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Ecuador 1939 - Surcharged Overprint - Aviation - MNH - 4 Stamps Pairs Set
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PRODUCT INFO
The history of mail and postage stamps of Ecuador describes the development of postal communications and the issuance of postage stamps in the territory of the Republic of Ecuador, a state in the northwest of South America, with its capital in Quito. Ecuador is a member of the Universal Postal Union (UPU; since 1880)[1], and the state company Correos del Ecuador[en][1][2] is responsible for postal services in the country.
Content
1 Mail development
2 Issues of postage stamps
2.1 First stamps
2.2 Subsequent releases
2.3 Topics
3 Other types of postage stamps
3.1 Airmail
3.2 Service
3.3 Surcharges
3.4 Postal tax
3.5 Postal stamps
3.6 Telegraphic
4 SCADTA airline stamps
5 Galapagos Islands
6 British Consular Post
7 See also
8 Notes
9 Literature
10 Links
Postal development
Being part of the Spanish Viceroyalty of New Granada until 1822, the territory of present-day Ecuador was administered by the Spanish postal service.
Initially, in part of the territory of Ecuador, a postal service was established and operated on the basis of the former messengers of the chasca and the routes that existed at that time. Until the 18th century, mail was transported privately with the help of a chaska[4][5].
Since 1779, rubber postmarks began to be used, including in 1819-1830 a beaded oval stamp was used [3].
From 1849 to 1880, the British post office in Guayaquil was engaged in the forwarding of external mail, where from 1849 the corresponding rubber stamps were used [3].
Postage stamps of France were used in Guayaquil from April 25, 1872 to March 4, 1874[3] when paying for mail forwarding by the Pacific Ligne F route in Guayaquil.
On July 1, 1880, Ecuador joined the UPU and began to organize the work of its postal service within the framework of this international organization [1].
Since 1911, Ecuador has been a member of the Postal Union of the American States, Spain and Portugal (UPAEP)[2]. On October 1, 1937, Spain introduced the American-Spanish Reply Coupon (Spanish: Cupón-respuesta americoespañol). It was distributed in the countries of this postal union, including Ecuador, until February 29, 1956[6].
The modern national postal operator of the country is the state company Empresa Pública de Correos del Ecuador[2] (Correos del Ecuador[1]).
For the village of Mitod del Mundo, located on the very equator, the postal service of Ecuador uses a special postmark with the inscription: “The pyramid located on the equator and dividing the world in half”[7].
Issues of postage stamps
First stamps
The first postage stamps of Ecuador were issued on January 1, 1865[3][8][≡]. The series consisted of 3 stamps depicting the state emblem.[9]
Subsequent releases
On the postage stamps issued in 1887, there were inscriptions fr. "Equateur" ("Ecuador"), "U. P.U." (“UPU”; short for “Union Postale Universelle” - “Universal Postal Union”)[≡][10].
The first Ecuadorian commemorative stamps were issued in 1896[8].
In 1902, during a fire in Guayaquil, the available stocks of stamps were stolen, in connection with which various overprints were made by hand on the stocks of postage stamps remaining in the post offices of various Ecuadorian cities, of which a large number of types are known [8].
In 1952, the first postal block of Ecuador appeared [8].
The following inscriptions can be found on the original stamps of Ecuador: Spanish. "Ecuador. Correos" ("Ecuador. Post"), "Correos y Telégrafos" ("Post and Telegraph")[≡], "Gorreos internes del Ecuador" ("Internal Post of Ecuador"), "Republica del Ecuador" ("Republic of Ecuador" )[10].
Examples of postage stamps of Ecuador dedicated to famous people of the country[^]
1890: Juan Flores, the first president of Ecuador. Stamp inscriptions: "Correos y Telégrafos" ("Post and Telegraph"), "U. P.U." ("VPS")[^]. Seal: Hamilton Bank Note Co. / Seebeck[en]
1890: Juan Flores, the first president of Ecuador. Stamp inscriptions: "Correos y Telégrafos" ("Post and Telegraph"), "U. P.U." ("VPS")[^]. Seal: Hamilton Bank Note Co. / Seebeck[en]
1899: Ecuadorian writer Juan Montalvo
1899: Ecuadorian writer Juan Montalvo
1907: Twice president of Ecuador, García Moreno. Print: Waterlow and Sons[en]
1907: Twice president of Ecuador, García Moreno. Print: Waterlow and Sons[en]
Subject
Ecuador's postage stamps feature a wide variety of topics - history, politics, prominent personalities of Ecuador[≡] and Latin America[≡], flora[≡] and fauna of the country[≡], sports[≡], transport[≡], etc. .
A number of Ecuadorian stamps can be thematically classified as "Rossica". So, for example, in 1980, postage stamps and blocks of Ecuador were issued, which were dedicated to the XXII Summer Olympic Games in Moscow[8].
Other types of postage stamps
Airmail
Airmail stamps from Ecuador have been issued since 1929[8]. They had the inscription "Servicio aéreo" ("Air communication") or "Aéreo" ("Air")[10][≡].
Service
In Ecuador, in 1884-1964, the emitteroval service stamps[8].
Additional payment
In 1896-1958, surcharge stamps were issued there[8]. They are characterized by the inscription "Franqueo deficiente" ("Delivery of unpaid letters")[10].
Postal tax
Since 1920, postal-tax stamps have been in circulation in the country[8]. The inscription on the postage and tax stamps read: “Timbre patriotico” (“Patriotic Collection Stamp”)[10].
Postal stamp
In addition, in 1928-1946, non-post tobacco tax stamps were overprinted, after which they entered the postal circulation as postal, express, service and postal tax stamps (that is, postal stamps) [8]. Fiscal stamps were overprinted “Postal” (“Postal”)[10].
Telegraph
Ecuador also produced telegraph stamps.
A series of 1894 telegraph stamps of Ecuador in denominations of 10, 20 and 40 centavos (Yt #13-15). The stamps feature a portrait of the second President of Ecuador, Vicente Rocafuerte. Stamp engravings by Hamilton Bank Note Co. / Seebeck[en][^]
A series of 1900 Ecuadorian telegraph stamps in denominations of 10, 20 and 40 centavos (Yt #23-25). The stamps show participants of the Bolívar army in the war for the independence of the Spanish colonies: Ricaurte[en], Salinas[en] Montufar[es]. Print: Waterlow and Sons[en][^]
SCADTA airline stamps
See also: Postal history and postage stamps of Colombia § Airmail
The Colombian airline SCADTA[en], which operated both domestic flights in Ecuador and flights to Colombia and Peru, used its own postage stamps[3][11], which were in circulation from August 28, 1928 to December 27, 1930[3 ].
Galapagos Islands
The first postage stamp of the Galapagos Islands was issued in 1957. On the original stamps, the inscription: "Islas Galapagos" ("Galapagos Islands"). Postage stamps bear the inscription "Gorreos" ("Mail"), and on airmail - "Soggeo aéreo" ("Airmail")[10].
For the period from 1957 to 1963, 6 postage stamps of the islands were issued[10].
British Consular Post
See also: British Consular Post
The British Post Office operated in Guayaquil from 1849-1880. Since 1849, appropriate rubber stamps have been used here. From January 26, 1865 to 1874, this post office in Guayaquil circulated British postage stamps, which were canceled with the alphanumeric stamp "C41"[3].
see also
History of Ecuador
List of people on postage stamps of Ecuador[en]
Correos del Ecuador[en]
Notes
Ecuador (English). The UPU: Member countries: Americas. Universal Postal Union. Retrieved June 20, 2016. Archived from the original on June 20, 2016.
Países miembros: Ecuador (Spanish). La Organization. Montevideo, Uruguay: UPAEP. Retrieved 16 June 2017. Archived from the original on 28 May 2017.
Rossiter S., Fowler J., Wellsted R. Ecuador. Stamp Collecting Resources: Stamp Atlas. Knutsford, UK: Sandafayre Stamp Auctions; Sandafayre (Holdings) Ltd. Retrieved: 2016-1-13. Archived from the original on March 30, 2012.
Bortfeldt D., Acosta C. V., Frohlich A. The Private Mail Carriers of Colombia. - Bogotá, Colombia: Colombian Philatelic Research Society, COLOMPHIL, 2006. (English)
Bortfeldt D. Colombia - Postal History Catalog 1531-1859. — Bogotá, Colombia: Colombian Philatelic Research Society, COLOMPHIL, 2011. — ISBN 978-958-44-8568-7. (English)
Restricted Unions Reply Coupons - Generalities. Postal Reply Coupons. France: André Hurtré (March 11, 2011). Retrieved 2 June 2008. Archived from the original on 11 January 2012.
Mosaic // Philately of the USSR. - 1976. - No. 2. - P. 62.
Ecuador // Large Philatelic Dictionary / N. I. Vladinets, L. I. Ilyichev, I. Ya. Levitas ... [and others]; under total ed. N. I. Vladints and V. A. Jacobs. - M .: Radio and communication, 1988. - S. 308-309. - 40,000 copies. — ISBN 5-256-00175-2.
Catalog des timbres classiques du monde. 1840-1940 .. - Paris: Yvert & Tellier, 2010. - S. 305. - 1114 p. - ISBN 978-2-868114-202-3.
Ecuador // Philatelic geography (foreign countries): Reference book / L. L. Lepeshinsky. - M .: Communication, 1967. - S. 414-415. — 480 s.
Gross O., Gryzhevsky K. IV. In a kaleidoscope of brands. Consular stamps // Travels in the world of stamps / O. Gross, K. Gryzhevsky; Per. from Polish. Yu. M. Sokolova with abbr. - M .: Progress, 1977. - 50,000 copies. Archived from the original on October 1, 2015. (Accessed: June 23, 2016)
Literature
Ecuador // Large Philatelic Dictionary / N. I. Vladinets, L. I. Ilyichev, I. Ya. Levitas ... [and others]; under total ed. N. I. Vladints and V. A. Jacobs. - M .: Radio and communication, 1988. - S. 308-309. - 40,000 copies. — ISBN 5-256-00175-2.
Ecuador // Philatelic geography (foreign countries): Reference book / L. L. Lepeshinsky. - M .: Communication, 1967. - S. 414-415. — 480 s.
Olamo J.[en] The Revenue Stamps of Ecuador. - Helsinki, Finland: YLE, Monistuspalvelu, 1994. - ISBN 952-90-6121-8. (English)
PRODUCT INFORMATION IN NORWEGIAN
Historien til post- og frimerker i Ecuador beskriver utviklingen av postkommunikasjon og utstedelse av frimerker på territoriet til republikken Ecuador, en stat nordvest i Sør-Amerika, med hovedstad i Quito. Ecuador er medlem av Universal Postal Union (UPU; siden 1880)[1], og det statlige selskapet Correos del Ecuador[no][1][2] er ansvarlig for posttjenester i landet.
Innhold
1 E-postutvikling
2 Utgivelser av frimerker
2.1 Første frimerker
2.2 Påfølgende utgivelser
2.3 Emner
3 Andre typer frimerker
3.1 Luftpost
3.2 Service
3.3 Tillegg
3.4 Postavgift
3.5 Poststempler
3.6 Telegrafisk
4 SCADTA flyselskapsstempler
5 Galapagosøyene
6 British Consular Post
7 Se også
8 Merknader
9 Litteratur
10 lenker
Postutvikling
Som en del av det spanske visekongedømmet New Granada frem til 1822, ble territoriet til dagens Ecuador administrert av det spanske postvesenet.
Opprinnelig, i en del av Ecuadors territorium, ble det etablert en posttjeneste som ble operert på grunnlag av de tidligere budbringerne til chascaen og rutene som eksisterte på den tiden. Fram til 1700-tallet ble post fraktet privat ved hjelp av en chaska[4][5].
Siden 1779 begynte man å bruke gummipoststempler, blant annet ble det i 1819-1830 brukt et perleformet ovalt stempel [3].
Fra 1849 til 1880 var det britiske postkontoret i Guayaquil engasjert med videresending av ekstern post, hvor man fra 1849 brukte de tilsvarende gummistemplene [3].
Frimerker fra Frankrike ble brukt i Guayaquil fra 25. april 1872 til 4. mars 1874[3] når man betalte for videresending av post ved Pacific Ligne F-ruten i Guayaquil.
1. juli 1880 sluttet Ecuador seg til UPU og begynte å organisere arbeidet til postvesenet innenfor rammen av denne internasjonale organisasjonen [1].
Siden 1911 har Ecuador vært medlem av postunionen i de amerikanske statene, Spania og Portugal (UPAEP)[2]. 1. oktober 1937 introduserte Spania den amerikansk-spanske svarkupongen (spansk: Cupón-respuesta americoespañol). Den ble distribuert i landene i denne postunionen, inkludert Ecuador, frem til 29. februar 1956[6].
Den moderne nasjonale postoperatøren i landet er det statlige selskapet Empresa Pública de Correos del Ecuador[2] (Correos del Ecuador[1]).
For landsbyen Mitod del Mundo, som ligger på selve ekvator, bruker postvesenet i Ecuador et spesielt poststempel med inskripsjonen: «Pyramiden som ligger på ekvator og deler verden i to» [7].
Utgivelser av frimerker
Første frimerker
De første frimerkene til Ecuador ble utstedt 1. januar 1865[3][8][≡]. Serien besto av 3 frimerker som avbildet statsemblemet.[9]
Påfølgende utgivelser
På de i 1887 utgitte frimerkene var det påskrifter fr. "Equateur" ("Ecuador"), "U. P.U." ("UPU"; forkortelse for "Union Postale Universelle" - "Universal Postal Union")[≡][10].
De første ecuadorianske minnefrimerkene ble gitt ut i 1896[8].
I 1902, under en brann i Guayaquil, ble de tilgjengelige frimerkelagrene stjålet, i forbindelse med at det ble laget forskjellige overtrykk for hånd på beholdningen av frimerker som var igjen på postkontorene til forskjellige ecuadorianske byer, hvorav et stort antall typer er kjent [8].
I 1952 dukket den første postblokken til Ecuador opp [8].
Følgende inskripsjoner finnes på de originale frimerkene til Ecuador: Spansk. "Ecuador. Correos" ("Ecuador. Post"), "Correos y Telégrafos" ("Post og telegraf")[≡], "Gorreos internes del Ecuador" ("Ecuadors interne post"), "Republica del Ecuador" ("Republikken av Ecuador")[10].
Eksempler på frimerker fra Ecuador dedikert til kjente personer i landet[^]
1890: Juan Flores, den første presidenten i Ecuador. Frimerkeinnskrifter: "Correos y Telégrafos" ("Post og telegraf"), "U. P.U." ("VPS")[^]. Segl: Hamilton Bank Note Co. / Seebeck[no]
1890: Juan Flores, den første presidenten i Ecuador. Frimerkeinnskrifter: "Correos y Telégrafos" ("Post og telegraf"), "U. P.U." ("VPS")[^]. Segl: Hamilton Bank Note Co. / Seebeck[no]
1899: Den ecuadorianske forfatteren Juan Montalvo
1899: Den ecuadorianske forfatteren Juan Montalvo
1907: To ganger president i Ecuador, García Moreno. Trykk: Waterlow and Sons[no]
1907: To ganger president i Ecuador, García Moreno. Trykk: Waterlow and Sons[no]
Emne
Ecuadors frimerker inneholder et bredt spekter av emner – historie, politikk, fremtredende personligheter i Ecuador[≡] og Latin-Amerika[≡], flora[≡] og fauna i landet[≡], sport[≡], transport[≡] , osv. .
En rekke ecuadorianske frimerker kan tematisk klassifiseres som "Rossica". Så, for eksempel, i 1980 ble det gitt ut frimerker og blokker av Ecuador, som ble dedikert til de XXII olympiske sommerleker i Moskva[8].
Andre typer frimerker
Luftpost
Luftpoststempler fra Ecuador har blitt utstedt siden 1929[8]. De hadde inskripsjonen "Servicio aéreo" ("Air communication") eller "Aéreo" ("Air")[10][≡].
Service
I Ecuador, i 1884-1964, utsenderenovale servicestempler[8].
Tilleggsbetaling
I 1896-1958 ble det gitt ut tilleggsmerker der[8]. De er preget av inskripsjonen "Franqueo deficiente" ("Levering av ubetalte brev")[10].
Postavgift
Siden 1920 har frimerker vært i omløp i landet[8]. Påskriften på porto- og skattefrimerkene lyder: «Timbre patriotico» («Patriotisk samlingsstempel»)[10].
Poststempel
I tillegg, i 1928-1946, ble ikke-posttobakksavgiftsmerker overtrykt, hvoretter de kom inn i postomløpet som post-, ekspress-, service- og postavgiftsmerker (det vil si postfrimerker) [8]. Fiskale frimerker ble overtrykt «Postal» («Post»)[10].
Telegraf
Ecuador produserte også telegraffrimerker.
En serie med telegraffrimerker fra Ecuador fra 1894 i valører på 10, 20 og 40 centavos (Yt #13-15). Frimerkene har et portrett av den andre presidenten i Ecuador, Vicente Rocafuerte. Frimerkegraveringer av Hamilton Bank Note Co. / Seebeck[no][^]
En serie med ecuadorianske telegraffrimerker fra 1900 i valører på 10, 20 og 40 centavos (Yt #23-25). Frimerkene viser deltakere fra Bolívar-hæren i krigen for uavhengigheten til de spanske koloniene: Ricaurte[en], Salinas[en] Montufar[es]. Trykk: Waterlow and Sons[no][^]
SCADTA flyselskapsstempler
Se også: Posthistorie og frimerker for Colombia § Luftpost
Det colombianske flyselskapet SCADTA[en], som opererte både innenlandsflyvninger i Ecuador og flyreiser til Colombia og Peru, brukte sine egne frimerker[3][11], som var i omløp fra 28. august 1928 til 27. desember 1930[3 ].
Galapagosøyene
Det første frimerket til Galapagosøyene ble utstedt i 1957. På de originale frimerkene, inskripsjonen: "Islas Galapagos" ("Galapagosøyene"). Frimerker bærer inskripsjonen "Gorreos" ("Mail"), og på luftpost - "Soggeo aéreo" ("Flypost")[10].
For perioden 1957 til 1963 ble det gitt ut 6 frimerker av øyene[10].
British Consular Post
Se også: British Consular Post
Det britiske postkontoret opererte i Guayaquil fra 1849-1880. Siden 1849 har det vært brukt passende gummistempler her. Fra 26. januar 1865 til 1874 sirkulerte dette postkontoret i Guayaquil britiske frimerker, som ble kansellert med det alfanumeriske stempelet "C41"[3].
se også
Ecuadors historie
Liste over personer på frimerker i Ecuador[no]
Correos del Ecuador[no]
Notater
Ecuador (engelsk). UPU: Medlemsland: Amerika. Verdenspostforbundet. Hentet 20. juni 2016. Arkivert fra originalen 20. juni 2016.
Países miembros: Ecuador (spansk). La Organisasjonen. Montevideo, Uruguay: UPAEP. Hentet 16. juni 2017. Arkivert fra originalen 28. mai 2017.
Rossiter S., Fowler J., Wellsted R. Ecuador. Frimerkeinnsamlingsressurser: Frimerkeatlas. Knutsford, Storbritannia: Sandafayre frimerkeauksjoner; Sandafayre (Holdings) Ltd. Hentet: 2016-1-13. Arkivert fra originalen 30. mars 2012.
Bortfeldt D., Acosta C. V., Frohlich A. The Private Mail Carriers of Colombia. - Bogotá, Colombia: Colombian Philatelic Research Society, COLOMPHIL, 2006. (engelsk)
Bortfeldt D. Colombia - Posthistoriekatalog 1531-1859. — Bogotá, Colombia: Colombian Philatelic Research Society, COLOMPHIL, 2011. — ISBN 978-958-44-8568-7. (Engelsk)
Svarkuponger for begrensede fagforeninger - Generelt. Svarkuponger for post. Frankrike: André Hurtré (11. mars 2011). Hentet 2. juni 2008. Arkivert fra originalen 11. januar 2012.
Mosaikk // Filateli i USSR. - 1976. - Nr. 2. - S. 62.
Ecuador // Large Philatelic Dictionary / N. I. Vladinets, L. I. Ilyichev, I. Ya. Levitas ... [og andre]; under totalt utg. N. I. Vladints og V. A. Jacobs. - M .: Radio og kommunikasjon, 1988. - S. 308-309. - 40 000 eksemplarer. — ISBN 5-256-00175-2.
Catalog des timbres classiques du monde. 1840-1940 .. - Paris: Yvert & Tellier, 2010. - S. 305. - 1114 s. - ISBN 978-2-868114-202-3.
Ecuador // Filatelisk geografi (fremmede land): Oppslagsbok / L. L. Lepeshinsky. - M .: Kommunikasjon, 1967. - S. 414-415. — 480 s.
Gross O., Gryzhevsky K. IV. I et kaleidoskop av merker. Konsulære frimerker // Reiser i frimerkenes verden / O. Gross, K. Gryzhevsky; Per. fra polsk. Yu. M. Sokolova med fork. - M .: Fremskritt, 1977. - 50 000 eksemplarer. Arkivert fra originalen 1. oktober 2015. (Åpnet: 23. juni 2016)
Litteratur
Ecuador // Large Philatelic Dictionary / N. I. Vladinets, L. I. Ilyichev, I. Ya. Levitas ... [og andre]; under totalt utg. N. I. Vladints og V. A. Jacobs. - M .: Radio og kommunikasjon, 1988. - S. 308-309. - 40 000 eksemplarer. — ISBN 5-256-00175-2.
Ecuador // Filatelisk geografi (fremmede land): Oppslagsbok / L. L. Lepeshinsky. - M .: Kommunikasjon, 1967. - S. 414-415. — 480 s.
Olamo J.[no] Inntektsstemplene i Ecuador. - Helsinki, Finland: YLE, Monistuspalvelu, 1994. - ISBN 952-90-6121-8. (Engelsk)
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Albania Andorra Armenia2 Austria Azerbaijan Belarus Belgium Bosnia and Herzegovina Bulgaria Croatia Cyprus2 Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Georgia Germany Greece Hungary Iceland1 Ireland Italy Kazakhstan Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Macedonia Malta Moldova Monaco Montenegro Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Romania Russia San Marino Serbia Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey Ukraine United Kingdom Vatican City
Europe orthographic Caucasus Urals boundary (with borders).svg
States with limited
recognition
Abkhazia2 Artsakh2 Kosovo Northern Cyprus2 South Ossetia2 Transnistria
Dependencies
Denmark
Faroe Islands1 autonomous country of the Kingdom of Denmark
United Kingdom
Akrotiri and Dhekelia2 Sovereign Base Areas Gibraltar British Overseas Territory Guernsey Isle of Man Jersey Crown dependencies
Special areas of
internal sovereignty
Finland
Åland Islands autonomous region subject to the Åland Convention of 1921
Norway
Svalbard unincorporated area subject to the Svalbard Treaty
United Kingdom
Northern Ireland country of the United Kingdom subject to the British-Irish Agreement
1 Oceanic islands within the vicinity of Europe are usually grouped with the continent even though they are not situated on its continental shelf.
2 Some countries completely outside the conventional geographical boundaries of Europe are commonly associated with the continent due to ethnological links.
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Countries and dependencies of Asia
Abkhazia Afghanistan Akrotiri and Dhekelia Armenia Artsakh Azerbaijan Bahrain Bangladesh Bhutan Brunei Cambodia China Christmas Island Cocos (Keeling) Islands Cyprus Egypt Georgia Hong Kong India British Indian Ocean Territory Indonesia Iran Iraq Israel Japan Jordan Kazakhstan North Korea South Korea Kuwait Kyrgyzstan Laos Lebanon Macau Malaysia Maldives Mongolia Myanmar Nepal Northern Cyprus Oman Palestine Pakistan Philippines Qatar Russia Saudi Arabia Singapore South Ossetia Sri Lanka Syria Taiwan Tajikistan Thailand East Timor (Timor-Leste) Turkey Turkmenistan United Arab Emirates Uzbekistan Vietnam Yemen
Asia (orthographic projection).svg
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Countries bordering the Baltic Sea
Denmark Estonia Finland Germany Latvia Lithuania Poland Russia Sweden
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Black Sea
Countries bordering the Black Sea
Bulgaria Georgia Romania Russia Turkey Ukraine
Cities
Batumi Burgas Constanța Giresun Hopa Istanbul Kerch Mangalia Năvodari Novorossiysk Odessa Ordu Poti Rize Samsun Sevastopol Sochi Sukhumi1 Trabzon Varna Yalta Zonguldak
1 Disputed statehood — partial international recognition, but considered by most countries to be Georgian territory.
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International organizations
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Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC)
Nations
Australia Brunei Canada Chile China Hong Kong¹ Indonesia Japan South Korea Malaysia Mexico New Zealand Papua New Guinea Peru Philippines Russia Singapore Chinese Taipei² Thailand United States Vietnam
Summits
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018
Other
APEC Business Travel Card APEC blue APEC Climate Center APEC Youth Science Festival
1. A special administrative region of China, participates as "Hong Kong, China"; 2. Officially the Republic of China, participates as "Chinese Taipei"
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BRICS
Membership
Brazil Brazil Russia Russia India India China China South Africa South Africa
Summits
Yekaterinburg 2009 Brasília 2010 Sanya 2011 New Delhi 2012 Durban 2013 Fortaleza 2014 Ufa 2015 Goa 2016 Xiamen 2017 Johannesburg 2018 Brazil 2019
Bilateral relations
Brazil–China Brazil–India Brazil–Russia Brazil–South Africa China–India China–Russia China–South Africa India–Russia India–South Africa Russia–South Africa
Leaders
Temer Putin Modi Xi Ramaphosa
Related
New Development Bank BRICS Contingent Reserve Arrangement BRICS Leaders BRICS Cable BRICS Universities League
BRICS U-17 Football Cup
2016 Goa
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Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS)
Customs Union of Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Russia Eurasian Economic Union Union State
Membership
Members
Armenia Azerbaijan Belarus Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Moldova Russia Tajikistan Uzbekistan
Associate members
Turkmenistan Ukraine
Former members
Georgia (1993–2009)
History
Russian Empire Soviet Union Dissolution of the Soviet Union Union of Sovereign States Belavezha Accords (Near abroad) Alma-Ata Protocol
CIS flag
Sports
Unified Team at the Olympics Unified Team at the Paralympics CIS national bandy team CIS national football team CIS national ice hockey team CIS national rugby team CIS Cup (football)
Military
Collective Security Treaty Organization Collective Rapid Reaction Force Joint CIS Air Defense System
Economics
Economic Court CISFTA Eurasian Economic Community Eurasian Patent Convention Eurasian Patent Organization EU Technical Aid
Organization
Interstate Aviation Committee Council of Ministers of Defense of the CIS
Category Category
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Council of Europe
Institutions
Secretary General Committee of Ministers Parliamentary Assembly Congress Court of Human Rights Commissioner for Human Rights Commission for the Efficiency of Justice Commission against Racism and Intolerance
Gold: founding member. Blue: Later (current) full members.
Members
Albania Andorra Armenia Austria Azerbaijan Belgium Bosnia and Herzegovina Bulgaria Croatia Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Georgia Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Macedonia1 Malta Moldova Monaco Montenegro Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Romania Russia San Marino Serbia Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey Ukraine United Kingdom
Observers
Canada Holy See Israel Japan Mexico United States Sovereign Military Order of Malta
Former members
Czechoslovakia (1991–1992) Saar (assoc. 1950–1956)
1 Provisionally referred to by the Council of Europe as "the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia"; see Macedonia naming dispute.
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East Asia Summit (EAS)
First Second Third Fourth Fifth Sixth Seventh Eighth Ninth Tenth Eleventh Twelfth
Australia
Brunei
Cambodia
China
India
Indonesia
Japan
Laos
Malaysia
Myanmar
New Zealand
Philippines
Russia
Singapore
South Korea
Thailand
United States
Vietnam
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Eurasian Economic Union
Member states
Armenia Belarus Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Russia
Flag of the Eurasian Economic Union
Observer members
Moldova
Prospective members
Mongolia Syria Tajikistan
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Group of Eight (G8) and Group of Eight + Five (G8+5)
G8 members
Canada France Germany Italy Japan Russia United Kingdom United States
Representative
European Union
G8+5
Brazil China India Mexico South Africa
See also
Group of Six Group of Seven G7+1
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G20 major economies
Argentina Argentina Australia Australia Brazil Brazil Canada Canada China China European Union European Union France France Germany Germany India India Indonesia Indonesia Italy Italy Japan Japan Mexico Mexico Russia Russia Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabia South Africa South Africa South Korea Republic of Korea Turkey Turkey United Kingdom United Kingdom United States United States
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Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC)
Albania
Armenia
Azerbaijan
Bulgaria
Georgia
Greece
Moldova
Romania
Russia
Serbia
Turkey
Ukraine
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Quartet on the Middle East
Negotiating parties
Israel Israel Palestinian National Authority Palestinian Authority
Diplomatic quartet
European Union European Union (Mogherini) Russia Russia (Lavrov) United Nations United Nations (Guterres) United States United States (Sullivan)
Special Envoy
Netherlands Kito de Boer
Associated organizations
Elections Reform Support Group
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Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO)
Summits
Beijing 2012 Dushanbe 2014 Astana 2017
Member states
China India Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Pakistan Russia Tajikistan Uzbekistan
Observer states
Afghanistan Belarus Iran Mongolia
Dialogue partners
Armenia Azerbaijan Cambodia Nepal Sri Lanka Turkey
Guests
ASEAN CIS Turkmenistan
See also
Eurasian Land Bridge Three Evils Working languages Chinese Russian
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Security Council of the United Nations
Power
Chapter V Chapter VII Veto Resolution
Organization
Military Observer Peacebuilding Commission Counter-Terrorism Committee Peacekeeping
Missions
United Nations Command Unified Task Force
Members
Permanent
China France Russia United Kingdom United States
2016–2017
Egypt Japan Senegal Ukraine Uruguay
2017
Italy
2017–2018
Bolivia Ethiopia Kazakhstan Sweden
Category Category
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World Trade Organization
System
Accession and membership Appellate Body Dispute Settlement Body International Trade Centre Chronology of key events
Issues
Criticism Doha Development Round Singapore issues Quota Elimination Peace Clause
Agreements
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade Agriculture Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures Technical Barriers to Trade Trade Related Investment Measures Trade in Services Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights Government Procurement Information Technology Marrakech Agreement Doha Declaration Bali Package
Ministerial
Conferences
1st (1996) 2nd (1998) 3rd (1999) 4th (2001) 5th (2003) 6th (2005) 7th (2009) 8th (2011) 9th (2013) 10th (2015)
People
Roberto Azevêdo (Director-General) Pascal Lamy Supachai Panitchpakdi Alejandro Jara Rufus Yerxa
Members
Afghanistan Albania Algeria Angola Antigua and Barbuda Argentina Armenia Australia Bahrain Bangladesh Barbados Belize Benin Bolivia Botswana Brazil Brunei Burkina Faso Burma Burundi Cambodia Cameroon Canada Cape Verde Central African Republic Chad Chile China Colombia Democratic Republic of the Congo Republic of the Congo Costa Rica Côte d'Ivoire Cuba Djibouti Dominica Dominican Republic Ecuador Egypt El Salvador Fiji Gabon The Gambia Georgia Ghana Grenada Guatemala Guinea Guinea-Bissau Guyana Haiti Honduras Hong Kong1 Iceland India Indonesia Israel Jamaica Japan Jordan Kazakhstan Kenya South Korea Kuwait Kyrgyzstan Laos Lesotho Liberia Liechtenstein Macau1 Macedonia Madagascar Malawi Malaysia Maldives Mali Mauritania Mauritius Mexico Moldova Mongolia Montenegro Morocco Mozambique Namibia Nepal New Zealand Nicaragua Niger Nigeria Norway Oman Pakistan Panama Papua New Guinea Paraguay Peru Philippines Qatar Russia Rwanda St. Kitts and Nevis St. Lucia St. Vincent and the Grenadines Samoa Saudi Arabia Senegal Seychelles Sierra Leone Singapore Solomon Islands South Africa Sri Lanka Suriname Swaziland Switzerland Tajikistan Taiwan2 Tanzania Thailand Togo Tonga Trinidad and Tobago Tunisia Turkey Uganda Ukraine United Arab Emirates United States Uruguay Venezuela Vietnam Yemen Zambia Zimbabwe
European Union
Austria Belgium Bulgaria Croatia Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Germany Greece Hungary Ireland Italy Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malta Netherlands Poland Portugal Romania Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden United Kingdom
Special administrative regions of the People's Republic of China, participates as "Hong Kong, China" and "Macao China". Officially the Republic of China, participates as "Separate Customs Territory of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen and Matsu", and "Chinese Taipei" in short.
he Soviet Union (Russian: Сове́тский Сою́з, tr. Sovétsky Soyúz, IPA: [sɐˈvʲɛt͡skʲɪj sɐˈjus] (About this sound listen)), officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (Russian: Сою́з Сове́тских Социалисти́ческих Респу́блик, tr. Soyúz Sovétskikh Sotsialistícheskikh Respúblik, IPA: [sɐˈjus sɐˈvʲɛtskʲɪx sətsɨəlʲɪsˈtʲitɕɪskʲɪx rʲɪˈspublʲɪk] (About this sound listen)), abbreviated as the USSR (Russian: СССР, tr. SSSR), was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. Nominally a union of multiple national Soviet republics,[a] its government and economy were highly centralized. The country was a one-party state, governed by the Communist Party with Moscow as its capital in its largest republic, the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic. Other major urban centres were Leningrad, Kiev, Minsk, Tashkent and Novosibirsk. The Soviet Union was one of the five recognized nuclear weapons states and possessed the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction.[7] It was a founding permanent member of the United Nations Security Council, as well as a member of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) and the leading member of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA) and the Warsaw Pact.
The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917, when the Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, overthrew the Russian Provisional Government which had replaced Tsar Nicholas II during World War I. In 1922, after a civil war, the Soviet Union was formed with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian and Byelorussian republics. Following Lenin's death in 1924 and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Under Stalin's leadership, the Soviet Union transitioned from a market economy into a centrally planned economy which led to a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization. As industrial production skyrocketed, the Soviet Union achieved full employment, implemented a universal healthcare system, sharply reduced illiteracy, and provided guarantees of paid vacations, rest homes, and recreational clubs. This period of industrialization was a time of enormous improvements in the standard of living for millions of people in the country, starkly contrasting with the situations of other countries during the Great Depression, but was also a time characterized by major institutional shortcomings and failures. In the 1930s, with the rise of fascism in Europe, the Communist Party pursued aggressive campaigns to suppress potential counter-revolution, fermenting political paranoia which culminated in the Great Purge in which extrajudicial arrests and executions of suspected counter-revolutionaries led to an estimated 600,000 deaths. As a result of these mass arrests, penal labor through the Gulag system was used to construct infrastructure projects, though this consistently proved to be an inefficient system throughout its existence.[8] Increased demand for agricultural products to pay for industrialization combined with a relatively low harvest yield led to the famine of 1932–33 in which an estimated 2.4 to 4 million people died in the country's agricultural centers of Ukraine, southern Russia, and Kazakhstan.[9][10]
After the rise of Adolf Hitler in Germany, Stalin tried repeatedly to form an anti-fascist alliance with other European countries. However, finding no support, shortly before World War II, the Soviet Union became the last major country to sign a treaty with Germany with the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, after which the two countries invaded Poland in September 1939. In June 1941, the pact collapsed as Germany invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theatre of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at intense battles such as Stalingrad and Kursk. The territories overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Soviet Union; the postwar division of Europe into capitalist and communist halves would lead to increased tensions with the West, led by the United States.
The Cold War emerged by 1947, as the Eastern Bloc, united under the Warsaw Pact in 1955, confronted the Western Bloc, united under NATO in 1949. On 5 March 1953, Stalin died and was quickly succeeded by Nikita Khrushchev, who in 1956 denounced Stalin and began the De-Stalinization of Soviet society through the Khrushchev Thaw. The Soviet Union took an early lead in the Space Race, with the first artificial satellite and the first human spaceflight. Khrushchev was removed from power by his colleagues in 1964 and was succeeded as head of state by Leonid Brezhnev. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, but tensions resumed with the Soviet–Afghan War in 1979. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost (government transparency) and perestroika (openness, restructuring). Under Gorbachev, the role of the Communist Party in governing the state was removed from the constitution, causing a surge of severe political instability to set in. The Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989, Soviet satellite states in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist governments.
With the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the union republics, Gorbachev tried to avert a dissolution of the Soviet Union in the post-Cold War era. A March 1991 referendum, boycotted by some republics, resulted in a majority of participating citizens voting in favor of preserving the union as a renewed federation. Gorbachev's power was greatly diminished after Russian President Boris Yeltsin played a high-profile role in facing down an abortive August 1991 coup d'état attempted by Communist Party hardliners. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the remaining twelve constituent republics emerged as independent post-Soviet states. The Russian Federation—formerly the Russian SFSR—assumed the Soviet Union's rights and obligations and is recognized as the successor state of the Soviet Union.[11][12][13] In summing up the international ramifications of these events, Vladislav Zubok stated: "The collapse of the Soviet empire was an event of epochal geopolitical, military, ideological and economic significance.
Soviet Union topics
History
Index of Soviet Union-related articles Russian Revolution February October Russian Civil War Russian SFSR USSR creation treaty New Economic Policy Stalinism Great Purge Great Patriotic War (World War II) Cold War Khrushchev Thaw 1965 reform Stagnation Perestroika Glasnost Revolutions of 1989 Dissolution Nostalgia Post-Soviet states
State Emblem of the Soviet Union.svg
Geography
Subdivisions
Republics autonomous Oblasts autonomous Autonomous okrugs Closed cities list
Regions
Caspian Sea Caucasus Mountains European Russia North Caucasus Siberia Ural Mountains West Siberian Plain
Politics
General
Constitution Elections Foreign relations Brezhnev Doctrine Government list Human rights LGBT Law Leaders Collective leadership Passport system State ideology Marxism–Leninism Leninism Stalinism
Bodies
Communist Party organisation Central Committee Politburo Secretariat Congress General Secretary Congress of Soviets (1922–1936) Supreme Soviet (1938–1991) Congress of People's Deputies (1989–1991) Supreme Court
Offices
Premier President Deputy Premier First Deputy Premier
Security services
Cheka GPU NKVD MVD MGB KGB
Political repression
Red Terror Collectivization Great Purge Population transfer Gulag list Holodomor Political abuse of psychiatry
Ideological repression
Religion Suppressed research Censorship Censorship of images
Economy
Agriculture Central Bank Energy policy Five-Year Plans Net material product Inventions Ruble (currency) Internet domain Transport
Science
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Society
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Culture
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Opposition
Soviet dissidents and their groups list
Anthem republics Emblem republics Flag republics
Template Templates
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Administrative division of the Soviet Union
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Republics of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (1922–1991)
Principal
Armenia Azerbaijan Byelorussia Estonia1 Georgia Kazakhstan Kirghizia Latvia1 Lithuania1 Moldavia Russian SFSR Tajikistan Turkmenia Ukraine Uzbekistan
State Emblem of the Soviet Union
Short-lived
Karelo-Finnish SSR (1940–1956) Transcaucasian SFSR (1922–1936)
Non-union republics
SSR Abkhazia (1921–1931) Bukharan SSR (1920–1925) Khorezm SSR (1920–1925) Nakhichevan ASSR (1920–1923) Pridnestrovian Moldavian SSR (1990–1991) South Ossetian SR (1990–1991)
1The annexation of the Baltic republics in 1940 was considered as an illegal occupation and was not recognized by the majority of the international community such as the United States, United Kingdom and the European Community. The Soviet Union officially recognized their independence on September 6, 1991, prior to its final dissolution three months later.
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Flag of the Soviet Union.svg Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republics of the Soviet Union
Soviet Union
By name
Abkhaz Adjar Bashkir Buryat1 Chechen-Ingush Chuvash Crimean Dagestan Gorno-Altai Kabardin Kabardino-Balkar Kalmyk Karakalpak Karelian Kazak2 Kirghiz2 Kirghiz Komi Mari Moldavian Mordovian Mountain Nakhchivan North Ossetian Tajik Tatar Turkestan Tuva Udmurt Volga German Yakut
Coat of arms of the Soviet Union
By year
established
1918–1924 Turkestan
1918–1941 Volga German
1919–1990 Bashkir
1920–1925 Kirghiz2
1920–1990 Tatar
1921–1990 Adjar
1921–1945 Crimean
1921–1991 Dagestan
1921–1924 Mountain
1921–1990 Nakhchivan
1922–1991 Yakut
1923–1990 Buryat1
1923–1940 Karelian
1924–1940 Moldavian
1924–1929 Tajik
1925–1992 Chuvash
1925–1936 Kazak2
1926–1936 Kirghiz
1931–1991 Abkhaz
1932–1992 Karakalpak
1934–1990 Mordovian
1934–1990 Udmurt
1935–1943 Kalmyk
1936–1944 Chechen-Ingush
1936–1944 Kabardino-Balkar
1936–1990 Komi
1936–1990 Mari
1936–1990 North Ossetian
1944–1957 Kabardin
1956–1991 Karelian
1957–1990 Chechen-Ingush
1957–1991 Kabardino-Balkar
1958–1990 Kalmyk
1961–1992 Tuva
1990–1991 Gorno-Altai
1991–1992 Crimean
1 Buryat–Mongol until 1958.
2 Kazak ASSR was called Kirghiz ASSR until 1925.
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Flag of the Soviet Union.svg Autonomous oblasts of the Soviet Union
Soviet Union
Adyghe Chechen–Ingush Chechen Ingush Chuvash Gorno-Altai Gorno-Badakhshan Jewish Kabardino-Balkar Kalmyk Kara-Kirghiz Karachay-Cherkess Cherkess Karachay Kara-Kalpak Komi-Zyryan Khakas Mari Moldavian Nagorno-Karabakh North Ossetian South Ossetian Tuvan Udmurt
Coat of arms of the Soviet Union
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Socialism by country
By country
American Left Australia British Left Canada Estonia France Hong Kong India Netherlands New Zealand Pakistan
History
Brazil United Kingdom United States
Regional variants
African Arab British Burmese Chinese Israeli Melanesian Nicaraguan Tanzanian Venezuelan Vietnamese
Communist
states
Africa
Angola Benin Congo-Brazzaville Ethiopia (1974–1987) Ethiopia (1987–1991) Madagascar Mozambique Somalia
Americas
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Asia
Afghanistan Cambodia (1976–1979) Cambodia (1979–1993) China North Korea Laos Mongolia Tuva Vietnam North Vietnam South Yemen
Short-lived
Gilan Iranian Azerbaijan Kurdish Republic of Mahabad South Vietnam Soviet China
Europe
Albania Bulgaria Czechoslovakia East Germany Hungary (1949–1989) Poland Romania Soviet Union Yugoslavia
Short-lived
Alsace-Lorraine Bavaria Bremen Finland Hungary (1919) Galicia Ireland Slovakia (1919)
History of socialism
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Eastern Bloc
Soviet Union Communism
Formation
Secret Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact protocol Soviet invasion of Poland Soviet occupations Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina Baltic states Hungary Romania Yalta Conference
Annexed as, or
into, SSRs
Eastern Finland Estonia Latvia Lithuania Memel East Prussia West Belarus Western Ukraine Moldavia
Satellite states
Hungarian People's Republic Polish People's Republic Czechoslovak Socialist Republic Socialist Republic of Romania German Democratic Republic People's Republic of Albania (to 1961) People's Republic of Bulgaria Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia (to 1948)
Annexing SSRs
Russian SFSR Ukrainian SSR Byelorussian SSR
Organizations
Cominform COMECON Warsaw Pact World Federation of Trade Unions (WFTU) World Federation of Democratic Youth (WFDY)
Revolts and
opposition
Welles Declaration Goryani Movement Forest Brothers Ukrainian Insurgent Army Operation Jungle Baltic state continuity Baltic Legations (1940–1991) Cursed soldiers Rebellion of Cazin 1950 1953 uprising in Plzeň 1953 East German uprising 1956 Georgian demonstrations 1956 Poznań protests 1956 Hungarian Revolution Novocherkassk massacre 1965 Yerevan demonstrations Prague Spring / Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia Brezhnev Doctrine 1968 Red Square demonstration 1968 student demonstrations in Belgrade 1968 protests in Kosovo 1970 Polish protests Croatian Spring 1972 unrest in Lithuania SSR June 1976 protests Solidarity / Soviet reaction / Martial law 1981 protests in Kosovo Reagan Doctrine Jeltoqsan Karabakh movement April 9 tragedy Romanian Revolution Black January
Cold War events
Marshall Plan Berlin Blockade Tito–Stalin split 1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état 1961 Berlin Wall crisis
Conditions
Emigration and defection (list of defectors) Sovietization of the Baltic states Information dissemination Politics Economies Telephone tapping
Decline
Revolutions of 1989 Fall of the Berlin Wall Romanian Revolution Fall of communism in Albania Singing Revolution Collapse of the Soviet Union Dissolution of Czechoslovakia January 1991 events in Lithuania January 1991 events in Latvia
Post-Cold War topics
Baltic Assembly Collective Security Treaty Organization Commonwealth of Independent States Craiova Group European Union European migrant crisis Eurasian Economic Union NATO Post-Soviet states Shanghai Cooperation Organisation Visegrad Group
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Disinformation
Types
Alternative facts Big lie Bullshit Cherry picking Circular reporting Deception Doublespeak Echo chamber Euphemistic misspeaking Euromyth Factoid Fake news by country online Fallacy False accusation False flag Filter bubble Gaslighting Half-truth Hoax Ideological framing Internet manipulation Media manipulation Potemkin village Post-truth Propaganda Quote mining Scientific fabrication Smearing Social bot Spin View from nowhere Yellow journalism
Books
Disinformation by Ion Mihai Pacepa Dezinformatsia: Active Measures in Soviet Strategy The KGB and Soviet Disinformation The Case for Latvia Who's Who in the CIA
Disinformation
operations
1995 CIA disinformation controversy CIA Kennedy assassination conspiracy theory Funkspiel Habbush letter Information Operations Roadmap Jihadunspun.com Jonestown conspiracy theories K-1000 battleship Mafkarat al Islam Media censorship and disinformation during the Gezi Park protests Mohamed Atta's alleged Prague connection Niger uranium forgeries Operation INFEKTION Operation Neptune Operation Shocker Operation Toucan Pope Pius XII and Russia Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections Seat 12 Strategy of tension Trolls from Olgino U.S. Army Field Manual 30-31B Web brigades Yellow rain
Countering
disinformation
Active Measures Working Group Counter Misinformation Team Countering Foreign Propaganda and Disinformation Act East StratCom Team FactCheck.org PolitiFact Snopes.com United States Information Agency
Related series: Fraud • Media manipulation • Propaganda.
Economy Military Journalism Postal
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Geography
Subdivisions Borders Earthquakes Geology European Russia Caucasus Mountains North Caucasus Caspian Sea Ural Mountains West Siberian Plain Siberia Russian Far East North Asia Extreme points Cities and towns Islands Lakes Rivers Volcanoes Climate Mountains
Politics
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Russian souvenirs, arts and crafts
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Ushanka
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Tableware
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Clothing
Afghanka Budenovka Cherkeska French Gymnastyorka Kokoshnik Kosovorotka Kaftan Lapti Orenburg shawl Papakha Peaked cap Podvorotnichok Sailor cap Sarafan Spetsodezhda Telnyashka Ushanka Valenki
Musical
instruments
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Toys
Bird of Happiness Cheburashka Filimonovo toy Dymkovo toys Kargopol toys Matryoshka doll Petrushka
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Izba Fabergé egg Shashka Tula pryanik
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Russia Subdivisions of Russia
Federal subjects
Republics
Adygea Altai Bashkortostan Buryatia Chechnya Chuvashia Crimea1 Dagestan Ingushetia Kabardino-Balkaria Kalmykia Karachay-Cherkessia Karelia Khakassia Komi Mari El Mordovia North Ossetia-Alania Sakha Tatarstan Tuva Udmurtia
Krais
Altai Kamchatka Khabarovsk Krasnodar Krasnoyarsk Perm Primorsky Stavropol Zabaykalsky
Oblasts
Amur Arkhangelsk Astrakhan Belgorod Bryansk Chelyabinsk Irkutsk Ivanovo Kaliningrad Kaluga Kemerovo Kirov Kostroma Kurgan Kursk Leningrad Lipetsk Magadan Moscow Murmansk Nizhny Novgorod Novgorod Novosibirsk Omsk Orenburg Oryol Penza Pskov Rostov Ryazan Sakhalin Samara Saratov Smolensk Sverdlovsk Tambov Tomsk Tula Tver Tyumen Ulyanovsk Vladimir Volgograd Vologda Voronezh Yaroslavl
Federal cities
Moscow St. Petersburg Sevastopol1
Autonomous oblast
Jewish
Autonomous okrugs
Chukotka Khanty-Mansi2 Nenets3 Yamalo-Nenets2
1Claimed by Ukraine and considered by most of the international community to be part of Ukraine 2Administratively subordinated to Tyumen Oblast 3Administratively subordinated to Arkhangelsk Oblast
Internal additional non-constitutional divisions by different institutions
Economic regions (by Ministry of Economic Development) Military districts (by Ministry of Defence) Federal districts (by President) Judicial districts (by law "On arbitration courts")
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World Heritage Sites in Russia by federal district
Kizhi Pogost
Palace Square, Saint Petersburg
Moscow Kremlin
Central
Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye Moscow Kremlin and Red Square Novodevichy Convent Trinity Sergius Lavra White Monuments of Vladimir and Suzdal Historic Centre of Yaroslavl
Klyuchevskaya Sopka Volcano
Lake Baikal
Katun River in Altai Mountains
Southern
Western Caucasus
Northwestern
Curonian Spit1 Ferapontov Monastery Kizhi Pogost Virgin Komi Forests Historic Monuments of Novgorod and Surroundings Historic Centre of Saint Petersburg and Surroundings Solovetsky Islands Struve Geodetic Arc2
Far Eastern
Lena Pillars Volcanoes of Kamchatka Central Sikhote-Alin Wrangel Island
Siberian
Golden Mountains of Altai Lake Baikal Landscapes of Dauria3 Putorana Plateau Uvs Nuur Basin3
Volga
Assumption Cathedral of Sviyazhsk Bolghar Kazan Kremlin
North Caucasian
Citadel, Ancient City and Fortress Buildings of Derbent
1 Shared with Lithuania 2 Shared with nine other countries 3 Shared with Mongolia
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People from Russia
Political and religious leaders
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1. A special administrative region of China, participates as "Hong Kong, China"; 2. Officially the Republic of China, participates as "Chinese Taipei"
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Gold: founding member. Blue: Later (current) full members.
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Former members
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1 Provisionally referred to by the Council of Europe as "the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia"; see Macedonia naming dispute.
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ASEAN CIS Turkmenistan
See also
Eurasian Land Bridge Three Evils Working languages Chinese Russian
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People
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Members
Afghanistan Albania Algeria Angola Antigua and Barbuda Argentina Armenia Australia Bahrain Bangladesh Barbados Belize Benin Bolivia Botswana Brazil Brunei Burkina Faso Burma Burundi Cambodia Cameroon Canada Cape Verde Central African Republic Chad Chile China Colombia Democratic Republic of the Congo Republic of the Congo Costa Rica Côte d'Ivoire Cuba Djibouti Dominica Dominican Republic Ecuador Egypt El Salvador Fiji Gabon The Gambia Georgia Ghana Grenada Guatemala Guinea Guinea-Bissau Guyana Haiti Honduras Hong Kong1 Iceland India Indonesia Israel Jamaica Japan Jordan Kazakhstan Kenya South Korea Kuwait Kyrgyzstan Laos Lesotho Liberia Liechtenstein Macau1 Macedonia Madagascar Malawi Malaysia Maldives Mali Mauritania Mauritius Mexico Moldova Mongolia Montenegro Morocco Mozambique Namibia Nepal New Zealand Nicaragua Niger Nigeria Norway Oman Pakistan Panama Papua New Guinea Paraguay Peru Philippines Qatar Russia Rwanda St. Kitts and Nevis St. Lucia St. Vincent and the Grenadines Samoa Saudi Arabia Senegal Seychelles Sierra Leone Singapore Solomon Islands South Africa Sri Lanka Suriname Swaziland Switzerland Tajikistan Taiwan2 Tanzania Thailand Togo Tonga Trinidad and Tobago Tunisia Turkey Uganda Ukraine United Arab Emirates United States Uruguay Venezuela Vietnam Yemen Zambia Zimbabwe
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Special administrative regions of the People's Republic of China, participates as "Hong Kong, China" and "Macao China". Officially the Republic of China, participates as "Separate Customs Territory of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen and Matsu", and "Chinese Taipei" in short.
he Soviet Union (Russian: Сове́тский Сою́з, tr. Sovétsky Soyúz, IPA: [sɐˈvʲɛt͡skʲɪj sɐˈjus] (About this sound listen)), officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (Russian: Сою́з Сове́тских Социалисти́ческих Респу́блик, tr. Soyúz Sovétskikh Sotsialistícheskikh Respúblik, IPA: [sɐˈjus sɐˈvʲɛtskʲɪx sətsɨəlʲɪsˈtʲitɕɪskʲɪx rʲɪˈspublʲɪk] (About this sound listen)), abbreviated as the USSR (Russian: СССР, tr. SSSR), was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. Nominally a union of multiple national Soviet republics,[a] its government and economy were highly centralized. The country was a one-party state, governed by the Communist Party with Moscow as its capital in its largest republic, the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic. Other major urban centres were Leningrad, Kiev, Minsk, Tashkent and Novosibirsk. The Soviet Union was one of the five recognized nuclear weapons states and possessed the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction.[7] It was a founding permanent member of the United Nations Security Council, as well as a member of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) and the leading member of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA) and the Warsaw Pact.
The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917, when the Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, overthrew the Russian Provisional Government which had replaced Tsar Nicholas II during World War I. In 1922, after a civil war, the Soviet Union was formed with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian and Byelorussian republics. Following Lenin's death in 1924 and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Under Stalin's leadership, the Soviet Union transitioned from a market economy into a centrally planned economy which led to a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization. As industrial production skyrocketed, the Soviet Union achieved full employment, implemented a universal healthcare system, sharply reduced illiteracy, and provided guarantees of paid vacations, rest homes, and recreational clubs. This period of industrialization was a time of enormous improvements in the standard of living for millions of people in the country, starkly contrasting with the situations of other countries during the Great Depression, but was also a time characterized by major institutional shortcomings and failures. In the 1930s, with the rise of fascism in Europe, the Communist Party pursued aggressive campaigns to suppress potential counter-revolution, fermenting political paranoia which culminated in the Great Purge in which extrajudicial arrests and executions of suspected counter-revolutionaries led to an estimated 600,000 deaths. As a result of these mass arrests, penal labor through the Gulag system was used to construct infrastructure projects, though this consistently proved to be an inefficient system throughout its existence.[8] Increased demand for agricultural products to pay for industrialization combined with a relatively low harvest yield led to the famine of 1932–33 in which an estimated 2.4 to 4 million people died in the country's agricultural centers of Ukraine, southern Russia, and Kazakhstan.[9][10]
After the rise of Adolf Hitler in Germany, Stalin tried repeatedly to form an anti-fascist alliance with other European countries. However, finding no support, shortly before World War II, the Soviet Union became the last major country to sign a treaty with Germany with the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, after which the two countries invaded Poland in September 1939. In June 1941, the pact collapsed as Germany invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theatre of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at intense battles such as Stalingrad and Kursk. The territories overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Soviet Union; the postwar division of Europe into capitalist and communist halves would lead to increased tensions with the West, led by the United States.
The Cold War emerged by 1947, as the Eastern Bloc, united under the Warsaw Pact in 1955, confronted the Western Bloc, united under NATO in 1949. On 5 March 1953, Stalin died and was quickly succeeded by Nikita Khrushchev, who in 1956 denounced Stalin and began the De-Stalinization of Soviet society through the Khrushchev Thaw. The Soviet Union took an early lead in the Space Race, with the first artificial satellite and the first human spaceflight. Khrushchev was removed from power by his colleagues in 1964 and was succeeded as head of state by Leonid Brezhnev. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, but tensions resumed with the Soviet–Afghan War in 1979. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost (government transparency) and perestroika (openness, restructuring). Under Gorbachev, the role of the Communist Party in governing the state was removed from the constitution, causing a surge of severe political instability to set in. The Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989, Soviet satellite states in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist governments.
With the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the union republics, Gorbachev tried to avert a dissolution of the Soviet Union in the post-Cold War era. A March 1991 referendum, boycotted by some republics, resulted in a majority of participating citizens voting in favor of preserving the union as a renewed federation. Gorbachev's power was greatly diminished after Russian President Boris Yeltsin played a high-profile role in facing down an abortive August 1991 coup d'état attempted by Communist Party hardliners. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the remaining twelve constituent republics emerged as independent post-Soviet states. The Russian Federation—formerly the Russian SFSR—assumed the Soviet Union's rights and obligations and is recognized as the successor state of the Soviet Union.[11][12][13] In summing up the international ramifications of these events, Vladislav Zubok stated: "The collapse of the Soviet empire was an event of epochal geopolitical, military, ideological and economic significance.
Soviet Union topics
History
Index of Soviet Union-related articles Russian Revolution February October Russian Civil War Russian SFSR USSR creation treaty New Economic Policy Stalinism Great Purge Great Patriotic War (World War II) Cold War Khrushchev Thaw 1965 reform Stagnation Perestroika Glasnost Revolutions of 1989 Dissolution Nostalgia Post-Soviet states
State Emblem of the Soviet Union.svg
Geography
Subdivisions
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Regions
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Politics
General
Constitution Elections Foreign relations Brezhnev Doctrine Government list Human rights LGBT Law Leaders Collective leadership Passport system State ideology Marxism–Leninism Leninism Stalinism
Bodies
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Offices
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Security services
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Political repression
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Economy
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Science
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Society
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Culture
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Opposition
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Template Templates
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Administrative division of the Soviet Union
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Republics of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (1922–1991)
Principal
Armenia Azerbaijan Byelorussia Estonia1 Georgia Kazakhstan Kirghizia Latvia1 Lithuania1 Moldavia Russian SFSR Tajikistan Turkmenia Ukraine Uzbekistan
State Emblem of the Soviet Union
Short-lived
Karelo-Finnish SSR (1940–1956) Transcaucasian SFSR (1922–1936)
Non-union republics
SSR Abkhazia (1921–1931) Bukharan SSR (1920–1925) Khorezm SSR (1920–1925) Nakhichevan ASSR (1920–1923) Pridnestrovian Moldavian SSR (1990–1991) South Ossetian SR (1990–1991)
1The annexation of the Baltic republics in 1940 was considered as an illegal occupation and was not recognized by the majority of the international community such as the United States, United Kingdom and the European Community. The Soviet Union officially recognized their independence on September 6, 1991, prior to its final dissolution three months later.
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Flag of the Soviet Union.svg Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republics of the Soviet Union
Soviet Union
By name
Abkhaz Adjar Bashkir Buryat1 Chechen-Ingush Chuvash Crimean Dagestan Gorno-Altai Kabardin Kabardino-Balkar Kalmyk Karakalpak Karelian Kazak2 Kirghiz2 Kirghiz Komi Mari Moldavian Mordovian Mountain Nakhchivan North Ossetian Tajik Tatar Turkestan Tuva Udmurt Volga German Yakut
Coat of arms of the Soviet Union
By year
established
1918–1924 Turkestan
1918–1941 Volga German
1919–1990 Bashkir
1920–1925 Kirghiz2
1920–1990 Tatar
1921–1990 Adjar
1921–1945 Crimean
1921–1991 Dagestan
1921–1924 Mountain
1921–1990 Nakhchivan
1922–1991 Yakut
1923–1990 Buryat1
1923–1940 Karelian
1924–1940 Moldavian
1924–1929 Tajik
1925–1992 Chuvash
1925–1936 Kazak2
1926–1936 Kirghiz
1931–1991 Abkhaz
1932–1992 Karakalpak
1934–1990 Mordovian
1934–1990 Udmurt
1935–1943 Kalmyk
1936–1944 Chechen-Ingush
1936–1944 Kabardino-Balkar
1936–1990 Komi
1936–1990 Mari
1936–1990 North Ossetian
1944–1957 Kabardin
1956–1991 Karelian
1957–1990 Chechen-Ingush
1957–1991 Kabardino-Balkar
1958–1990 Kalmyk
1961–1992 Tuva
1990–1991 Gorno-Altai
1991–1992 Crimean
1 Buryat–Mongol until 1958.
2 Kazak ASSR was called Kirghiz ASSR until 1925.
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Flag of the Soviet Union.svg Autonomous oblasts of the Soviet Union
Soviet Union
Adyghe Chechen–Ingush Chechen Ingush Chuvash Gorno-Altai Gorno-Badakhshan Jewish Kabardino-Balkar Kalmyk Kara-Kirghiz Karachay-Cherkess Cherkess Karachay Kara-Kalpak Komi-Zyryan Khakas Mari Moldavian Nagorno-Karabakh North Ossetian South Ossetian Tuvan Udmurt
Coat of arms of the Soviet Union
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By country
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History
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Regional variants
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Communist
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Africa
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Americas
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Asia
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Short-lived
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Europe
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Short-lived
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History of socialism
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Formation
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Annexed as, or
into, SSRs
Eastern Finland Estonia Latvia Lithuania Memel East Prussia West Belarus Western Ukraine Moldavia
Satellite states
Hungarian People's Republic Polish People's Republic Czechoslovak Socialist Republic Socialist Republic of Romania German Democratic Republic People's Republic of Albania (to 1961) People's Republic of Bulgaria Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia (to 1948)
Annexing SSRs
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Organizations
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Revolts and
opposition
Welles Declaration Goryani Movement Forest Brothers Ukrainian Insurgent Army Operation Jungle Baltic state continuity Baltic Legations (1940–1991) Cursed soldiers Rebellion of Cazin 1950 1953 uprising in Plzeň 1953 East German uprising 1956 Georgian demonstrations 1956 Poznań protests 1956 Hungarian Revolution Novocherkassk massacre 1965 Yerevan demonstrations Prague Spring / Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia Brezhnev Doctrine 1968 Red Square demonstration 1968 student demonstrations in Belgrade 1968 protests in Kosovo 1970 Polish protests Croatian Spring 1972 unrest in Lithuania SSR June 1976 protests Solidarity / Soviet reaction / Martial law 1981 protests in Kosovo Reagan Doctrine Jeltoqsan Karabakh movement April 9 tragedy Romanian Revolution Black January
Cold War events
Marshall Plan Berlin Blockade Tito–Stalin split 1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état 1961 Berlin Wall crisis
Conditions
Emigration and defection (list of defectors) Sovietization of the Baltic states Information dissemination Politics Economies Telephone tapping
Decline
Revolutions of 1989 Fall of the Berlin Wall Romanian Revolution Fall of communism in Albania Singing Revolution Collapse of the Soviet Union Dissolution of Czechoslovakia January 1991 events in Lithuania January 1991 events in Latvia
Post-Cold War topics
Baltic Assembly Collective Security Treaty Organization Commonwealth of Independent States Craiova Group European Union European migrant crisis Eurasian Economic Union NATO Post-Soviet states Shanghai Cooperation Organisation Visegrad Group
[hide] v t e
Disinformation
Types
Alternative facts Big lie Bullshit Cherry picking Circular reporting Deception Doublespeak Echo chamber Euphemistic misspeaking Euromyth Factoid Fake news by country online Fallacy False accusation False flag Filter bubble Gaslighting Half-truth Hoax Ideological framing Internet manipulation Media manipulation Potemkin village Post-truth Propaganda Quote mining Scientific fabrication Smearing Social bot Spin View from nowhere Yellow journalism
Books
Disinformation by Ion Mihai Pacepa Dezinformatsia: Active Measures in Soviet Strategy The KGB and Soviet Disinformation The Case for Latvia Who's Who in the CIA
Disinformation
operations
1995 CIA disinformation controversy CIA Kennedy assassination conspiracy theory Funkspiel Habbush letter Information Operations Roadmap Jihadunspun.com Jonestown conspiracy theories K-1000 battleship Mafkarat al Islam Media censorship and disinformation during the Gezi Park protests Mohamed Atta's alleged Prague connection Niger uranium forgeries Operation INFEKTION Operation Neptune Operation Shocker Operation Toucan Pope Pius XII and Russia Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections Seat 12 Strategy of tension Trolls from Olgino U.S. Army Field Manual 30-31B Web brigades Yellow rain
Countering
disinformation
Active Measures Working Group Counter Misinformation Team Countering Foreign Propaganda and Disinformation Act East StratCom Team FactCheck.org PolitiFact Snopes.com United States Information Agency
Related series: Fraud • Media manipulation • Propaganda.
STAMPLAKE.COM
PROFESSIONAL SELLER
Type of capital investments, as investments in antiques is growing in popularity more and more each day. It's quite a profitable and safe investment, as prices for antiques are steadily growing (on average 20% per year), which often exceeds the growth of stocks in the stock market. In addition, investment in antiques enriches not only materially bringing income but also spiritually, bringing esthetic pleasure.
However, investing money in antiques is a complex activity. In order to make substantial amount of money, You need to acquire special knowledge and build relationships in the appropriate community. It is necessary to understand what things really have the potential to increase in value and which, on the contrary, are hopeless. The word "antique" has Latin roots and means "old". The core value of antiques is in the fact that they are old. Age objects which are considered as antique, can start from 10-15 years, depending on the historical, physical and chemical characteristics of the object. Often, investment in antiques and collecting go hand in hand. That's why making money on old things is going better at those who are careful to things and who are orientating in the history very well. Fortunately for new investors, in the environment of antiques consultants are available whose main task is to help the investor to separate the "wheat from the chaff" and to make competent investment. It should be noted that to start investing in antiques it's not necessary to have a large amount of money.
A lot of people begin with inexpensive paintings of young artists and a variety of interesting subjects. As a rule, in the beginning investor collects works of art in the style that appeales to him, purely for pleasure, and much later investor begins to think about making money.
You can buy antiques literally everywhere, even at the grandmother, neighbor. However, if you are not familiar with antiques, it is wiser to trust the various antique shops, exhibition and museum authority. Such authority have expertise in selling things and do not allow to enter counterfeits into the market.
If you want to do engage in such a profitable and exciting business, as investing in antiques, we will be happy to offer You assistance which will be provided by our experienced consultants who can help You see all the "pitfalls", to make the right choices and get real pleasure from the trip to the mysterious and magical world of collection.
Dear collectors!
StampLake.com are working for you and it's very important for us, that you can always find and buy in our store exactly what you are looking for and dreaming about. Therefore, if you do not succeed in finding the item, let us know and we will find and order the product you are interested in.
Features and further details
Dear collectors! StampLake.com are working for you and it's very important for us, that you can always find and buy in our store exactly what you are looking for and dreaming about. Therefore, if you do not succeed in finding the item, let us know and we will find and order the product you are interested in.
Our company is made by collectors for collectors. We are selling various items which are related to the collection (coins, banknotes, faleras, antiques, various accessories, specialized literature and much else). Definitely here you will find a lot of necessary and useful items which you are interested in. We are always glad to meet you personally and definitely you will find the item you are interested in.
Contact us
We can be contacted at any time through eBay messages if you have any questions, comments or product requests. We will respond to you within 24-48 hours and do our best to help you out! We encourage our customers to contact us with any questions or concerns! We'd like to be sure you are completely satisfied with your purchase.
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