the Balkans , taking with him the new cavalry corps (comitatus) under the command of Aureolus ^[13] and defeated Ingenuus at Mursa ^[14] or Sirmium .^[15] The victory must be attributed mainly to the cavalry and its brilliant commander. Ingenuus was killed by his own guards or committed suicide by drowning himself after the fall of his capital, Sirmium.^[16]

Invasion of the Alamanni

A major invasion by the Alemanni and other Germanic tribes occurred between 258 and 260 (it is hard to fix the precise date of these events),^[17] probably due to the vacuum left by the withdrawal of troops supporting Gallienus in the campaign against Ingenuus. Franks broke through the lower Rhine, invading Gaul, some reaching as far as southern Spain, sacking Tarraco (modern Tarragona ).^[18] The Alamanni invaded, probably through Agri Decumates (an area between the upper Rhine and the upper Danube),^[19] likely followed by the Juthungi .^[18] After devastating Germania Superior and Raetia (parts of southern France and Switzerland ), they entered Italy, the first invasion of the Italian peninsula, aside from its most remote northern regions, since Hannibal 500 years before. When invaders reached the outskirts of Rome, they were repelled by an improvised army assembled by the Senate, consisting of local troops (probably prǣtorian guards) and the strongest of the civilian population.^[20] On their retreat through northern Italy, they were intercepted and defeated in the battle of Mediolanum (near present day Milan ) by Gallienus' army, which had advanced from Gaul, or from the Balkans after dealing with the Franks.^[20] The battle of Mediolanum was decisive, and the Alamanni didn't bother the empire for the next ten years. The Juthungi managed to cross the Alps with their valuables and captives from Italy.^[18][21] An historian in the 19th century suggested that the initiative of the Senate gave rise to jealousy and suspicion by Gallienus, thus contributing to his exclusion of senators from military commands.^[22]

The revolt of Regalianus

Around the same time, Regalianus , a military commander of Illyricum , was proclaimed Emperor. The reasons for this are unclear, and the Historia Augusta (almost the sole resource for these events) does not provide a credible story. It is possible the seizure can be attributed to the discontent of the civilian and military provincials, who felt the defense of the province was being neglected.^[23]

Regalianus held power for some six months and issued coins bearing his image. After some success against the Sarmatians , his revolt was put down by the invasion of Roxolani into Pannonia , and Regalianus himself was killed when the invaders took the city of Sirmium .^[24] There is a suggestion that Gallienus invited Roxolani to attack Regalianus, but other historians dismiss the accusation.^[25] It is also suggested that the invasion was finally checked by Gallienus near Verona and that he directed the restoration of the province, probably in person.^[26]

Capture of Valerian, revolt of Macrianus

In the East, Valerian was confronted with serious troubles. A band of Scythians set a naval raid against Pontus , in the northern part of modern Turkey. After ravaging the province, they moved south into Cappadocia . Valerian led troops to intercept them but failed, perhaps because of a plague that gravely weakened his army, as well as the contemporary invasion of northern Mesopotamia by Shapur I , ruler of the Sassanid Empire .

In 259 or 260, the Roman army was defeated in the Battle of Edessa , and Valerian was taken prisoner. Shapur's army raided Cilicia and Cappadocia (in present day Turkey ), sacking, as Shapur's inscriptions claim, 36 cities. It took a rally by an officer Callistus (Balista), a fiscal official named Fulvius Macrianus , the remains of the Eastern Roman legions, and Odenathus and his Palmyrene horsemen to turn the tide against Shapur.^[27] The Persians were driven back, but Macrianus proclaimed his two sons Quietus and Macrianus (sometimes misspelled Macrinus) as emperors.^[21] Coins struck for them in major cities of the East indicate acknowledgement of the usurpation. The two Macriani left Quietus, Ballista, and, presumably, Odenathus to deal with the Persians while they invaded Europe with an army of 30,000 men, according to the Historia Augusta. At first they met no opposition.^[28][29] The Pannonian legions joined the invaders, being resentful of the absence of Gallienus. He sent his successful commander Aureolus against the rebels, however, and the decisive battle was fought in the spring or early summer of 261, most likely in Illyricum, although Zonaras locates it in Pannonia. In any case, the army of the usurpers surrendered, and their two leaders were killed.^[30]

In the aftermath of the battle, the rebellion of Postumus had already started, so Gallienus had no time to deal with the rest of the usurpers, namely Balista and Quietus. He came to an agreement with Odenathus, who had just returned from his victorious Persian expedition. Odenathus received the title of dux Romanorum and besieged the usurpers, who were based at Emesa . Eventually, the people of Emesa killed Quietus, and Odenathus arrested and executed Balista about November 261.^[31]

The revolt of Postumus

After the defeat at Edessa, Gallienus lost control over the provinces of Britain, Spain, parts of Germania, and a large part of Gaul when another general, Postumus , declared his own realm (usually known today as the Gallic Empire ). The revolt partially coincided with that of Macrianus in the East. Gallienus had installed his son Saloninus and his guardian, Silvanus , in Cologne in 258. Postumus, a general in command of troops on the banks of the Rhine, defeated some raiders and took possession of their spoils. Instead of returning it to the original owners, he preferred to distribute it amongst his soldiers. When news of this reached Silvanus, he demanded the spoils be sent to him. Postumus made a show of submission, but his soldiers mutinied and proclaimed him Emperor. Under his command, they besieged Cologne, and after some weeks the defenders of the city opened the gates and handed Saloninus and Silvanus to Postumus, who had them killed.^[32] The dating of these events is not accurate, but they apparently occurred just before the end of 260.^[33] Postumus claimed the consulship for himself and one of his associates, Honoratianus, but according to D.S. Potter, he never tried to unseat Gallienus or invade Italy.^[34]

Upon receiving news of the murder of his son, Gallienus began gathering forces to face Postumus. The invasion of the Macriani forced him to dispatch Aureolus with a large force to oppose them, however, leaving him with insufficient troops to battle Postumus. After some initial defeats, the army of Aureolus, having defeated the Macriani, rejoined him, and Postumus was expelled. Aureolus was entrusted with the pursuit and deliberately allowed Postumus to escape and gather new forces.^[35] Gallienus returned in 263^[36] or 265^[37] and surrounded Postumus in an unnamed Gallic city. During the siege, Gallenus was severely wounded by an arrow and had to leave the field. The standstill persisted until the death of Gallienus,^[38] and the Gallic Empire remained independent until 274.

The revolt of Aemilianus

In 262, the mint in Alexandria started to again issue coins for Gallienus, demonstrating that Egypt had returned to his control after suppressing the revolt of the Macriani. In spring of 262, the city was wrenched by civil unrest as a result of a new revolt. The rebel this time was the prefect of Egypt, Lucius Mussius Aemilianus , who had already given support to the revolt of the Macriani. The correspondence of bishop Dionysius of Alexandria provides a colourful commentary on the sombre background of invasion, civil war, plague, and famine that characterized this age.^[39]

Knowing he could not afford to lose control of the vital Egyptian granaries, Gallienus sent his general Theodotus against Aemilianus, probably by a naval expedition. The decisive battle probably took place near Thebes, and the result was a clear defeat of Aemilianus.^[40] In the aftermath, Gallienus became Consul three more times in 262, 264, and 266.

Herulian invasions, revolt of Aureolus, conspiracy and death

In the years 267–269, Goths and other barbarians invaded the empire in great numbers. Sources are extremely confused on the dating of these invasions, the participants, and their targets. Modern historians are not even able to discern with certainty whether there were two or more of these invasions or a single prolonged one. It seems that, at first, a major naval expedition was led by the Heruli starting from north of the Black Sea and leading in the ravaging of many cities of Greece (among them, Athens and Sparta ). Then another, even more numerous army of invaders started a second naval invasion of the empire. The Romans defeated the barbarians on sea first. Gallienus' army then won a battle in Thrace , and the Emperor pursued the invaders. According to some historians, he was the leader of the army who won the great Battle of Naissus , while the majority believes that the victory must be attributed to his successor, Claudius II .^[41]

In 268, at some time before or soon after the battle of Naissus, the authority of Gallienus was challenged by Aureolus , commander of the cavalry stationed in Mediolanum (Milan), who was supposed to keep an eye on Postumus . Instead, he acted as deputy to Postumus until the very last days of his revolt, when he seems to have claimed the throne for himself.^[42] The decisive battle took place at what is now Pontirolo Nuovo near Milan; Aureolus was clearly defeated and driven back to Milan.^[43] Gallienus laid siege to the city but was murdered during the siege. There are differing accounts of the murder, but the sources agree that most of Gallienus' officials wanted him dead.^[44] According to the Historia Augusta , an unreliable source compiled long after the events it describes,^[45] a conspiracy was led by the commander of the guard Aurelius Heraclianus and Marcianus.

Cecropius, commander of the Dalmatians, spread the word that the forces of Aureolus were leaving the city, and Gallienus left his tent without his bodyguard, only to be struck down by Cecropius.^[46] One version has Claudius selected as Emperor by the conspirators, another chosen by Gallienus on his death bed; the Historia Augusta was concerned to substantiate the descent of the Constantinian dynasty from Claudius, and this may explain its accounts, which do not involve Claudius in the murder. The other sources (Zosimus i.40 and Zonaras xii.25) report that the conspiracy was organized by Heraclianus, Claudius, and Aurelian .

According to Aurelius Victor and Zonaras, on hearing the news that Gallienus was dead, the Senate in Rome ordered the execution of his family (including his brother Valerianus and son Marinianus) and their supporters, just before receiving a message from Claudius to spare their lives and deify his predecessor.^[47]

Arch of Gallienus in Rome, 262 – dedicated to, rather than built by, Gallienus.

Legacy

Gallienus was not treated favorably by ancient historians,^[48] partly due to the secession of Gaul and Palmyra and his inability to win them back. According to modern scholar Pat Southern, some historians now see him in a more positive light.^[49] Gallienus produced some useful reforms. He contributed to military history as the first to commission primarily cavalry units, the Comitatenses , that could be dispatched anywhere in the Empire in short order. This reform arguably created a precedent for the future emperors Diocletian and Constantine I .

The biographer Aurelius Victor reports that Gallienus forbade senators from becoming military commanders.^[50] This policy undermined senatorial power, as more reliable equestrian commanders rose to prominence. In Southern's view, these reforms and the decline in senatorial influence not only helped Aurelian to salvage the Empire, but they also make Gallienus one of the emperors most responsible for the creation of the Dominate , along with Septimius Severus , Diocletian, and Constantine I.^[51]

By portraying himself with the attributes of the gods on his coinage, Gallienus began the final separation of the Emperor from his subjects. A late bust of Gallienus (see above) depicts him with a largely blank face, gazing heavenward, as seen on the famous stone head of Constantine I . One of the last rulers of Rome to be theoretically called "Princeps", or First Citizen, Gallienus' shrewd self-promotion assisted in paving the way for those who would be addressed with the words "Dominus et Deus" (Lord and God)

The Principate

 Julio-Claudian dynasty

 Year of the Four Emperors (Civil War)

 Flavian dynasty

 Nervan-Antonian dynasty

Main article: Five Good Emperors

 Year of the Five Emperors & Severan dynasty

 Rulers during the Crisis of the Third Century

 Gallic Empire 260 to 274

 Britannic Empire 286 to 297

 Dominate

 Tetrarchy and Constantinian dynasty

 Valentinian dynasty

 Theodosian dynasty

 Western Roman Empire

Further information: Barbarian kings of Italy

 Eastern Roman Empire

• For the rulers of the Eastern Roman Empire (also known as the Byzantine Empire ) after Theodosius II , see: List of Byzantine Emperors

Theodosian dynasty (395–457)

Name		Reign	Comments
	Theodosius I "the Great" (Θεοδόσιος Α' ο Μέγας, Flavius Theodosius)Theodosius I Coins.htm	19 January 379 – 17 January 395	Born on 11 January 347. Aristocrat and military leader, brother-in-law of Gratian, who appointed him as emperor of the East. From 392 until his death sole Roman emperor
	Arcadius (Αρκάδιος, Flavius Arcadius)Arcadius Coins.htm	17 January 395 – 1 May 408	Born in 377/378, the eldest son of Theodosius I. Succeeded upon the death of his father
	Theodosius II (Θεοδόσιος Β', Flavius Theodosius) Theodosius II Coins.htm	1 May 408 – 28 July 450	Born on 10 April 401, the only son of Arcadius. Succeeded upon the death of his father. As a minor, the praetorian prefect Anthemius was regent in 408–414. He died in a riding accident
	Marcian (Μαρκιανός, Flavius Valerius Marcianus) Marcian Coins.htm	450 – January 457	Born in 396. A soldier and politician, he became emperor after being wed by the Augusta Pulcheria , Theodosius II's sister, following the latter's death. Died of gangrene

Leonid dynasty (457–518)

Name		Reign	Comments
	Leo I "the Thracian" (Λέων Α' ο Θράξ, Flavius Valerius Leo) Leo I Coins.htm	7 February 457 – 18 January 474	Born in Dacia in 401. A common soldier, he was chosen by Aspar , commander-in-chief of the army. Died of dysentery
	Leo II (Λέων Β', Flavius Leo) Leo II Coins.htm	18 January – 17 November 474	Born in 467, the grandson of Leo I. Succeeded upon the death of Leo I. Died of an unknown disease, possibly poisoned
	Zeno (Ζήνων, Flavius Zeno) Zeno Coins.htm	17 November 474 – 9 April 491	Born c.425 at Zenonopolis , Isauria , originally named Tarasicodissa. Son-in-law of Leo I, he was bypassed in the succession because of his barbarian origin. Named co-emperor by his son on 9 February 474, he succeeded upon the death of Leo II. Deposed by Basiliscus, brother-in-law of Leo, he fled to his native country and regained the throne in August 476.
	Basiliscus (Βασιλίσκος, Flavius Basiliscus) Basiliscus Coins.htm	9 January 475 – August 476	General and brother-in-law of Leo I, he seized power from Zeno but was again deposed by him. Died in 476/477
	Anastasius I (Αναστάσιος Α', Flavius Anastasius) BYZANTINE - Anastasius Coins.htm	11 April 491 – 9 July 518	Born c. 430 at Dyrrhachium , Epirus nova . A palace official (silentiarius) and son-in-law of Leo I, he was chosen as emperor by empress-dowager Ariadne

Justinian Dynasty

Portrait	Name	Born	Reigned	Succession	Died
	Justin I FLAVIVS IVSTINVS AVGVSTVS	c. 450 AD, Naissus	July 9, 518 AD – August 1, 527 AD	Commander of the palace guard under Anastasius I) ; elected as emperor with support of army	August 1, 527 AD Natural causes
	Justinian I FLAVIVS PETRVS SABBATIVS IVSTINIANVS AVGVSTVS	c. 482 AD, Tauresium , Dardania	August 1, 527 AD – 13/14 November 565 AD	Nephew and nominated heir of Justin I	13/14 November 565 AD Natural causes
	Justin II FLAVIVS IVSTINIVS IVNIOR AVGVSTVS	c. 520 AD, ?	13/14 November 565 AD – 578 AD	Nephew of Justinian I	578 AD Became insane; Tiberius II Constantine ruled as regent from December 574 and became emperor on Justin's death in 578

Roman Late Monogram Coins.htm

Roman AE4 Coins.htm