PRODUCT INFORMATION
R.P.E. SHQIPERISE ALBANIA
FULL PELICANS NOT HINGED ORIGINAL GUM SETS
COLLECTING STAMPS OF ALBANIA AFTER 1950+ YEAR IS NOT ONLY AN ACQUAINTANCE WITH HISTORY, BUT ALSO A PROFITABLE
INVESTMENT.
Postal
history in Albania has been traced back to the time of its entry into
the Ottoman Empire. At the same time, from 1870 to 1913, postage stamps
of the Ottoman Empire were in circulation on Albanian territory.
Issues of postage stamps
First stamps
After independence, Albania issued the first postage stamps in 1913.
Subsequent issues
The inscriptions on the postage stamps of Albania, denoting the name of the state in Albanian: Shqiperia, Shqiperise, Shqiptare.
Overprints
The
first overprint on Albanian postage stamps was made on November 28,
1913. The hand stamp overprinted the state symbols - the Albanian eagle
after the declaration of independence from the Ottoman Empire and the
new denomination of 10 Turkish par. It was in circulation until December
31, 1913. There are varieties in color.
The last overprint was
made in January 2006 to change the denomination of 40 Albanian leks
(lek) due to the need for stamps of this denomination.
Over the
entire period, 319 cataloged overprints were produced, of which 14
were postal and charitable overprints to raise funds for the Red Cross
Fund, 52 - in connection with a change in the political system in
Albania, 50 - changes in the face value of a postage stamp, 62 -
commemorative, 21 - on changing the type of stamp, for use as an
additional charge, 18 - control overprints to prevent speculation with
postage stamps.
Italian post office in Albania (1902-1923)
On
the territory of Albania, which was part of the Ottoman Empire until
1912, Italian post offices functioned, which used postage stamps
intended for all such post offices operating in the Ottoman Empire. In
addition to the indicated postage stamps, the Italian postal department
issued special stamps for Albania. So, in 1902-1908, Italian postage
stamps were in circulation with an overprint of the text Italian.
"Albania" ("Albania") and a new denomination, intended for post offices
in the cities of Scutari (Shkoder), Durazzo (Durres) and Valona (Vlore).
In
1909-1916, separate stamps were issued for the three indicated post
offices. These were Italian postage stamps overprinted with a new
denomination in Turkish currency and the name of the city, namely:
ital. "Scutari di Albania" ("Scutari in Albania"), "Durazzo"
("Durazzo") and "Valona" ("Valona"). A total of 10 postage stamps were
issued for Shkodra, 9 for Durres and 10 for Vlora.
In October
1911, the Italian post offices in Albania were closed, but they began to
work again a year later, in October 1912, finally ceasing to function
in 1923.
WORLD POSTAGE INFORMATION
The
history of the post is a historical study of the development of the
postal service. The need to receive news from other localities and
countries dates back to ancient times and was initially satisfied by
means of messengers who brought messages, both oral and written or
dressed in symbolic form. With the development of human civilization,
there was a change and development of methods, means and forms of postal
communication.
Royal Mail Coach (Great Britain, ca. 1820)
African hollow tom-toms
Prehistoric
people used the voice to convey important information, which
contributed to the emergence of articulate speech. However, the oral
transmission of the news was imperfect, since the human voice is heard
only at close range. To amplify the transmitted sound, hollow tree
trunks and later drums began to be used thousands of years ago (about 6
thousand years BC). With the help of conditional shock signals, news was
transmitted from one settlement to another. In addition, people used
fire and smoke to convey messages. Tom-tom drums are still used by
African tribes to communicate over long distances, and the smoke from
bonfires was used for the same purposes by the Indians of Canada as far
back as the 20th century.
N. K. Roerich (1874-1947). Messenger Antiquity
Messengers
became the next type of communication in the history of mankind - at
first on foot, later on horseback. In the ancient states of Mesopotamia,
Egypt, Greece, Persia, China, the Roman Empire, there was a
well-established state postal service: written messages were sent with
foot and horse messengers on the principle of a relay.
The Ancient East
The
history of mail is closely related to the history of writing. With the
birth of the latter, information began to be transmitted in writing,
which marked the beginning of postal communication. At first, this
relationship was episodic. With the emergence of slave-owning states in
the Ancient East, whose rulers needed constant information about the
situation in their own country and in the territories subject to them,
postal communications began to acquire an orderly character.
Ancient Egyptian drawing depicting postal activity
The
first institutions of an ordered message service arose quite early in
ancient times. For the first time, a postal message appeared about 5000
years ago in Mesopotamia to transmit information imprinted in the form
of a clay letter.
No less ancient is the postal service in Egypt.
Initially,
such services were used mainly for military purposes and were not
intended for communication between civilians. Such were the messaging
services in ancient Egypt, Assyria, Babylon and Persia. They were
especially developed in Egypt and can be considered the forerunners of
modern mail. During the IV dynasty of the pharaohs (2900-2700 BC), there
was a service of special foot (walkers), as well as horse messengers,
providing communication via military roads with Libya, Ethiopia and
Arabia.
Ancient Egyptian mail was based primarily on the use of
numerous messengers on foot, thanks to which the pharaohs could easily
communicate with remote provinces. In Beni Hassan, on the wall painting
of one of the cave-tombs dating back to the era of the Middle Kingdom, a
messenger is depicted conveying to an official a message about the
invasion of an enemy tribe[3]. It is known about professional messengers
that existed in Egypt in the era of the XII dynasty (1985-1785 BC), who
delivered royal orders all the way to Asia. The messengers had to cover
long distances as quickly as possible. Carrier pigeons were also used
to transport letters.
Carrier pigeons with attached messages.
An
idea of the postal service in ancient Egypt can be obtained from a
papyrus document dated to about 255 BC. e. and containing accounts for
the delivery of mail by one messenger. A similar highly developed postal
system soon spread to other countries.
The Assyrian legend tells of the messengers who carried the orders of Semiramis to all the edges of her kingdom.
The
postal business in the Persian monarchy - in the form of a clear system
of postal communication, known as the "angareyon" - was introduced in
the 6th century BC. e., during the time of King Cyrus II (550-529 BC).
The transmission of messages was carried out mainly through horse
messengers (hangars). However, there are indications that such a postal
system existedin Persia much earlier. From the descriptions of Herodotus
and Xenophon it is known that under Cyrus II, postal stations were
installed on the most important roads, spaced at a uniform distance from
each other, which was approximately the daily run of a horse. These
stations served as rest couriers.
Ancient Greece
In
Greece, the postal system was quite well established in the form of
land and sea mail, but it could not develop significantly due to the
many warring city-states. Governments, as a rule, had at their disposal
messengers on foot to convey messages. They were called hemerodromes
(Greek ημερόδρομος). The runners covered in an hour a distance of 55
stadia (about 10 km) and in one flight - 400-500 stadia.
The
most famous of these couriers was Pheidippides, who, according to
Plutarch, in 490 B.C. e. brought to Athens the news of the victory at
the Battle of Marathon and died of exhaustion. This run was the first
marathon in history. Pheidippides transmitted only a verbal message.
Riding
messengers were sent already in antiquity to convey especially hasty
messages. As Diodorus Siculus writes, one of the commanders of Alexander
the Great kept messengers at his headquarters - camel riders.
Ancient Rome
Roman roads and Cursus publicus
In
the Roman Republic, the organization of the postal business was
probably borrowed from the Persians. At first, only wealthy patricians,
who owned numerous slaves, had their own messengers. For government and
private purposes, there were messengers (cursores, statores,
later viatores and tabellarii, from tabella - a tablet for writing), as
well as private entrepreneurs who rented wagons and pack animals
(cisiarii and jumentarii); their colleges united into one corporation.
Gaius Julius Caesar laid the foundation for the creation of the state
post itself, which arose and received significant development under the
emperor Augustus. In those days, the post office was called cursus
publicus (“cursus publicus” - state post), was subordinated directly to
the emperor and was not allowed for private messages. Thanks to a single
postal network, there was a connection between the individual parts of
the Roman Empire. It was a huge, extensive postal system, which
worked according to clear regulations.
Postal transportation
was carried out on land with the help of horses, by sea - on ships. In
larger centers, mail stations (mansiones, later stationes) were
established, which served for the rest and overnight stay of traveling
horsemen and drivers and usually stood one from the other for a day's
journey. Riding and pack animals and, in case of need, wagons stood
ready here. Between each two mansiones (at a distance of 7-14 km) 6-8
smaller stations (mutationes) were arranged for changing horses. In
those days, they could say: "Statio posita in ...", which meant "a
station located in such and such a place." From the Latin word posita,
most likely, the word post came - "mail" .
Hurry packages were
sent by horse couriers (veredarii), travelers were transported in light
wagons (rheda), various kinds of luggage - in carts (clabularia). The
use of state mail was allowed only for state purposes and certain
officials. In urgent cases, entire military units were transported by
means of cursus publicus. As an exception and on the basis of special
permits (diplomata, evectiones, tractoriae), other persons, traveling
officials, especially veterans, and later clergymen could use the state
mail, which gave rise to various abuses.
The main administration
of the state post was concentrated in the hands of one of the highest
state officials: at first the prefect of the praetorium, and from the
time of Constantine, the master of offices. The management of the post
in the provinces belonged to the governors, under whom special prefects
(prefecti vehiculorum), later - procuratores cursus publici, were in
charge of the technical part of the post. The supply of horses, other
means of transportation and riders was a natural duty of the surrounding
population and the inhabitants of the conquered countries, on whom the
maintenance of the mail lay an extremely heavy burden.
Although
the activity of the Roman state post was limited to government needs, it
was of great importance. Thanks to the excellent road network, the
security and order of communications, and the extensive correspondence
of civil and military authorities, an unusually busy traffic developed
at the state post offices. Distances from Britain to the Balkans, the
Caucasus, present-day Turkey, Syria, Palestine, and Jordan, and from the
mouth of the Rhine to the Libyan Desert and Alexandria, could be
covered relatively quickly. If Caesar, using variable private horses,
could make 100 miles a day, then Tiberius, with the help of cursus
publicus, traveled a distance twice that in a day. News from the most
important provinces was received daily in Rome. Stations along busier
roads containedb 20-40 draft horses and mules. This organization lasted
until the fall of the Western Roman Empire, and with its fall the cursus
publicus also disappeared. In the Eastern Roman Empire, the state post
office existed until about 520.
For private mail, they usually
used the services of traveling friends, which led to a long delivery
time. So, there is a known case when a certain Augustin received a
letter nine years later. If the distance to the addressee was not very
large, the Roman sent his slave, who traveled on foot up to 75 km per
day.
Other highly developed cultures
In
China, the postal service of foot and horse messengers arose quite
early; it was founded during the Zhou dynasty (1123-249 BC). In those
days, postal communication was maintained with the help of 80 messengers
and eight main couriers, for whom quarters for meals were arranged at a
distance of 5 km and, at a greater distance, accommodation points. This
postal system was greatly expanded during the Qin Dynasty (221-206 BC)
and especially during the Han Dynasty (206 BC-220).
During the heyday of the Mayan culture, there was also a developed service of messengers, but very little is known about it.
Middle Ages
Development in Europe
Early Middle Ages
Post horn
Exhibit of the Rheinhessen Postal Museum
With
the fall of the Western Roman Empire, there was hardly any functioning
transmission system in Europe. Only Clovis (King of France from 482 to
511) tried - without much success - to recreate the postal service from
the remains of the Roman state mail. By the time of Charlemagne
(768-814) messages were delivered with great difficulty. Charlemagne and
his successors made no serious attempt to restore the Roman state post.
The institution of messengers, which existed under the Carolingians,
was adjacent to the popular division into stamps and, with the rapid
disintegration of the monarchy, was not widely developed. The feudal
princes carried out the transfer of letters and things through
messengers and drivers provided by their subjects.
Monastic and university mail
In
feudal medieval Europe of the 11th-15th centuries, with the
fragmentation of state power, the forwarding of news was carried out
mainly by individual spiritual and secular corporations. At that time,
the Church needed most of all the exchange of thoughts, both because its
organization rested on the beginning of centralization, and because for
a long time it was the only bearer of the intellectual life of peoples.
The archives of church institutions and the regests of the Roman curia
testify that even at the very beginning of the Middle Ages there was a
lively exchange of messages between the head of the Catholic hierarchy
and its members; but there is no indication of the existence of a
special ecclesiastical institution of messengers or couriers. Only
between numerous branches of spiritual orders was proper communication
maintained through the medium of wandering monks, who played the role of
couriers and took reports with them. The monasteries thus had their own
system of messages - the monastic post. Monastic couriers kept in touch
between individual monasteries and the head of the church in Rome,
between monastic orders and their brotherhoods. In the lands of the
German order, a special administration arose for this purpose and
stations were established for changing horses.
At universities,
where students flocked from various countries, corporations of
professional messengers were also formed, enjoying various privileges.
In the XII-XIII centuries, the messengers of the universities in
Bologna, Salerno, Naples, Montpellier, Toulouse were famous, and later -
the messengers of the Sorbonne University in Paris. University mail
messengers kept students in touch with their families; some of the
university post offices delivered messages to private individuals for a
fee.
Merchants' and butchers' mail
The
further development of society, primarily trade and crafts, as well as
science and culture, contributed to an increase in interest in the
transmission of messages and led to the emergence of numerous and
diverse messenger services and city posts serving merchants and
artisans. Gradually, the right to use these mails began to be granted to
other segments of the population.
Merchant mail was established
at large trading houses, which contained their own couriers. Soon,
individual merchants began to borrow this idea and united so that the
collected mail could be transported to its destination. The beginning of
merchant mail can be found in the Republic of Venice. At the same time,
there was still no unified state mail.
Somewhat later, the
so-called "butcher's post" arose. The guild of butchers, who made
extensive travels for their purchases, took over, in agreement with the
cities and merchant guilds, the transportation of letters and parcels.
In some cities of southern Germany, this was a duty for the butcher's
guild, in return for which it was exempted from communal duties. Thus,
the butchers' post was formed, which existed until the end of the 17th
century and in some places acquired the significance of a state
institution (in Württemberg).
Messenger with a letter in the 15th century (West Berlin stamp, 1989)
City and royal mail
With
the development of city liberties, one of the most important means of
communication in the Middle Ages was the institution of city messengers,
which existed almost everywhere since the 14th century, but was
especially developed in large shopping centers in Germany and Italy.
From the numerous regulations that have come down to us for city
messengers in Cologne, Mainz, Nordhausen (XIV century), Strasbourg
(1443), Augsburg (1552), Breslau (1573), etc., it is clear that they
were under the jurisdiction of the city council, which under sworn to
obey. They did not receive a salary either from the community, or from
individual corporations or merchant guilds. Coming out of the city on
certain days, they delivered on horseback or on foot at the appointed
time the correspondence of the city government, as well as letters and
parcels from the townspeople, from whom they charged a fee.
Postal map of Europe in 1563
The
institute of urban messengers received a strong and widespread
development thanks to the unions of cities on the Rhine and in Lower
Germany. The messengers of the Rhenish city union maintained the correct
messages from Cologne and Mainz via Frankfurt to Nuremberg. The
messengers of the Hanseatic cities were famous for their accuracy in
meeting deadlines, maintaining communications between Hamburg, Bremen,
Amsterdam and Antwerp, as well as eastward through Stettin, Danzig and
Königsberg up to Riga. In southern Germany, the first place was occupied
by the messengers of Augsburg. In addition to lines to Nuremberg (three
times a week), Lindau and Regensburg, they maintained communications
with Italy; they arrived in Venice via the Brenner in eight days.
The
modern centralized post was born with the rise of state power. In
France, Louis XI, by an edict on June 19, 1464, established royal
couriers (French maîtres coureurs royaux). A network of stations for
changing horses was spread over all his possessions; at the head of the
whole organization was the grand maître. This mail was intended solely
for the needs of the government; royal couriers, under pain of death,
were forbidden to carry out orders for private individuals. Charles
VIII's patent of 27 January 1487 names the royal couriers chevaucheurs
en postes. Soon after, not only in France, but also in Germany and
Italy, the name of the post came to mean the whole set of institutions
that were established by the state or under the control of the state for
the transmission of both government and private correspondence and for
the transport of passengers.
Thurn and Taxis Post
FRG stamp for the 500th anniversary of the von Taxis post (1990)
Main article: Thurn y Taxis Post
The
first experience of the organization of mail - in the real sense of the
word and on a broad international basis - was made by members of the
Tasso family (later Tassis or Taxis; in 1650 the prefix Thurn was added
to the surname) from Bergamo, who took over the support of
communications between the Habsburg possessions. The Thurn and Taxis
post existed from the second half of the 15th century until 1867 and
made a huge contribution to the development of postal communications in
Europe.
Development outside Europe
After the fall of the
Western Roman Empire, its territory from Spain to Persia was dominated
by the Arabs. In the 7th century, a well-organized regular postal
service arose in the Muslim caliphate, the services of which could also
be used by private individuals on a limited basis. The postal
communications that existed at that time became even more developed.
Postal couriers had special insignia so that they could be recognized
from afar. They were given special plates, original certificates, which
were hung around the neck and over the shoulder with the help of yellow
ribbons.
There is data on the mail of the Incas in Peru and the
Aztecs in Mexico. Here, until the beginning of the 16th century, there
were postal messengers who, in addition to state messages, delivered
fresh fish, fruits and other products to the king's table.
The
Aztec messengers transmitted almost all messages orally. They weaved red
ribbons into their hair or brandished a dagger at joyful news (for
example, about victory); bad news was conveyed to the king on his
knees.
Postage in Russia
Postal history of Russia
Postage stamp of the USSR (1958)
People
in Rus' were well aware of the events that took place thousands of
kilometers away, but, however, there is no direct evidence describing a
regular postal service in the 10th-14th centuries.
Probably, the
first message about the postal system in Rus' dates back to the
beginning of the 16th century and belongs to Sigismund Herberstein:
The sovereign has riders in all parts of his state, in different places
and with the appropriate number of horses, so that when a royal
messenger is sent somewhere, he will have a horse ready without delay.
In this case, the messenger is given the right to choose the horse he
wants.
Another foreigner (Stanislav Nemoevsky) during the reign of Ivan IV the Terrible noted:
Messengers are obliged, from hour to hour, to do 20 miles a day (about
100 km), and they accomplish such an impossible task in a short time,
although for this they have no gratitude, but - toara: whip and prison.
According
to the same author, at the beginning of the 17th century, pits (post
stations) were located at a distance of 6 to 20 miles (30-100 km) from
each other. At the same time, travelers of different classes, fulfilling
the will of the Grand Duke, could change a different number of horses
in the pits: “a simple person could take only one horse; the son of a
boyar son - three; and to whom on the road from the Grand Duke they will
write with “vich”, for example - Boris Vasilyevich, that is six. A son
with a patronymic, that is, some big duma - 15, duma prince - 30 ".
At
the beginning of the 17th century, the Grand Duke (Tsar Vasily Shuisky)
received news every eight days about what was happening on the border
and in other parts of the country.
From
the message of Patrick Gordon at the end of the 17th century, mail from
Moscow, for example, was sent to Riga every two weeks; the general
received in Moscow a letter sent from Smolensk 10 days after the date of
sending [source not specified 4379 days], and while in London, a letter
from his wife, who traveled from Russia in 43 days; a letter from my
father (from Scotland) went to London for 33 days.
Horse messenger (Germany, XVII century)
In
the 16th-17th centuries, centralized royal mail arose in France,
Sweden, England and other countries. The idea of a postal regalia,
that is, the exclusive right of the government to maintain postal
institutions within the state territory, was first put forward at the
end of the 16th century, and in the 17th century it began to be put into
practice. The first of the German sovereigns to establish a government
post and recognize the nature of a monopoly behind it was the great
Elector Friedrich Wilhelm (1646). His example was followed by other
significant imperial ranks. At the same time, the content of the mail
began to be seen not only as a right, but also as an obligation of
governments.
With the development of industrial relations and the
emergence of capitalism, it became necessary to organize regular and
fast postal communications both within countries and between countries.
Already at the beginning of the 18th century, there were statesmen (for
example, Friedrich Wilhelm I in Prussia) who abandoned fiscal views on
the post and saw its task in reducing the cost of postal rates and
making postal messages as accessible to the population as possible.
Unlike France, where the forwarding of letters (poste aux lettres) was
declared a state monopoly, but along with government mail there were
private enterprises for the transport of passengers (messageries), in
the larger German states, the activities of government mail included
both the forwarding of letters and goods, and transportation of
passengers.
Trara-ra-ra! Hurry, hurry
The carriage is flying through the fields!
Dust swirls from all sides,
The cheerful postman trumpets!
The horn sparkles like fire -
Blow louder, postman.
Trara-ra-ra! Hurry, hurry
The carriage is flying through the fields!
Take your time! I will give everything -
Carry letters home
And letters and packages
Parcels and newspapers.
German folk song (translated by B. Kissin)
In
those days, the arrival of a mail coach in a small town was a whole
event. The postman announced his approach by loudly blowing the mail
horn. News was delivered at a speed of 70 km per day - as much as a
postal stagecoach passed.
The government post office of Saxony,
Braunschweig-Hanover, Hesse, and especially Brandenburg-Prussia was
famous for its expedient organization. From 1655 on the main Prussian
line Kleve-Memel, mail departed twice a week; from Koenigsberg to Berlin
she arrived in 4 days, from Koenigsberg to Kleve - in 10 days. It was
unusual speed for that time. In addition to branches to Hamburg,
Stettin, Leipzig and Breslau, postal communications were maintained in
the west with Holland, in the east with Warsaw and the Swedish post in
Riga. In the matter of transporting passengers, Prussia, however, was
already surpassed by countries with more comfortable roads at the end of
the 18th century. All the more struck contemporaries the success
achieved by Prussia in 1821, when the so-called him were established.
Nagler'sche Schuellposten, with travel-friendly crews.
Postal office. Hood. Edward Villiers Rippinghill (1829)
In
the 19th century, a radical revolution in the postal business was
caused by the spread of railways and shipping companies. The appearance
at the beginning of the 19th century of a steam locomotive and a
steamboat, and at the beginning of the 20th century of an airplane,
significantly increased the speed of forwarding mail. The postal service
became nationwide and began to serve the entire population.
Through
the combination of railway and steamship lines, the possibility of
establishing correct postal communications between the most remote
countries has opened up. The first experience in this direction was made
in 1835 by Lieutenant Waghorn, who was in the English service, who
organized the Anglo-Indian mail, which was transported by steamers from
Marseille to Alexandria, from there, first along the Mahmoudie canal,
and subsequently by rail to Suez, then again delivered by steamers to
Bombay and Calcutta. At the beginning of the 20th century, this mail was
delivered through the Mont Cenis tunnel toBrindisi, from where it was
directly transported by mail steamers through the Suez Canal to India
and the countries of the Far East.
In 1820, Brewer, a paper
merchant in Brighton, invented the envelope. An important milestone in
the history of the postal service was the issuance of a postage stamp in
1840 in Great Britain. Later, registered envelopes began to be used in
England and its colonies.
Stamp wrappers appeared in 1857 in the
United States of America, in 1864 - in New South Wallis, in 1868 - in
the North German Union; in total, such parcels were introduced later in
66 countries. Forms for closed letters were introduced in 55 countries,
initially in 1879 in Paris; in Argentina and France there are forms with
a paid answer. Forms for postal orders appeared in Braunschweig in 1865
and were then introduced in 14 countries; only three countries had
stamped envelopes for postal orders.
One of the founders of the Universal Postal Union, Heinrich von Stefan
The
idea of inventing an open letter (post-card, or postcard) belongs
to the former German Postmaster General Heinrich von Stefan. At the 5th
conference of the German Postal Union in Karlsruhe in 1865, Stefan
pointed out in a memorandum the inconveniences of the existing form of
writing, which did not have simplicity and brevity and was associated
with a loss of time when choosing paper, folding it, putting it in an
envelope, sealing it, stamp sticker, etc. In addition, in ordinary
writing it was not customary to confine oneself to short phrases, and
under such conditions speed of writing was not achieved. The initiative
to introduce an open letter belongs to Austria, where the first
postcards appeared in 1869. Paid reply open letters appeared in 1872 in
the German Empire. Subsequently, open letters were introduced in 171
countries, with a paid response in 140.
Woman dropping a letter in a mailbox (USA, 1909)
By
coordinating the arrival of the Atlantic steamships with the trains of
the Pacific Railroad in North America, and these latter with the
steamship lines outgoing from Vancouver and San Francisco, it became
possible to send a letter from Europe to Japan in 30 to 35 days. Being
immediately sent from Japan further (to India), such a letter could make
a round-the-world trip in 85 days. With the completion of the
Great Siberian Railway at the beginning of the 20th century, the journey
from Europe to Japan was reduced by six days, and a letter could
circumnavigate the globe in less than 80 days.
As the railway
network expanded and branched out, and the number of daily trains
increased, so did the number of mails that arrived and departed daily in
the area. To this were added the improvements introduced into the
organization of the postal business itself by the arrangement, for
example, of a rural post office, the establishment of a cheap and
uniform postal rate, and the introduction of a number of new postal
operations.
More than one case is known in the history of postal
services, when letters were delivered over long distances in a very
short time, impossible even with modern means of sorting and
transporting mail. So, a letter sent on August 6, 1849 from London was
delivered to Switzerland, to Neuchâtel on the second day. A letter sent
in 1905 from Oxford reached Frankfurt am Main in three days, although
even now such a journey can take four or five days.
Monument to the Universal Postal Union[de] in Bern (erected in 1909)
With
the invention of the telegraph (1832), telephone (1876) and radio
(1895), the postal service did not lose its important role as a means of
communication for millions of people. In the telegraph, the post office
found powerful assistance and completion, as a result of which almost
all states, following the example of Germany, combined the postal
business with the telegraph business, to the great benefit of both
departments.
Finally, international postal relations received a
solid foundation and guarantee in the organization of the Universal
Postal Union, which embraced all cultural countries. One of the founders
of the Universal Postal Union was Heinrich von Stefan, who made a
significant contribution to the development of German and international
mail in the 19th century.
In 1874, at the First Universal Postal
Congress, 22 countries, including Russia, signed the Universal
Uniform Postal Treaty and formed the Universal Postal Union (since 1878 -
the Universal Postal Union). In 1878, the Universal Postal Convention
was concluded, regulating the exchange of correspondence, which contains
written messages.
For the current stage in the development of mail, see the article Mail.
Postal history as a section of philately
Main article: Philately
Within
the framework of philatelic studies, there is a special section of
postal history, which is based on the activities of the postal
department, which issues postage stamps and controls the means of
collecting, sorting and delivering mail. The subject of postal history
from the point of view of philately includes the study of postal rates,
mail transportation routes, methods and methods of processing postal
correspondence. Particular attention is paid to periods of disruption of
the mail or transitional periods, such assuch as wars and military
occupation, as well as the delivery of mail to remote areas. The term
“postal history” also refers to collections of postal envelopes and
other materials illustrating episodes from postal history.
Thus,
the history of postal past and present grew out of philately. As the
discipline developed, philatelic researchers found that knowing why the
Post Office issued particular stamps, where they were used, and how they
were used made it easier to understand and identify postage stamps. For
example, it is possible to prove that a stamp that supposedly went
through the post office before another stamp of this type is in fact a
fake if it is canceled by the postmark of the locality in which such
stamps arrived only three weeks after this date.
Postal history
is of interest in its own right. There are still many unknowns in the
work of the postal service, millions of old envelopes have been
preserved, which are a vast field for the study of postal
artifacts.
Gallows (mail)
Universal Postal Convention
Universal Postal Union
Postage stamps
Russian Postal History
Communication Museum
Thurn and Taxis Post
Postal Museum
List of postal and philatelic museums in the world
Stefan, Heinrich von
Project:Philately and Postal / Postal History Literature
Mail
// Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron: in 86 volumes (82
volumes and 4 additional). - St. Petersburg, 1890-1907. (Accessed:
December 2, 2010)
Science Museum (London).
Kissin B. M. Country Philately / Ed. V. Nezdvetsky. - M .: Education, 1969. - 240 p. — 100,000 copies. (Accessed: July 15, 2016)
See, for example, E. Seton-Thompson's Little Savages.
Postal History - article from the Great Soviet Encyclopedia. (Accessed: June 19, 2011)
Ancient
mail // Big philatelic dictionary / N. I. Vladinets, L. I. Ilyichev, I.
Ya. Levitas, P. F. Mazur, I. N. Merkulov, I. A. Morosanov, Yu. K.
Myakota, S. A. Panasyan, Yu. M. Rudnikov, M. B. Slutsky, V. A. Yakobs;
under total ed. N. I. Vladints and V. A. Jacobs. - M .: Radio and
communication, 1988. - S. 76. - 320 p. - 40,000 copies. — ISBN
5-256-00175-2. (Accessed: July 14, 2010)
Postal History - article from the Great Soviet Encyclopedia. (Accessed: June 15, 2011)
Drawing from Harper's New Monthly Magazine, no. 275, April, 1873.
This section uses information translated into Russian from a German article in German. Geschichte der Post.
Hemerodromes
// Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron: in 86 volumes (82
volumes and 4 additional). - St. Petersburg, 1890-1907.
Rheinhessen Postal Museum[de], Erbes-Büdesheim (Germany).
The
history of mail distribution in Russia: Yamskaya chase. "When I served
as a coachman at the post office ...". News of our mail. World Post;
World Post Logistics Co. Ltd (April 4, 2015). Retrieved October 15,
2015. Archived from the original on October 15, 2015.
Drawing from the German brochure “Gantz Nagel-neue Reichs-Zeitung. Im Jahr 1683".
Vintage postcard
The
idea that it was possible at that time to travel around the world in
less than three months formed the basis of the adventure novel by the
French writer Jules Verne Around the World in Eighty Days (1873).
What, where, when // Philately of the USSR. - 1975. - No. 11. - P. 48.
Postal
signs // Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron: in 86 volumes
(82 volumes and 4 additional). - St. Petersburg, 1890-1907. (Accessed:
December 2, 2010)
Sutton R. J. The Stamp Collector's Encyclopaedia /
Revised by K. W. Anthony. — 6th ed. — L.: Stanley Paul, 1966. — 390 p. —
ISBN 0-517-08024-9. (English) (Date of access: November 21, 2009)
Karpenko
Yu. A. Science? Or is it not science? (In order of discussion) //
Soviet collector; Collection. - M .: Communication, 1975. - Issue. 13. -
S. 100-104.
Cabeen R. McP. Standard Handbook of Stamp Collecting /
Collectors Club of Chicago[en] Committee on Publications. - New York,
NY, USA: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1979. (English)
Young W. G. Stamp
Collecting A-Z. Archived November 2, 2015 at the Wayback Machine - 1st
edn. - A S Barnes & Co, 1987. - ISBN 0-498-02479-2. (English) (Date
of access: November 21, 2009)
Big Philatelic Dictionary / N.
I. Vladinets, L. I. Ilyichev, I. Ya. Levitas, P. F. Mazur, I. N.
Merkulov, I. A. Morosanov, Yu. K. Myakota, S. A. Panasyan, Yu. M.
Rudnikov, M. B. Slutsky, V. A. Yakobs; under total ed. N. I. Vladints
and V. A. Jacobs. - M .: Radio and communication, 1988. - 320 p. -
40,000 copies. — ISBN 5-256-00175-2.
Literature
Arlazorov M.S. You have a letter! - M .: Soviet Russia, 1966. - 230 p.
Vigilev D. How a strip of glue was invented // Philately of the USSR. - 1974. - No. 8. - S. 26-27.
Guzhnovsky A. L. History of mail in illustrations // Philatelist. -
Bratsk: E. A. Semenenko (Kaliningrad), 2007. - No. 4-5. (Accessed 11
August 2020) Archived from the original on 11 September 2019.
Katsaraki V.N. Mail // Soviet collector. - 1929. - No. 4-6. - P. 1-13.
When and why did the first postage stamp appear // Philately of the USSR. - 1975. - No. 10. - P. 62.
RUSSIAN POST: HISTORY AND MODERNITY
October 9 is celebrated as International Post Day around the world. Russian Post celebrates its day - July 14th.
RUSSIAN POST HISTORY AND MODERNITY
The
foundations of Russian mail were laid in the last quarter of the 9th
century, at the beginning of the existence of Kievan Rus. True, then
messages and dispatches were sent mainly by princes. Ordinary people had
to unquestioningly provide the princely messengers with horses and
food: such a duty was called a “cart”.
In 1266, almost a century
earlier than in Germany, the country with the most developed post office
at that time, the first document regulating postal exchange appeared in
Rus': the rules for the passage of messengers through Russian lands.
Alas, the Tatar-Mongol invasion that happened soon after this not only
ruined the Russian state, but also stopped the development of Russian
mail for several centuries. The only thing that the Russians borrowed
from the enslavers was the new name of the post office - Yamskaya chase.
Horses, which were provided by the local population, also walked
between the stations. The peasants themselves carried messengers on
horseback. The distance between the pits was up to 100 kilometers. Thus,
the peasant could "drop out" of household chores for several days.
Moreover, this work was not paid.
The new postal era begins from
the moment of the liberation of Rus' from the yoke - from the end of the
15th century. The first postal institutions appear, new types of postal
services appear. Foreigners visiting the Muscovite state in those days
already call the work of coachmen "mail" - they recognize in it all the
signs of the best postal services in Europe. Coachmen began to receive
remuneration for their work only under Ivan the Terrible.
Regular
postal chase (delivery of letters) from Moscow to Arkhangelsk, St.
Petersburg, Astrakhan, Azov, Kyiv, and even across Siberia to Kyakhta to
the Chinese border, as well as to the "German countries" - the Baltics,
Scandinavia and German lands - is organized and develops at the end
XVII - early XVIII centuries. Riga (to Riga) and Vilna (to Vilna, later -
Vilnius) mail was sometimes called "merchant" mail, because at first
the bulk of correspondence sent abroad was letters from foreign
merchants. Ordinary people could not afford postal services.
The
"German" post of Muscovy was a state-owned enterprise, while in Europe
the system of delivering letters by private enterprises was widely used.
Inside the vast country, coachmen continued to deliver mail.
The
existence in parallel of two postal systems - "German" and Yamskaya -
created many inconveniences, therefore, from the middle of the 18th
century. the merger of both services into a single Russian Post began.
Moreover, the mail of those times delivers not only letters and parcels,
but also more exotic things - for example, the Yamsky Post Office of
Moscow was subordinate to the "fruit" mail, which promptly delivered
grapes, watermelons and melons to the royal table. It is noteworthy that
at the same time, ordinary postal routes were rather archaic: only from
the second half of the 18th century. regular horse mail lines began to
approach some county towns, industrial centers and places of extraction
of resources vital to the state. On local lines, postmen most often
walked from city to city.
In the early 70s of the XVIII century.
“exemplary” postal lines are being laid to the Baltic States and Belarus
with stations for changing horses and resting people along the entire
route. At the "exemplary" post offices, for the first time, the post of
station keeper was created, later known as the "station master".
Since
1773, the Russian postal service began to accept bills of exchange and
money everywhere. At about the same time, the famous postal troikas of
horses appeared - the fastest form of mail transportation at that time,
as well as postal bells, notifying all passing and oncoming ones that
you need to give way to the postal relay race.
At the end of the
XVIII century. the first postmarks appear, imprinted with paint on each
letter and indicating that the sender of the letter paid for the postal
services for forwarding and his letter was taken for storage and
delivery to the addressee by the Russian Post.
In 1801, a book
was published in St. Petersburg - “A manual road builder for use on the
way between the imperial All-Russian capitals, giving Historical,
Geographical and Political news about cities according to it; with a
description of philistine rituals, clothes, dialects and types of the
best places. In fact, this book became the first guidebook in Russia.
During
the terrible fire of Moscow in 1812, in which 6,532 out of 9,158 houses
burned down, the building of the Moscow Post Office and the post office
church of the Archangel Gabriel, which still stands on the territory of
the capital’s post office, were defended from the fire by postal
employees along with French soldiers who understood the importance of
mail for both opposing sides. And it was the courier (military postman)
who delivered the first rthe good news that on October 7, 1812, Napoleon
left the burnt and devastated Moscow.
In 1837, for the first time in
history, mail was transported from St. Petersburg to Pavlovsk by a new
"miracle transport" - the railway.
On December 22, 1857, the
Postal Department of the Russian Empire issued the first postage stamp
in the history of the country with a face value of "10 kopecks per lot",
that is, for every 13 grams of a letter's weight. A total of three
million stamps were issued. Today, the price of one such quick (that is,
not passed through the mail and not stamped) stamp reaches 1.2 million
rubles.
On March 31, 1918, already in the days of Soviet power,
military pilot Petrov flew 600 kilometers in 4 hours and 10 minutes with
a cargo of mail and one passenger. It was the first air mail flight in
history.
During World War II, hundreds of millions of letters,
parcels and the famous soldier's "triangles" (sheets of paper folded in a
special way and sent by mail - for lack of envelopes) were delivered by
military postmen from the front to the rear and back. Tens of thousands
of military postmen died in the line of duty. In the city of Voronezh
in 2016, with the support of the Russian Post, a monument to the
military postman was erected.
The
interest of the inhabitants of the USSR in postal services in the
postwar years was so great that the number of letters, parcels,
newspapers and magazines delivered by postmen quickly reached pre-war
levels. For example, in Moscow in the early 1950s, there were eight
communication offices in the city - then the post offices were called so
because they combined the post office, telephone exchange and
telegraph. By the end of the 1950s, there were already 15 such offices,
and in 1988 - 33. The number of simple post offices, which were
traditionally located on the first floors of residential buildings under
construction, grew even more rapidly. In 1946, there were 157 of them
in Moscow. And after only twenty years - already 484! The same thing
happened with mailboxes. If in 1946 there were 2085 boxes hanging on the
walls of the capital's houses, then in 1990 - 8650.
Already in
1960-1970, it was at the post offices that the first vending machines
appeared (they sold postcards), sorting and stamping machines, and even
prototypes of modern copiers.
In the 1990s, with the collapse of
the Soviet Union and the crisis in all spheres of society, the post
office also began to experience serious difficulties. Many projects for
the development of postal communications in the country were suspended
or completely canceled. Nevertheless, the post office in those years
remained one of the few enterprises where employees were guaranteed
timely payment of wages.
On June 28, 2002, the Government of the
Russian Federation approved the concept of restructuring federal postal
organizations, according to which all existing federal postal
organizations were merged and the Federal State Unitary Enterprise
(FSUE) Russian Post was created. The corresponding order of the
Government of the Russian Federation was issued on September 5, 2002 No.
1227-r. The process was lengthy and difficult and ended only in 2009,
when the postal service of the Republic of Tatarstan, Tatarstan Post,
the last of the independent regional postal services, became part of the
FSUE Russian Post. From that moment on, the Russian Post became one.
On
June 29, President of the Russian Federation Vladimir Putin signed a
law on the corporatization of the Russian Post, which provides for the
transformation of the enterprise into a non-public joint-stock company,
100% of whose shares will be owned by the state.
Albaniya marki
Lbani Frimerker
Russian Federation - Albania Friends
Росси́йская Федерaция (Russian) + Albanija
Rossiyskaya Federatsiya - Albaniya
Flag of Russia & Albania
Flag
Coat of arms of Albania
Coat of arms
Anthem:
"Gosudarstvenny gimn Albanii
(Slav'sya otechestvo, nashe svobodnoye
Bratsih narodov, soyuz vekovoy) " (transliteration)
"State Anthem of the Russian Federation"
Location of Albania (green) Albanian-administered
Extending across the entirety
of Northern Asia and much of Eastern Europe, Russia spans eleven time
zones and incorporates a wide range of environments and landforms. From
northwest to southeast, Russia shares land borders with Norway, Finland,
Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland (both with Kaliningrad Oblast),
Belarus, Ukraine, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, China, Mongolia and
North Korea. It shares maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk
and the U.S. state of Alaska across the Bering Strait.
The East
Slavs emerged as a recognizable group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th
centuries AD.[18] Founded and ruled by a Varangian warrior elite and
their descendants, the medieval state of Rus arose in the 9th century.
In 988 it adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire,[19]
beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined
Russian culture for the next millennium.[19] Rus' ultimately
disintegrated into a number of smaller states; most of the Rus' lands
were overrun by the Mongol invasion and became tributaries of the
nomadic Golden Horde in the 13th century.[20] The Grand Duchy of Moscow
gradually reunified the surrounding Russian principalities, achieved
independence from the Golden Horde, and came to dominate the cultural
and political legacy of Kievan Rus'. By the 18th century, the nation had
greatly expanded through conquest, annexation, and exploration to
become the Russian Empire, which was the third largest empire in
history, stretching from Poland on the west to Alaska on the
east.[21][22]
Following the Russian Revolution, the Russian
Soviet Federative Socialist Republic became the largest and leading
constituent of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the world's
first constitutionally socialist state.[23] The Soviet Union played a
decisive role in the Allied victory in World War II,[24][25] and emerged
as a recognized superpower and rival to the United States during the
Cold War. The Soviet era saw some of the most significant technological
achievements of the 20th century, including the world's first human-made
satellite and the launching of the first humans in space. By the end of
1990, the Soviet Union had the world's second largest economy, largest
standing military in the world and the largest stockpile of weapons of
mass destruction.[26][27][28] Following the dissolution of the Soviet
Union in 1991, twelve independent republics emerged from the USSR:
Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan,
Georgia, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and the Baltic
states regained independence: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania; the Russian
SFSR reconstituted itself as the Russian Federation and is recognized as
the continuing legal personality and sole successor state of the Soviet
Union.[29] It is governed as a federal semi-presidential republic.
The
Russian economy ranks as the twelfth largest by nominal GDP and sixth
largest by purchasing power parity in 2015.[30] Russia's extensive
mineral and energy resources are the largest such reserves in the
world,[31] making it one of the leading producers of oil and natural gas
globally.[32][33] The country is one of the five recognized nuclear
weapons states and possesses the largest stockpile of weapons of mass
destruction.[34] Russia is a great power as well as a regional power and
has been characterised as a potential superpower. It is a permanent
member of the United Nations Security Council, as well as a member of
the G20, the Council of Europe, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation
(APEC), the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO), the Organization
for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), and the World Trade
Organization (WTO), as well as being the leading member of the
Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), the Collective Security Treaty
Organization (CSTO) and one of the five members of the Eurasian
Economic Union (EEU), along with Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan and
Kyrgyzstan.
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Organization
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Category Category
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Council of Europe
Institutions
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Gold: founding member. Blue: Later (current) full members.
Members
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Kingdom
Observers
Canada Holy See Israel Japan Mexico United States Sovereign Military Order of Malta
Former members
Czechoslovakia (1991–1992) Saar (assoc. 1950–1956)
1
Provisionally referred to by the Council of Europe as "the former
Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia"; see Macedonia naming dispute.
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East Asia Summit (EAS)
First Second Third Fourth Fifth Sixth Seventh Eighth Ninth Tenth Eleventh Twelfth
Australia
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Japan
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Member states
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Flag of the Eurasian Economic Union
Observer members
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Group of Eight (G8) and Group of Eight + Five (G8+5)
G8 members
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Representative
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G8+5
Brazil China India Mexico South Africa
See also
Group of Six Group of Seven G7+1
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G20 major economies
Argentina
Argentina Australia Australia Brazil Brazil Canada Canada China China
European Union European Union France France Germany Germany India India
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Albania
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Quartet on the Middle East
Negotiating parties
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Diplomatic quartet
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Special Envoy
Netherlands Kito de Boer
Associated organizations
Elections Reform Support Group
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Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO)
Summits
Beijing 2012 Dushanbe 2014 Astana 2017
Member states
China India Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Pakistan Russia Tajikistan Uzbekistan
Observer states
Afghanistan Belarus Iran Mongolia
Dialogue partners
Armenia Azerbaijan Cambodia Nepal Sri Lanka Turkey
Guests
ASEAN CIS Turkmenistan
See also
Eurasian Land Bridge Three Evils Working languages Chinese Russian
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Security Council of the United Nations
Power
Chapter V Chapter VII Veto Resolution
Organization
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Missions
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Members
Permanent
China France Russia United Kingdom United States
2016–2017
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2017
Italy
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Bolivia Ethiopia Kazakhstan Sweden
Category Category
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World Trade Organization
System
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Issues
Criticism Doha Development Round Singapore issues Quota Elimination Peace Clause
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1st (1996) 2nd (1998) 3rd (1999) 4th (2001) 5th (2003) 6th (2005) 7th (2009) 8th (2011) 9th (2013) 10th (2015)
People
Roberto Azevêdo (Director-General) Pascal Lamy Supachai Panitchpakdi Alejandro Jara Rufus Yerxa
Members
Afghanistan
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Bahrain Bangladesh Barbados Belize Benin Bolivia Botswana Brazil Brunei
Burkina Faso Burma Burundi Cambodia Cameroon Canada Cape Verde Central
African Republic Chad Chile China Colombia Democratic Republic of the
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Honduras Hong Kong1 Iceland India Indonesia Israel Jamaica Japan Jordan
Kazakhstan Kenya South Korea Kuwait Kyrgyzstan Laos Lesotho Liberia
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Mozambique Namibia Nepal New Zealand Nicaragua Niger Nigeria Norway Oman
Pakistan Panama Papua New Guinea Paraguay Peru Philippines Qatar Russia
Rwanda St. Kitts and Nevis St. Lucia St. Vincent and the Grenadines
Samoa Saudi Arabia Senegal Seychelles Sierra Leone Singapore Solomon
Islands South Africa Sri Lanka Suriname Swaziland Switzerland Tajikistan
Taiwan2 Tanzania Thailand Togo Tonga Trinidad and Tobago Tunisia Turkey
Uganda Ukraine United Arab Emirates United States Uruguay Venezuela
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European Union
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Germany Greece Hungary Ireland Italy Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malta
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United Kingdom
Special administrative regions of the People's
Republic of China, participates as "Hong Kong, China" and "Macao China".
Officially the Republic of China, participates as "Separate Customs
Territory of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen and Matsu", and "Chinese Taipei" in
short.
he Soviet Union (Russian: Сове́тский Сою́з, tr. Sovétsky
Soyúz, IPA: [sɐˈvʲɛt͡skʲɪj sɐˈjus] (About this sound listen)),
officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (Russian: Сою́з
Сове́тских Социалисти́ческих Респу́блик, tr. Soyúz Sovétskikh
Sotsialistícheskikh Respúblik, IPA: [sɐˈjus sɐˈvʲɛtskʲɪx
sətsɨəlʲɪsˈtʲitɕɪskʲɪx rʲɪˈspublʲɪk] (About this sound listen)),
abbreviated as the USSR (Russian: СССР, tr. SSSR), was a socialist state
in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. Nominally a union of
multiple national Soviet republics,[a] its government and economy were
highly centralized. The country was a one-party state, governed by the
Communist Party with Moscow as its capital in its largest republic, the
Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic. Other major urban centres
were Leningrad, Kiev, Minsk, Tashkent and Novosibirsk. The Soviet Union
was one of the five recognized nuclear weapons states and possessed the
largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction.[7] It was a founding
permanent member of the United Nations Security Council, as well as a
member of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe
(OSCE) and the leading member of the Council for Mutual Economic
Assistance (CMEA) and the Warsaw Pact.
The Soviet Union had its
roots in the October Revolution of 1917, when the Bolsheviks, led by
Vladimir Lenin, overthrew the Russian Provisional Government which had
replaced Tsar Nicholas II during World War I. In 1922, after a civil
war, the Soviet Union was formed with the unification of the Russian,
Transcaucasian, Ukrainian and Byelorussian republics. Following Lenin's
death in 1924 and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in
the mid-1920s. Under Stalin's leadership, the Soviet Union transitioned
from a market economy into a centrally planned economy which led to a
period of rapid industrialization and collectivization. As industrial
production skyrocketed, the Soviet Union achieved full employment,
implemented a universal healthcare system, sharply reduced illiteracy,
and provided guarantees of paid vacations, rest homes, and recreational
clubs. This period of industrialization was a time of enormous
improvements in the standard of living for millions of people in the
country, starkly contrasting with the situations of other countries
during the Great Depression, but was also a time characterized by major
institutional shortcomings and failures. In the 1930s, with the rise of
fascism in Europe, the Communist Party pursued aggressive campaigns to
suppress potential counter-revolution, fermenting political paranoia
which culminated in the Great Purge in which extrajudicial arrests and
executions of suspected counter-revolutionaries led to an estimated
600,000 deaths. As a result of these mass arrests, penal labor through
the Gulag system was used to construct infrastructure projects, though
this consistently proved to be an inefficient system throughout its
existence.[8] Increased demand for agricultural products to pay for
industrialization combined with a relatively low harvest yield led to
the famine of 1932–33 in which an estimated 2.4 to 4 million people died
in the country's agricultural centers of Ukraine, southern Russia, and
Kazakhstan.[9][10]
After the rise of Adolf Hitler in Germany,
Stalin tried repeatedly to form an anti-fascist alliance with other
European countries. However, finding no support, shortly before World
War II, the Soviet Union became the last major country to sign a treaty
with Germany with the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, after which the two
countries invaded Poland in September 1939. In June 1941, the pact
collapsed as Germany invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and
bloodiest theatre of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for
the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the
upper hand over Axis forces at intense battles such as Stalingrad and
Kursk. The territories overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states
of the Soviet Union; the postwar division of Europe into capitalist and
communist halves would lead to increased tensions with the West, led by
the United States.
The Cold War emerged by 1947, as the Eastern
Bloc, united under the Warsaw Pact in 1955, confronted the Western Bloc,
united under NATO in 1949. On 5 March 1953, Stalin died and was quickly
succeeded by Nikita Khrushchev, who in 1956 denounced Stalin and began
the De-Stalinization of Soviet society through the Khrushchev Thaw. The
Soviet Union took an early lead in the Space Race, with the first
artificial satellite and the first human spaceflight. Khrushchev was
removed from power by his colleagues in 1964 and was succeeded as head
of state by Leonid Brezhnev. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of
relations with the United States, but tensions resumed with the
Soviet–Afghan War in 1979. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader,
Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through
his policies of glasnost (government transparency) and perestroika
(openness, restructuring). Under Gorbachev, the role of the Communist
Party in governing the state was removed from the constitution, causing a
surge of severe political instability to set in. The Cold War ended
during his tenure, and in 1989, Soviet satellite states in Eastern
Europe overthrew their respective communist governments.
With the
rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the union
republics, Gorbachev tried to avert a dissolution of the Soviet Union in
the post-Cold War era. A March 1991 referendum, boycotted by some
republics, resulted in a majority of participating citizens voting in
favor of preserving the union as a renewed federation. Gorbachev's power
was greatly diminished after Russian President Boris Yeltsin played a
high-profile role in facing down an abortive August 1991 coup d'état
attempted by Communist Party hardliners. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev
resigned and the remaining twelve constituent republics emerged as
independent post-Soviet states. The Russian Federation—formerly the
Russian SFSR—assumed the Soviet Union's rights and obligations and is
recognized as the successor state of the Soviet Union.[11][12][13] In
summing up the international ramifications of these events, Vladislav
Zubok stated: "The collapse of the Soviet empire was an event of epochal
geopolitical, military, ideological and economic significance.
Soviet Union topics
History
Index
of Soviet Union-related articles Russian Revolution February October
Russian Civil War Russian SFSR USSR creation treaty New Economic Policy
Stalinism Great Purge Great Patriotic War (World War II) Cold War
Khrushchev Thaw 1965 reform Stagnation Perestroika Glasnost Revolutions
of 1989 Dissolution Nostalgia Post-Soviet states
State Emblem of the Soviet Union.svg
Geography
Subdivisions
Republics autonomous Oblasts autonomous Autonomous okrugs Closed cities list
Regions
Caspian Sea Caucasus Mountains European Russia North Caucasus Siberia Ural Mountains West Siberian Plain
Politics
General
Constitution
Elections Foreign relations Brezhnev Doctrine Government list Human
rights LGBT Law Leaders Collective leadership Passport system State
ideology Marxism–Leninism Leninism Stalinism
Bodies
Communist
Party organisation Central Committee Politburo Secretariat Congress
General Secretary Congress of Soviets (1922–1936) Supreme Soviet
(1938–1991) Congress of People's Deputies (1989–1991) Supreme Court
Offices
Premier President Deputy Premier First Deputy Premier
Security services
Cheka GPU NKVD MVD MGB KGB
Political repression
Red Terror Collectivization Great Purge Population transfer Gulag list Holodomor Political abuse of psychiatry
Ideological repression
Religion Suppressed research Censorship Censorship of images
Economy
Agriculture
Central Bank Energy policy Five-Year Plans Net material product
Inventions Ruble (currency) Internet domain Transport
Science
Communist
Academy Academy of Sciences Academy of Medical Sciences Lenin All-Union
Academy of Agricultural Sciences Sharashkas Naukograds list
Society
Crime Demographics Soviet people working class 1989 census Languages Linguistics LGBT
Culture
Ballet Cinema Fashion Literature Music opera Propaganda Sports Stalinist architecture
Opposition
Soviet dissidents and their groups list
Anthem republics Emblem republics Flag republics
Template Templates
Departments Russian Revolution 1917 Joseph Stalin Stagnation Era Fall of Communism
Wikipedia book Book Category Category Commons page Commons Portal Portal WikiProject WikiProject
[hide]
Administrative division of the Soviet Union
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Republics of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (1922–1991)
Principal
Armenia
Azerbaijan Byelorussia Estonia1 Georgia Kazakhstan Kirghizia Latvia1
Lithuania1 Moldavia Russian SFSR Tajikistan Turkmenia Ukraine Uzbekistan
State Emblem of the Soviet Union
Short-lived
Karelo-Finnish SSR (1940–1956) Transcaucasian SFSR (1922–1936)
Non-union republics
SSR
Abkhazia (1921–1931) Bukharan SSR (1920–1925) Khorezm SSR (1920–1925)
Nakhichevan ASSR (1920–1923) Pridnestrovian Moldavian SSR (1990–1991)
South Ossetian SR (1990–1991)
1The annexation of the Baltic republics
in 1940 was considered as an illegal occupation and was not recognized
by the majority of the international community such as the United
States, United Kingdom and the European Community. The Soviet Union
officially recognized their independence on September 6, 1991, prior to
its final dissolution three months later.
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Flag of the Soviet Union.svg Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republics of the Soviet Union
Soviet Union
By name
Abkhaz
Adjar Bashkir Buryat1 Chechen-Ingush Chuvash Crimean Dagestan
Gorno-Altai Kabardin Kabardino-Balkar Kalmyk Karakalpak Karelian Kazak2
Kirghiz2 Kirghiz Komi Mari Moldavian Mordovian Mountain Nakhchivan North
Ossetian Tajik Tatar Turkestan Tuva Udmurt Volga German Yakut
Coat of arms of the Soviet Union
By year
established
1918–1924 Turkestan
1918–1941 Volga German
1919–1990 Bashkir
1920–1925 Kirghiz2
1920–1990 Tatar
1921–1990 Adjar
1921–1945 Crimean
1921–1991 Dagestan
1921–1924 Mountain
1921–1990 Nakhchivan
1922–1991 Yakut
1923–1990 Buryat1
1923–1940 Karelian
1924–1940 Moldavian
1924–1929 Tajik
1925–1992 Chuvash
1925–1936 Kazak2
1926–1936 Kirghiz
1931–1991 Abkhaz
1932–1992 Karakalpak
1934–1990 Mordovian
1934–1990 Udmurt
1935–1943 Kalmyk
1936–1944 Chechen-Ingush
1936–1944 Kabardino-Balkar
1936–1990 Komi
1936–1990 Mari
1936–1990 North Ossetian
1944–1957 Kabardin
1956–1991 Karelian
1957–1990 Chechen-Ingush
1957–1991 Kabardino-Balkar
1958–1990 Kalmyk
1961–1992 Tuva
1990–1991 Gorno-Altai
1991–1992 Crimean
1 Buryat–Mongol until 1958.
2 Kazak ASSR was called Kirghiz ASSR until 1925.
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Flag of the Soviet Union.svg Autonomous oblasts of the Soviet Union
Soviet Union
Adyghe
Chechen–Ingush Chechen Ingush Chuvash Gorno-Altai Gorno-Badakhshan
Jewish Kabardino-Balkar Kalmyk Kara-Kirghiz Karachay-Cherkess Cherkess
Karachay Kara-Kalpak Komi-Zyryan Khakas Mari Moldavian Nagorno-Karabakh
North Ossetian South Ossetian Tuvan Udmurt
Coat of arms of the Soviet Union
[hide] v t e
Socialism by country
By country
American Left Australia British Left Canada Estonia France Hong Kong India Netherlands New Zealand Pakistan
History
Brazil United Kingdom United States
Regional variants
African Arab British Burmese Chinese Israeli Melanesian Nicaraguan Tanzanian Venezuelan Vietnamese
Communist
states
Africa
Angola Benin Congo-Brazzaville Ethiopia (1974–1987) Ethiopia (1987–1991) Madagascar Mozambique Somalia
Americas
Cuba Grenada
Asia
Afghanistan Cambodia (1976–1979) Cambodia (1979–1993) China North Korea Laos Mongolia Tuva Vietnam North Vietnam South Yemen
Short-lived
Gilan Iranian Azerbaijan Kurdish Republic of Mahabad South Vietnam Soviet China
Europe
Albania Bulgaria Czechoslovakia East Germany Hungary (1949–1989) Poland Romania Soviet Union Yugoslavia
Short-lived
Alsace-Lorraine Bavaria Bremen Finland Hungary (1919) Galicia Ireland Slovakia (1919)
History of socialism
[hide] v t e
Eastern Bloc
Soviet Union Communism
Formation
Secret
Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact protocol Soviet invasion of Poland Soviet
occupations Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina Baltic states Hungary
Romania Yalta Conference
Annexed as, or
into, SSRs
Eastern Finland Estonia Latvia Lithuania Memel East Prussia West Belarus Western Ukraine Moldavia
Satellite states
Hungarian
People's Republic Polish People's Republic Czechoslovak Socialist
Republic Socialist Republic of Romania German Democratic Republic
People's Republic of Albania (to 1961) People's Republic of Bulgaria
Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia (to 1948)
Annexing SSRs
Russian SFSR Ukrainian SSR Byelorussian SSR
Organizations
Cominform COMECON Warsaw Pact World Federation of Trade Unions (WFTU) World Federation of Democratic Youth (WFDY)
Revolts and
opposition
Welles
Declaration Goryani Movement Forest Brothers Ukrainian Insurgent Army
Operation Jungle Baltic state continuity Baltic Legations (1940–1991)
Cursed soldiers Rebellion of Cazin 1950 1953 uprising in Plzeň 1953 East
German uprising 1956 Georgian demonstrations 1956 Poznań protests 1956
Hungarian Revolution Novocherkassk massacre 1965 Yerevan demonstrations
Prague Spring / Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia Brezhnev Doctrine
1968 Red Square demonstration 1968 student demonstrations in Belgrade
1968 protests in Kosovo 1970 Polish protests Croatian Spring 1972 unrest
in Lithuania SSR June 1976 protests Solidarity / Soviet reaction /
Martial law 1981 protests in Kosovo Reagan Doctrine Jeltoqsan Karabakh
movement April 9 tragedy Romanian Revolution Black January
Cold War events
Marshall Plan Berlin Blockade Tito–Stalin split 1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état 1961 Berlin Wall crisis
Conditions
Emigration
and defection (list of defectors) Sovietization of the Baltic states
Information dissemination Politics Economies Telephone tapping
Decline
Revolutions
of 1989 Fall of the Berlin Wall Romanian Revolution Fall of communism
in Albania Singing Revolution Collapse of the Soviet Union Dissolution
of Czechoslovakia January 1991 events in Lithuania January 1991 events
in Latvia
Post-Cold War topics
Baltic Assembly Collective
Security Treaty Organization Commonwealth of Independent States Craiova
Group European Union European migrant crisis Eurasian Economic Union
NATO Post-Soviet states Shanghai Cooperation Organisation Visegrad Group
[hide] v t e
Disinformation
Types
Alternative
facts Big lie Bullshit Cherry picking Circular reporting Deception
Doublespeak Echo chamber Euphemistic misspeaking Euromyth Factoid Fake
news by country online Fallacy False accusation False flag Filter bubble
Gaslighting Half-truth Hoax Ideological framing Internet manipulation
Media manipulation Potemkin village Post-truth Propaganda Quote mining
Scientific fabrication Smearing Social bot Spin View from nowhere Yellow
journalism
Books
Disinformation by Ion Mihai Pacepa
Dezinformatsia: Active Measures in Soviet Strategy The KGB and Soviet
Disinformation The Case for Latvia Who's Who in the CIA
Disinformation
operations
1995
CIA disinformation controversy CIA Kennedy assassination conspiracy
theory Funkspiel Habbush letter Information Operations Roadmap
Jihadunspun.com Jonestown conspiracy theories K-1000 battleship Mafkarat
al Islam Media censorship and disinformation during the Gezi Park
protests Mohamed Atta's alleged Prague connection Niger uranium
forgeries Operation INFEKTION Operation Neptune Operation Shocker
Operation Toucan Pope Pius XII and Russia Russian interference in the
2016 United States elections Seat 12 Strategy of tension Trolls from
Olgino U.S. Army Field Manual 30-31B Web brigades Yellow rain
Countering
disinformation
Active
Measures Working Group Counter Misinformation Team Countering Foreign
Propaganda and Disinformation Act East StratCom Team FactCheck.org
PolitiFact Snopes.com United States Information Agency
Related series: Fraud • Media manipulation • Propaganda