| FRANCE - GERMANY 1900'S RARE POSTAL CARD 100% Original Germany 1900's - Rare Postal Card - Nice LOT for collection WORLDWIDE SHIPPING COMBINED SHIPPING RATES - MULTIPLE ITEMS IN 1 PACKAGE Fast delivery with tracking number for only $7.95* *($10.95 if more than 0.1 kg incl. pack) Save money on postage - add more than 1 products to cart and request total from the shopping card page. We will send you invoice with combined shipping price for all of your lots. Please note that we ship your order in 1-2 bussines days. Any further delays in shipment are likely the result of the delivery provider. International Shipments may take up to 3 weeks to arrive to their destination. We appreciate your patience and realistic shipping expectations for those Orders.
All items are absolutely guaranteed to be genuine and as described. Buy with confidence-we are professional, full-time dealers in business for many years online on StampLake.com website. We pack and ship your purchases with care and consideration in a timely manner. With us, you can expect First-Class service and helpful consultation at no extra charge. PRODUCT INFORMATION COLLECTING 1900'S POST CARDS OF FRANCE & GERMANY OVER THE YEARS IS NOT ONLY AN ACQUAINTANCE WITH HISTORY, BUT ALSO A PROFITABLE INVESTMENT The history of the postal and postage stamps of Germany covers the stages corresponding to the postal systems in the territory of modern Germany: before and after the first join, during the existence of two German states (FRG and GDR until 1990) and after the second merger. The main postal operators in the entire German postal history were: Imperial Post (1871-1945), Deutsche Post (German Post, under the control of the Allied Powers: 1945-1949), German post of the GDR (1949-1990), Deutsche Bundespost (German federal post; 1949-1995), along with Deutsche Bundespost Berlin[en] (German federal post office in Berlin; 1949-1990), Deutsche Post AG (since 1995). Postage stamps have been issued in Germany since 1849. Content 1 Early history 1.1 Butchers Post 1.2 Church and city messengers 1.3 Turn-and-Taxis 1.4 German principalities 2 Further postal development and stamp issues 2.1 German Empire 2.1.1 Imperial mail 2.1.2 German colonies 2.1.3 German post abroad 2.1.4 Occupation of territories in World War I 2.2 Weimar Republic 2.2.1 Reichspost 2.2.2 Plebiscite territories 2.2.3 Danzig 2.2.4 Memel 2.2.5 Saarland 2.3 Nazi Germany 2.3.1 Post of the Third Reich 2.3.2 Sudetenland/Bohemia and Moravia 2.3.3 Occupation of territories in World War II 2.4 Partitioned Germany 2.4.1 Local releases 2.4.2 Allied occupation 2.4.3 German Federal Post Office West Berlin 2.4.4 German Post Office of the GDR 2.4.5 Deutsche Bundespost 2.5 United Germany 3 Summary 4 Propaganda and fantasy editions 5 Development of philately 6 See also 7 Notes 8 Literature 9 Links Early history Butchers Post The butchers' mail[de] is considered the first international post of the Middle Ages[1]. So, in some cities of southern Germany, the butcher's guild (German: Metzger) was charged with the transportation of letters and parcels, in return for which he was exempted from communal duties. The so-called "butcher's post" thus formed in some places acquired the significance of a state institution (in Württemberg) [2]. The butchers' guild organized the courier delivery of correspondence on horseback: upon the arrival of the mail, the sound of a horn was heard, announcing this, thanks to which the generally accepted postal emblem arose. The butcher's post arose in the 12th century and operated until 1637[3], when the Thurn y Taxis family became the monopoly of mail delivery[1]. Church and city messengers In the Middle Ages, the Church most of all needed the exchange of information, both because its structure rested on the beginning of centralization, and because for a long time it was the only bearer of the mental life of peoples. The archives of church institutions and the regests of the Roman curia testify that even at the very beginning of the Middle Ages there was a lively exchange of messages between the head of the Catholic hierarchy and its members. In the lands of the German spiritual order, a special administration of messengers or couriers arose for this purpose, and stations were established for changing horses[2]. With the development of city liberties, one of the most important means of communication in the Middle Ages was the institution of city messengers, which existed almost everywhere since the 14th century, but was especially developed in large shopping centers in Germany. From the numerous regulations that have come down to us for city messengers (in Cologne, Mainz, Nordhausen - in the 14th century, in Strasbourg - in 1443, in Augsburg - in 1552, in Breslau - in 1573, etc.) it is clear that they were under the jurisdiction of the city council, to which under oath they were obliged to obey. They did not receive a salary either from the community, or from individual corporations or merchant guilds. Coming out of the city on certain days, they delivered on horseback or on foot at the appointed time the correspondence of the city government, as well as letters and parcels from the townspeople, from whom they charged a fee. The institute of urban messengers received a strong and widespread development thanks to the unions of cities on the Rhine and in Lower Germany. The messengers of the Rhenish city union maintained correct messages from Cologne and Mainz via Frankfurt to Nuremberg. The messengers of the Hanseatic cities were famous for their accuracy in meeting deadlines, maintaining communications between Hamburg, Bremen, Amsterdam and Antwerp, as well as eastward through Stettin, Danzig and Königsberg all the way to Riga. In southern Germany, the first place was occupied by the messengers of Augsburg; in addition to lines to Nuremberg (thrice a week), Lindau and Regensburg, they maintained communications with Italy; they arrived in Venice via the Brenner in eight days[2]. Thurn and Taxis Franz von Taxis on a FRG stamp, 1967 (Sc #971) Main article: Thurn y Taxis Post By the end of the 15th century, the name of the post office in Germany began to mean suna set of institutions established by the State or under the control of the State for the transmission of both government and private correspondence and for the transport of passengers. The first experience of organizing mail in this sense of the word on a broad international basis was made by members of the Taxis family from Bergamo, who took upon themselves the support of communications between the Habsburg possessions [2]. In 1497, on behalf of the Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I, Franz von Taxis established a post office that replaced the messengers who carried state correspondence[4]. The branches of this mail organized in Germany and other European countries rendered great services in the development of postal messages [2]: within its framework, a horse relay system was created, which reduced the time for transporting mail and made the time of its delivery predictable. Thereafter, the house of Thurn y Taxis, which used your imperial colors of yellow and black, retained the postal privilege for many centuries. In 1650, the Thurn y Taxis post office used the first horse-drawn carriages in Europe since ancient Rome. Thurn und Taxis stamp for the North German states (1865) Thurn und Taxis stamp for the North German states (1865) Thurn-and-Taxis stamp for the South German states (1859) Thurn-and-Taxis stamp for the South German states (1859) The Thurn-et-Taxis family lost its monopoly when Napoleon granted the Confederation of the Rhine the right to carry out postal communications. The Thurn und Taxis postal service continued to operate and even issued its own postage stamps, but after the creation of the North German Confederation by Prussia, the owners of the Thurn und Taxis post office had to sell their postal privilege in 1867[6]. German principalities Main articles: Postal history and postage stamps of Bavaria, Postal history and postage stamps of Baden, Postal history and postage stamps of Bergedorf, Postal history and postage stamps of Brunswick, and Postal history and postage stamps of Hamburg Main articles: Postal history and postage stamps of Hanover, Postal history and postage stamps of Helgoland, Postal history and postage stamps of Lübeck, Postal history and postage stamps of Mecklenburg, and Postal history and postage stamps of Oldenburg Main articles: Postal history and postage stamps of Prussia, Postal history and postage stamps of Saxony, and Postal history and postage stamps of the North German Confederation The idea of a postal regalia, that is, the exclusive right of the government to maintain postal institutions within the state territory, was first put forward at the end of the 16th century, and in the 17th century it began to be put into practice. The first of the German sovereigns to establish a government post office and recognize the nature of a monopoly behind it was the great Elector Friedrich Wilhelm (1646). His example was followed by other significant imperial ranks. At the same time, the content of the mail began to be seen not only as a right, but also as an obligation of governments. Already at the beginning of the 18th century, some statesmen (for example, Friedrich Wilhelm I in Prussia) abandoned their fiscal views on the post office and saw its task in reducing the cost of postal rates and making postal messages as accessible to the population as possible. In contrast to France, where the forwarding of letters (French poste aux lettres) was declared a state monopoly, but along with government mail there were private enterprises for the transport of passengers (messageries), in the larger German states, the activities of government mail covered both the forwarding of letters and goods, as well as the transport of passengers. The government post office of Saxony, Braununschweig-Hanover, Hesse, and especially Brandenburg-Prussia was famous for its expedient organization. From 1655 on the main Prussian line Kleve-Memel, mail departed twice a week; from Königsberg to Berlin, she arrived within four days, from Königsberg to Kleve - in 10 days. It was unusual speed for that time. In addition to branches to Hamburg, Stettin, Leipzig and Breslau, postal communications were maintained in the west with Holland, in the east with Warsaw and the Swedish post in Riga. In the matter of transporting passengers, Prussia, however, was already surpassed by countries with more comfortable roads at the end of the 18th century. All the more struck contemporaries the success achieved by Prussia in 1821, when the so-called him were established. Nagler'sche Schuellposten, with traveling carriages[2]. A big step forward in the organization of mail was the Austro-German Postal Union [en], concluded in 1850 between Prussia, Austria, other German states and the Taxis postal administration on the basis of a uniform and uniform collection of postage. This union ceased to exist after the war of 1866, but during the years 1867-1873, first the North German Confederation, and then the German Empire, concluded a series of postal conventions imbued with the same spirit [2]. Prior to German unification in 1871, individual German principalities and cities began to issue their own postage stamps. The first was Bavaria, which issued the "Black Unity" on November 1, 1849. After this marki released: Baden (1851), Bergedorf (1861), Braunschweig (1852), Bremen (1855), Hamburg (1859), Hanover (1850), Helgoland (1867), Lübeck (1859), Mecklenburg-Schwerin (1856), Mecklenburg-Strelitz (1864), Oldenburg (1852), Prussia (1850), Saxony (1850), Schleswig-Holstein (1850) and Württemberg (1851). Also, not being a state entity, the Thurn and Taxis post had the right to issue postage stamps and transport mail and issued their own stamps (1852). In 1868, the northern German principalities merged into the North German Confederation and merged their postal services into the North German Postal District[de]. After the unification, Bavaria and Württemberg retained the postal right to continue issuing postage stamps until March 31, 1920[7]. Further postal development and stamp issues German Empire This period in German postal history corresponds to the united Kaiser state that existed from 1871 to 1918 and issued its own postage stamps. Imperial Post Main article: Imperial mail The unification of mail in the territory of the North German Union was carried out from 1868. When the German Empire was founded, the latter took over the postal business in all the states that were part of the empire, with the exception of Bavaria and Württemberg, which retained independent postal administrations. The postal business was left to imperial legislation, which also applied to Bavaria and Württemberg. The domestic legislation of the latter regulated only the rates for postal items that did not go beyond their territory[2]. The Deutsche Reichspost ("German Imperial Post") was officially established on May 4, 1871. The central office of the imperial-German post was the Imperial Post Office (Reichspostamt), subordinate to the imperial chancellor and run by the Secretary of State for Postal Affairs [2]. At first, the postage stamps of the North German Confederation continued to be used in post offices, until the first stamps of the imperial post appeared in circulation on January 1, 1872[8]. Heinrich von Stefan, a well-known postal expert[2], the inventor of the postcard and the founder of the General Postal Union, was appointed the first postmaster general of the imperial post[9]. According to G. von Stefan, out of 600 million letters sent in 1873 by German mail, 15% were correspondence from government agencies, 5% - from science and art, 45% - from family and private contacts, and only 35 % - to the share of trade and industry. In addition, in the same year, 230 ml. copies of periodicals. In 1873, Germany took the initiative to establish a uniform, regardless of the distance and the actual weight of the parcel, a cheap tariff in relation to light parcels that did not exceed 5 kg [2]. The history of the Universal Postal Union began in 1874, when the first Universal Postal Congress[de] took place in Bern, which was attended by representatives of 22 states, including Germany. The basic principles proposed by Germany - the unity of the postal territory, complete freedom and possible gratuitous transit, the unity of the postage and the principle of balancing, and not the distribution of postage - were partly accepted entirely, partly served as the subject of various kinds of compromises. On October 9, 1874, the Universal Postal Convention was signed, which applied to Germany and other countries that acceded to this agreement[2]. In the same year, the operation of postal orders [de] (German: Postauftrag) was introduced in Germany for the first time, which consisted in the fact that the post office took upon itself the collection of payment from the debtor on bills, invoices, invoices and similar documents and forwarding them to the creditor by ownership . At the same time, the post office, at the request of the creditor-sender, not only presented bills of exchange to receive payment to the debtor-addressee, but, if necessary, subjected them to a protest in the generally established manner. The post office also took on another type of assignment: it presented bills to the drawee for acceptance and, in the absence of acceptance, was obliged to make a protest. Later, at the Lisbon III Congress of the UPU in 1885, Germany and the states in which the operation of postal orders is carried out concluded an agreement among themselves on the extension of this operation to their mutual relations. With the advent of the telegraph and its recognition as an indispensable means of communication, in Germany the postal business was combined with the telegraph business, to the great benefit of both departments, which was followed by almost all other states. This happened in 1875, when the management of telegraphs began to be concentrated in the Imperial Post Office [2]. In subsequent years, the entire territory of the German Imperial Post was divided into 40 postal and telegraph districts, which were under the jurisdiction of chief post directors. They included advisers for the execution of orders, architects (Postbauräte) for the construction of post and telegraph buildings, and postal inspectors forrevision production. Wherever only the vastness of communications did not require special telegraph and telephone institutions, the latter were connected with post offices (Postämter), which, according to the significance of the locality, were divided into three categories. The fourth category of postal institutions were postal agencies (Postagenturen), which were entrusted not to a special official, but to one of the local inhabitants (postal agent), who did not even leave his private occupations. The transportation of mail by rail was managed by 33 traveling post offices (Bahnpostämter). In significant villages where there were no post offices, auxiliary post offices (German: Posthilfsstelle) were set up, which sold postage stamps, received and issued simple correspondence, and in some places received internal telegrams [2]. At the 4th UPU Congress in Vienna in 1891[de], Germany joined, among other countries, an agreement whereby governments mutually undertook to deliver periodicals published within their territories at the same prices as to domestic subscribers, with a surcharge only possible transit costs. In addition, Germany had concluded separate agreements with France, England and the United States on the observance in mutual relations of the same regulations in relation to the periodicals of such countries that had not yet acceded to the international convention on the newspaper operation[2]. In 1893, the total number of mailboxes in Germany reached 95,149 units, against 24,703 in 1871[2]. According to information about the number and activities of postal institutions in 1894, in Germany there were[2]: 30,346 post offices, or one post office per 17.8 km² and per 1,629 inhabitants; 3,656,920,000 shipments, including: 1 312 154 thousand letters, 448,124 thousand open letters, 1,640,486 thousand printed works, 99,695 thousand postal orders and 139,932 thousand parcels. There were an average of 68.8 postal items per inhabitant. The excess of the income of the postal department over expenses, in terms of the rubles of the Russian Empire of that time, amounted to 11,029,605 rubles [2]. The exemplary organization of the German post office owed a lot to G. von Stefan, during whose administration the number of post offices increased from 4,520 in 1870 to 31,786 in 1895 (with Bavaria and Württemberg), the number of letters sent - from 857 million (including open 7 million letters) to 2360 million (including 443 million open letters), the number of forwarded newspapers - from 191 million to 890 million, the number of forwarded parcels - from 7 million to 443 million, the number of international shipments - from 68 million to 132 million[ 2]. By the end of the 19th century, Germany remained one of the few countries where the post office also took over the transportation of passengers in areas where there were no railways. In addition to their direct purpose, the German postal institutions also served as bodies of state insurance for workers, performing in this role a lot of work on receiving and making payments; they also sold stamps and bills of exchange. To carry out its extensive functions, the German Imperial Post had a staff of 148,961 in 1895. Postal agents by the end of January 1898 consisted of 8335 people, including 1449 innkeepers, 1375 artisans, 1298 farmers, 1174 merchants and 1084 teachers. Poste restante mail was kept at German post offices for one month, and valuable packages abroad for two months, after which it was dealt with as unreleased mail. Measures were also taken to combat the inaccuracy of senders who deliver correspondence with illegible addresses, for which the pupils of German public schools practiced the correct inscription of addresses[2]. In Germany, a system of postal orders was introduced, in which the transfer was sent by official order directly from the postal place of departure to the postal destination, which paid the money to the addressee at home or called him to receive the money by summons. The maximum amount for which postal orders were allowed was not very large and did not exceed 400 German marks. Recipients who received many transfers and had a checking account with the Reichsbank could have the corresponding amounts transferred to their account instead of being paid out in cash. In 1905, Germany entered into an agreement on the mutual exchange of postal money orders with Russia[2]. According to the International Bureau of the UPU for 1903[10], Germany ranked third in the world in terms of the density of the postal network, with one post office per 14 square meters. km. The imperial post was second only to the United States in terms of the size of its staff (231 thousand postal workers), in the number of kilometers traveled by mail per year (346 million) and in the number of written items of internal correspondence (4 billion, or 5.5 billion, if we include here those delivered by mail newspapers). With regard to the frequency of postal communication, Germany is far ahead of other countries: for every kilometerrailway mail route here accounted for the annual work of 4600 km. In Germany, there were the largest number of foreign letters in the world: from there in 1903 266 million written items were sent to other countries, and 242 million lengths of postal routes were received. Germany also significantly outperformed other countries in domestic (210 million items) and international (11.8 million items sent and 7.2 million received) exchange of parcels, the value of mailed letters and parcels with a declared value (24 billion francs) and the volume postal orders (13 billion francs). In Germany, postal orders worth 900 million francs were completed, that is, more than all other states (except Belgium) in which this kind of service was installed[2]. The basic rate for forwarding simple closed letters in Germany at that time was 10 pfennigs. At the same time, 15 g was accepted as a weight unit, and letters that had a greater weight, up to the maximum weight (250 g), were paid only at a double rate. Unpaid or not fully paid letters, although they were forwarded, a uniform surcharge of 10 pfennigs was made for the forwarding of an unfranked letter; the share of such letters was 2.7% of the total number of letters. For open letters, there was a reduced fee of 5 pfennigs. For parcels, a higher weight limit was established, which for printed works reached 1 kg, and for factory samples - up to 250 g. regardless of weight, 10 pfennigs. Special increased rates could be levied on written correspondence, for example, for letters that, on the basis of a preliminary agreement, were issued to addressees at the station immediately upon the arrival of the train (Bahnhofsbriefe). The basic rate for closed international letters, although twice the basic rate established for internal correspondence, still did not reach the maximum normal rate, amounting to only 20 pfennigs for every 15 g [2]. The most common stamps of the Reichspost were stamps with an allegorical design "Germany". These stamps were issued from 1900 to 1922, making them the longest-serving series in German philately, with the most significant design change[en] during this time being the change of the inscription "Reichspost" ("Imperial Post ”) to the “Deutsche Post” (“German Post”). Colonies of Germany Stamp of the Caroline Islands from the series "Yacht Hohenzollern" (Mi #19) Main article: Postal history and postage stamps of the German colonies At an early stage (circa 1887 or 1888), the postage was paid by ordinary German postage stamps of that period, so stamps that passed the post in the German colonies can only be identified by the impression of the postmark of the corresponding post office. Such brands are known as "Vorläufer" ("predecessors")[11]. At the next stage, ordinary postage stamps overprinted with the name of the territory were used. In general, by 1896 and later, overprinted stamps were issued by the German authorities for all colonies: German South West Africa, German New Guinea, Kiautschou, Togo, Samoa, Marshall Islands, Mariana Islands, Caroline Islands, German East Africa and Cameroon. Around 1900, for various colonial territories, the Hohenzollern Yacht series was issued with the same pattern - the image of the imperial ship of the same name. After the loss of Germany's colonies during the First World War, overprinted yacht stamps were temporarily used by the new masters of the colonies. German Post Abroad Main article: German post office abroad For postal communications with overseas countries, Germany had government-subsidized postal and steamship lines that supported German postal communications with the Far East, Australia and East Africa. Germany established several post offices. agencies in Asia, Polynesia and Africa[2]. In particular, the German Empire opened post offices in certain cities of Morocco, Turkey and China. Postage stamps issued and mailed there can be identified by the imprint of a postmark, or by an overprint, which may indicate the denomination in the local currency and the name of the country[12]. Occupation of territories in the First World War During the First World War, the German authorities issued postage stamps in the countries occupied by Germany: in Belgium, Poland, Romania, as well as in some areas of the western and eastern front[13]. Weimar Republic Germany's first airmail stamp, 1919 (Sc #C1) Reichspost Germany's first charity postage stamp, 1919 (Sc #B1) The Imperial Post continued to operate as a state organization after the declaration of Germany as a republic. In 1919, the Reichspost issued its first commemorative, airmail, and charity stamps[14]. On the first charity postage stamp inIn 1919, a new tariff was overprinted for the benefit of war invalids ((Sc #B1)). In 1923, during a period of hyperinflation, the Reichspost issued postage stamps in denominations of up to 50 billion marks. The most common stamp series then were the famous Germans series, and then the stamps with the Hindenburg. The first stamp of the prized German Zeppelin series appeared in 1928 ((Sc #C35-37)). Plebiscite territories Main articles: Postal history and postage stamps of Allenstein, Postal history and postage stamps of Marienwerder, and Postal history and postage stamps of Silesia After the conclusion of the Treaty of Versailles in 1920, plebiscites were held in some territories to determine their fate. Postage stamps were issued in these territories for a short period of time: Allenstein and Marienwerder, Schleswig and Upper Silesia[15]. Danzig Main article: Postal history and postage stamps of Danzig Following the Treaty of Versailles in 1920, the Free City of Danzig became an independent unit. At first, the use of German postage stamps continued, on which, after some time, the overprint “Danzig” (“Danzig”) was made [16]. Danzig then issued the original postage stamps, which were in circulation until 1939. In addition, the Polish Post (Poczta Polska) had a post office in Danzig and issued Polish postage stamps overprinted with "Port Gdansk" ("Port of Gdansk"). On the original stamps of Danzig, 133 overprints were made over the entire period of circulation, of which 51 were for franking official correspondence; 49 - by changing the face value of the brand; 16 - commemorative; 14 - occupation; 3 for charitable fundraising for the Winter Welfare Fund. The first overprint of DM (Dienst Marke transl. from German. Service mark) was made on August 25, 1921 on a series of definitive stamps of 14 denominations. Intended for franking official correspondence, they were in circulation until September 30, 1923. The last overprint of Deutsches Reich (translated from German German Reich) was made on September 28, 1939 on 14 stamp values during the establishment of German administration in Danzig in September 1939, indicating the new denomination in Reichspfennig (German Reichspfennig) or Reichsmark (German Reichsmark). Reichsmark). It was in circulation until December 31, 1940 [17]. memel Hyperinflationary postage stamp, 1923 (Sc #298) According to the results of the Treaty of Versailles, the Memel region (Memelland, Klaipeda region) was allocated. Initially German, then French and Lithuanian postage stamps with appropriate overprints were used. Memel issued his own stamps between 1920 and 1923, when the territory was annexed by Lithuania[18]. The original stamps were overprinted, with a total of 67 stamps overprinted, all with the new denomination in Lithuanian Centų or Centai cents and Litas Litas. The first overprint was made on April 16, 1923, the last on December 15 of the same year[17]. Saar Main article: Postal history and postage stamps of the Saarland In accordance with the Treaty of Versailles, the territory of the Saar was under the control of the League of Nations. There, in the period from 1920 to 1935, when the Saar was returned to Germany following the results of the plebiscite, their own postage stamps were issued. The first stamps were the postage stamps of Germany and Bavaria with overprints. After World War II, the Saarland came under French administration and issued its own postage stamps from 1947-1956. After a referendum, the Saar was returned to Germany in 1956, but continued to issue its postage stamps until 1959[19]. Nazi Germany See also Illustrated list of postage stamps of the Third Reich[en] Post of the Third Reich Postage stamp of Nazi Germany: Chancellor and Fuhrer of the Greater German Reich, Adolf Hitler (1944) During Nazi Germany (1933-1945), the Reichspost continued to function as a state monopoly under the auspices of the Reich Post Office, with the design of postage stamps and the stamp program heavily influenced by National Socialist propaganda. Miniatures with the image of Hitler's head became widely used postage stamps, and a large number of postal-charity stamps were issued. In the last year before the end of the war, the inscription on postage stamps "Deutsches Reich" ("German Empire") was changed to "Grossdeutsches Reich" ("Great German Empire"). Starting in 1942, military field mail stamps were issued for the troops. On July 25, 1941, the world's first two-digit postal code system was introduced[20]. This system was first used for parcels, and then was extended to all postal items. Sudetenland/Bohemia and Moravia In accordance with the Munich Agreement, the Sudetenland became a German territory in 1938. Initially, overprinted Czechoslovakian postage stamps were used at local post offices before German postage stamps went on sale. In 1939, Nazi Germany occupied part of the Czech Republic, first overprintedand on Czecho-Slovak stamps, and then issued postage stamps for "Bohemia and Moravia" until 1945[21]. Occupation of territories in World War II During the Second World War, Germany issued postage stamps in the territories it occupied: in Albania, Belgium, Zadar, Kotor, Courland, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Macedonia, the Channel Islands, Poland (Governorship), part of the territory of Russia, in Serbia, Slovenia, Ukraine, Zakynthos, part of France, Montenegro, Alsace and Estonia[22]. Partitioned Germany During this period (1945-1990), in accordance with the results of the Second World War, the territory of Germany was occupied by the Allies, and then divided into two states - the western (Germany) and the eastern (GDR). Local releases During the collapse of Nazi Germany, the postal service was disrupted or stopped altogether. On the ground, making up for the lack of a centralized post office, postal communications were carried out by local authorities using postage stamps with a disfigured image of Hitler[23]. Allied occupation General issue, 1946 (Sc #556) After the occupation of Germany by the Allied troops, the postal service was resumed, but under different management. In 1945, as a first step towards restoring postal service in their zones of occupation, the occupation authorities of the United States and Great Britain issued postage stamps from the Allied Military Command ("AM Post", where "AM" stands for "Allied Military"). By December 1945, the French authorities had issued stamps for the French occupation zone ("zone française"), to which were later added stamps for Baden, Rhineland-Palatinate and Württemberg. In addition, stamps for the Saarland were issued separately. In the Soviet occupation zone, at the beginning in 1945, different areas issued different stamps, namely Berlin-Brandenburg, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, East Saxony (Ost Sachsen), West Saxony (West Sachsen), Province of Saxony (Provinz Sachsen) and Thuringia . In 1946, German postage stamps were issued with the inscription "Deutsche Post" ("German Post") for the American, British and Soviet zones, but not for the French zone. The characteristic yellow color for mail was introduced by decision of the Control Council in 1946 [24]. However, with the onset of the Cold War, attempts to unify the mail failed - the common postage stamps were replaced by 1948 with standard stamps for the Soviet zone and different series of postage stamps for Bison, even before the formation of two German states. German Federal Post Office West Berlin Main articles: Deutsche Bundespost Berlin and Postal and postage stamp history of West Berlin West Berlin, which was under the jurisdiction of the three Western powers, began issuing its own postage stamps on September 3, 1948. It continued to issue postage stamps with the inscription "Deutsche Bundespost Berlin" ("German Federal Post Office for West Berlin") for 42 years, issuing over 800 original stamps in total before German reunification in 1990. Many West Berlin definitive stamps were similar to those of West Germany. West German and West Berlin postage stamps could be used to pay for the forwarding of correspondence both on the territory of the Federal Republic of Germany and on the territory of West Berlin[25]. German Post Office GDR Main articles: Deutsche Post (GDR) and Postal history and postage stamps of the GDR After the creation of the German Democratic Republic (GDR), the state postal authority "Deutsche Post der DDR" (Deutsche Post der DDR) was established[26]. The first postage stamp was issued on October 9, 1949. The production of these often beautiful postage stamps was plentiful. During the existence of the GDR, about 3 thousand original stamps were issued. However, the number of issued charity stamps was relatively low. To some extent, the stamps were used to obtain currency, that is, some postage stamps were not issued for postal circulation, but were sold directly to philatelic dealers. Also, in some series, a particular stamp was deliberately printed in low numbers - and called "Sperrwert" (lit. "blocking value stamp", or "limited edition stamp") - in order to artificially increase its value and sell it to philatelic dealers at a higher price. [27][28]. After German reunification in 1990, the Deutsche Post became part of the "German Federal Post" (Deutsche Bundespost). Deutsche Bundespost Main article: Deutsche Bundespost When the Federal Republic of Germany was formed, the Deutsche Bundespost (German Federal Post Office) became a state body with a monopoly position in the field of postal communications. This name was adopted in 1950, before it was called Deutsche Post (German Post)[29]. The first German issue was issued on September 7, 1949 ((Sc #665-666)). In 1961, the two-digit postal code was replaced by a four-digit postcode[20], which, in turn, was changed after the reunification of Germany. By the time of the merger,There are about 1400 original postage stamps. In 1989, the process of transforming the state body into a public company began by separating mail from the postal bank and communications. United Germany Deutsche Post "football" stamp, 2000 (Sc #2063) Main article: Deutsche Post After the reunification of Germany in 1990, the Bundespost (Germany) and Deutsche Post (GDR) enterprises merged. At the same time, the unified state company Bundespost began to provide postal services to the entire territory of the united Germany. German postage stamps, regardless of their origin, were suitable for postal circulation until the expiration date of their use: for GDR postage stamps (Mi # 1004-3343) it was October 1, 1990, and for FRG stamps (Mi # 3344-3365) - 12 December 1991[30], the latter date was also the date when the West Berlin postage stamps (Mi #326-879) were withdrawn from circulation[31]. By 1993, a new five-digit postal code was introduced. In 1995, the Bundespost was transformed into a joint stock company called Deutsche Post AG ("Deutsche Post AG"), whose shares became available in 2000. This company, together with its subsidiaries, operates in the field of logistics on an international scale. summary data According to the Scott catalog, the following number of different stamps (postal and postal-charity) were issued by the Imperial Post (Reichspost), the German Post (Deutsche Post) of the GDR, the German Federal Post West Berlin (Deutsche Bundespost Berlin) and the German Federal Post (Deutsche Bundespost) Germany: Post Office Postage Stamps Charity Postage Stamps Total Imperial Post Office (1871-1945) 556 293 849 Deutsche Post (GDR) (1949-1990) 2805 191 2996 Deutsche Bundespost Berlin (1949-1990) 592 285 877 Deutsche Bundespost (1949-1990) 955 395 1350 Total 4908 1164 6072 Stamps issued by J. Schroeder[de] (1970): with an erroneous and corrected date (on a postage stamp) Propaganda and fantasy releases See also: Leniniana (philately) § Non-postage material and fantasy issues, and Stamps of virtual states § Germany In 1970, the West German writer and publisher Joerg Schroeder[de] decided to celebrate the centenary of V. I. Lenin by publishing fantastic stamps. They were printed in the printing house of the Communist Party of Germany in Frankfurt by Schröder. The stamp with a portrait of Lenin had a face value of 20 pfennigs and was made at a high printing level. However, initially the stamp was printed with the wrong date of Lenin's birth - "4/11/1870", so another edition was made with the corrected date. On April 15, the publisher sent out these stamps on letters to the deputies of the Bundestag. The cost of a simple letter in Germany at that time was 30 pfennigs, so next to his stamp he pasted a genuine postage stamp with a face value of 10 pfennigs. It is interesting that only one of the deputies paid attention to the brand. The original trick cost Schroeder a trial and a fine of 12,000 German marks[32][33]. The development of philately Already in the 19th century, philatelic organizations began to emerge in Germany and exhibitions of postage stamps were held. Since 1863, the magazine "Magazin für Briefmarken-Sammler" ("Illustrated magazine for stamp collectors", publishers Zschische and Köder) began to be published in Leipzig. The first philatelic associations or unions appeared in Germany in 1869[34][35]. In 1874, a postal museum was established in Germany, which kept rich collections of items related to writing and methods of compiling and sending news from all peoples, all times[2]. The National Postal Museum was created in Berlin, and the state collection of postage stamps began to form under it. So, according to the will of the owner, the legendary Philippe Ferrari collection went to the Berlin Postal Museum, but after the end of the First World War it was sold at the request of the French government at public auction in order to ensure that the proceeds from the sale of the collection were included in the total account of reparations for defeated Germany[ 35]. In 1930, a philatelic exhibition was held in Berlin, at which the Northwestern Department of the All-Russian Society of Philatelists presented a thematic collection that included Soviet postal miniatures with a portrait of V. I. Lenin[36]. Germany regularly organizes national and international philatelic exhibitions. For example, on April 6-11, 1976, the national exhibition "Naposta-76" was held in Wuppertal under the patronage of the Minister of Posts and Telegraphs of the FRG[37]. see also Austro-German Postal Union[en] Baden color error Germany (stamp series) German Post Abroad Main Post Office Yellow Cologne Cathedral Imperial Post Imperial Ministry of Posts History of Germany Postal history and postage stamps of Allenstein[en] Postal and postage stamp history of Bavaria[de] Postal history and postage stamps of Baden Postal history and postage stamps of Bergedorf Postal history and postage stampstowards Bremen[de] Postal history and postage stamps of Braunschweig[de] Postage stamps and postal history of Hamburg Postal history and postage stamps of Hannover[de] History of postage and postage stamps of the GDR Postal history and postage stamps of Heligoland Postal history and postage stamps of German East Africa Postal history and postage stamps of Danzig Postal history and postage stamps of West Berlin Postal history and postage stamps of the German colonies Postal history and postage stamps of Lübeck Postal history and postage stamps of Marienwerder[br] Postal history and postage stamps of Mecklenburg Postal history and postage stamps of Oldenburg Postage stamps and postal history of Prussia Postage stamps and postal history of the Saarland Postage stamps and postal history of Saxony Postal history and postage stamps of the North German Confederation Postal and postage stamp history of Silesia History of postage and postage stamps of the Soviet zone of occupation of Germany Red "Mail" Summer Olympic Games 1984 (GDR stamps) Mark Gsheidle Local Posts in Saxony Audrey Hepburn (postage stamp) Thurn and Taxis Post Provisory "Vineta" North German postal district[de] Association of German Philatelists[de] List of people on postage stamps of Germany[en] Flowers (German standard series) black unit Black and green six Deutsche Bundespost Deutsche Bundespost Berlin[en] Deutsche Post (GDR) Deutsche Post AG Category:Images:German postage stamps Notes ↑ Show compactly Mackay, 1988, p. 9 Mail // Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron: in 86 volumes (82 volumes and 4 additional). - St. Petersburg, 1890-1907. According to other sources, it existed until the end of the 17th century; see Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron, Mail. Anonymous. Our national post-office (English) // The New York Quarterly (English) Russian. :magazine. - New York, NY, USA: Charles B. Norton, 1855. - April (vol. 3, no. 1). - P. 1-19. Archived from the original on December 8, 2015. Mackay, 1988, p. 26. Mackay, 1988, p. 10-11. Michel, 1997, S. 46, 178. Michel, 1997, S. 210. "History of postage stamps" Archived May 14, 2008. Published in Postal and Telegraph Journal, 1905, Vol. VIII; see Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron, Mail. German Colonies Collectors Group. study groups. Chesterfield, MO, USA: Germany Philatelic Society. Retrieved 9 July 2016. Archived from the original on 8 December 2015. Michel, 1997, S. 326ff. Michel, 1997, S. 606ff. Mackay, 1988, p. 99. Michel, 1997, S. 422ff. Michel, 1997, S. 456ff. Stamp catalogs Michel, 1997 and Scott, 2006. Michel, 1997, S. 526. Michel, 1997, S. 598. Mackay, 1988, p. 71. Michel, 1997, S. 622, 630ff. Michel, 1997, S. 628. Michel, 1997, S. 727ff. Warum ist die Postgelb? (German). Service & Beratung: Basisinformation: Geschichte der Post. Bonn, Germany: Deutsche Post AG. Date of access: 2015-13-08. Archived from the original on July 23, 2012. Michel, 1997, S. 1317. Michel, 1997, S. 929. Warum ist die Postgelb? (German). Service & Beratung: Basisinformation: Geschichte der Post. Bonn, Germany: Deutsche Post AG. Date of access: 2015-13-08. Archived 2015-13-08. "Weniger ist mehr" (German) (Date of access: March 29, 2008) Archived from the original on October 20, 2007. [Explains the policy of limiting the production of one stamp in a series to artificially increase its value.] Michel, 1997, S. 1549. Michel, 1997, S. 1238. Michel, 1997, S. 1410. Levitas I. Ya. Both seriously and curiously. Philatelic kaleidoscope. - 2nd ed., revised. and additional - M .: Radio and communication, 1991. - S. 15-28, 248-249. — 232 p. Archived from the original on June 19, 2020. (Accessed 19 June 2020) Archived copy. Retrieved 19 June 2020. Archived from the original on 19 June 2020. Daschner J. Propaganda - "Fälschungen" aus privater Hand in der BRD (German). Private Fälschungen: Im Kalten Krieg. Kriegs- und Propaganda-Fälschungen; Jurgen Daschner. Retrieved 18 July 2015. Archived from the original on 18 July 2015. Philatelic magazine // Philatelic Dictionary / V. Grallert, V. Grushke; Abbr. per. with him. Yu. M. Sokolova and E. P. Sashenkova. - M .: Communication, 1977. - S. 46-47. — 271 p. - 63,000 copies. Ilyushin A. S. Philately. Megabook. Megaencyclopedia of Cyril and Methodius. M.: Company "Cyril and Methodius". Retrieved October 15, 2015. Archived from the original on October 15, 2015. Adler K. [en], Cronin A. Stamps-engravings with a portrait of V. I. Lenin // Philately of the USSR. - 1972. - No. 6. - S. 40-43. What, where, when // Philately of the USSR. - 1975. - No. 12. - P. 48. - (Heading: Globe: problems, information). Literature Germany // Large Philatelic Dictionary / N. I. Vladinets, L. I. Ilyichev, I. Ya. Levitas, P. F. Mazur, I. N. Merkulov, I. A. Morosanov, Yu. K. Myakota, S A. Panasyan, Yu. M. Rudnikov, M. B. Slutsky, V. A. Yakobs; under total ed. N. I. Vladints and V. A. Jacobs. - M .: Radio and communication, 1988. - S. 61-62. — 320 s. - 40,000 copies. — ISBN 5-256-00175-2. Germany // Philatelic geography (foreign countries): Handbook / L. L. Lepeshinsky. - M .: Svya3, 1967. - S. 37-46. — 480 s. German Democratic Republic // Philatelic geography (foreign countries): Handbook / L. L. Lepeshinsky. - M .: Communication, 1967. - S. 30-32. — 480 s. Federal Republic of Germany // Philatelic geography (foreign countries): Reference book / L. L. Lepeshinsky. - M .: Communication, 1967. - S. 34-36. — 480 s. Harper A., Scheck W. The Stamps of Germany Third Reich. - Darlington: A. Harper, 1966. - 181 p. (English) (German postage stamps of the Third Reich.) Mackay J. The Guinness Book of Stamps. Facts and Feats. - Enfield, UK: Guinness Publishing Ltd, 1988. - ISBN 0-85112-351-1. (English) Michel Deutschland Special Catalog 1997 / Michel. - Munich, Germany: Schwaneberger Verlag GmbH, 1997. - ISBN 3-87858-130-0. (German) Poole B. W. H. Postage stamps of the German Empire = The Stamps of the German Empire. - Boston, MA, USA: Mekeel[en]-Severn-Wylie Co., 1914. - 106 p. — (Mekeels Handbook No. 6). (English) (Date of access: December 8, 2015) Archived from the original on February 25, 2010. Scott 2006 Standard Postage Stamp Catalog / Scott. - Sidney, OH, USA: Scott Publishing Co., 2006. - Vol. 3. - ISBN 0-89487-353-9. (English) OTHER INFORMATION Extending across the entirety of Northern Asia and much of Eastern Europe, Russia spans eleven time zones and incorporates a wide range of environments and landforms. From northwest to southeast, Russia shares land borders with Norway, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland (both with Kaliningrad Oblast), Belarus, Ukraine, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, China, Mongolia and North Korea. It shares maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk and the U.S. state of Alaska across the Bering Strait. The East Slavs emerged as a recognizable group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD.[18] Founded and ruled by a Varangian warrior elite and their descendants, the medieval state of Rus arose in the 9th century. In 988 it adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire,[19] beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the next millennium.[19] Rus' ultimately disintegrated into a number of smaller states; most of the Rus' lands were overrun by the Mongol invasion and became tributaries of the nomadic Golden Horde in the 13th century.[20] The Grand Duchy of Moscow gradually reunified the surrounding Russian principalities, achieved independence from the Golden Horde, and came to dominate the cultural and political legacy of Kievan Rus'. By the 18th century, the nation had greatly expanded through conquest, annexation, and exploration to become the Russian Empire, which was the third largest empire in history, stretching from Poland on the west to Alaska on the east.[21][22] Following the Russian Revolution, the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic became the largest and leading constituent of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the world's first constitutionally socialist state.[23] The Soviet Union played a decisive role in the Allied victory in World War II,[24][25] and emerged as a recognized superpower and rival to the United States during the Cold War. The Soviet era saw some of the most significant technological achievements of the 20th century, including the world's first human-made satellite and the launching of the first humans in space. By the end of 1990, the Soviet Union had the world's second largest economy, largest standing military in the world and the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction.[26][27][28] Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, twelve independent republics emerged from the USSR: Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and the Baltic states regained independence: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania; the Russian SFSR reconstituted itself as the Russian Federation and is recognized as the continuing legal personality and sole successor state of the Soviet Union.[29] It is governed as a federal semi-presidential republic. The Russian economy ranks as the twelfth largest by nominal GDP and sixth largest by purchasing power parity in 2015.[30] Russia's extensive mineral and energy resources are the largest such reserves in the world,[31] making it one of the leading producers of oil and natural gas globally.[32][33] The country is one of the five recognized nuclear weapons states and possesses the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction.[34] Russia is a great power as well as a regional power and has been characterised as a potential superpower. It is a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council, as well as a member of the G20, the Council of Europe, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC), the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO), the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), and the World Trade Organization (WTO), as well as being the leading member of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), the Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO) and one of the five members of the Eurasian Economic Union (EEU), along with Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan. History Timeline Proto-Indo-Europeans Scythians East Slavs Rus' Khaganate Kievan Rus' Novgorod Republic Vladimir-Suzdal Grand Duchy of Moscow Tsardom of Russia Russian Empire Russian Republic Russian SFSR Soviet Union Russian Federation By topic Economy Military Journalism Postal Coat of Arms of the Russian Federation.svg Geography Subdivisions Borders Earthquakes Geology European Russia Caucasus Mountains North Caucasus Caspian Sea Ural Mountains West Siberian Plain Siberia Russian Far East North Asia Extreme points Cities and towns Islands Lakes Rivers Volcanoes Climate Mountains Politics Conscription Constitution Elections Presidential elections Federal budget Foreign relations Freedom of assembly Freedom of press Media Government Human rights Judiciary Law Citizenship Civil Service Law enforcement (Prisons) Liberalism Military Opposition Political parties President of Russia Economy Agriculture Aircraft industry Car industry Banking Central Bank Corruption Defence industry Economic regions Energy Fishing industry Forestry Gambling Mining Petroleum industry Russian ruble Russian oligarchs Space industry Shipbuilding Trade unions Taxation Tourism Transport Telecommunications Waste Society Demographics Citizens Abortion Alcoholism Crime Education Healthcare Ethnic groups Languages LGBT Immigration Illegal Prostitution Racism Religion Suicide Water supply and sanitation Women Culture Architecture Art Literature Ballet Cinema Graffiti Inventions Media Music Public holidays Opera Language Cuisine Martial arts Folklore Television Internet National anthem Coat of arms National flag Sports Outline Book Category Portal [hide] v t e Russian souvenirs, arts and crafts Matryoshka Samovar Handicrafts Gorodets painting Gzhel Filimonovo toy Kholmogory bone carving Khokhloma Russian lacquer art Fedoskino miniature Kholuy miniature Mstyora miniature Palekh miniature Russian icons Zhostovo painting Ushanka Balalaika Tableware Table-glass Podstakannik Russian porcelain Dulyovo porcelain Samovar Clothing Afghanka Budenovka Cherkeska French Gymnastyorka Kokoshnik Kosovorotka Kaftan Lapti Orenburg shawl Papakha Peaked cap Podvorotnichok Sailor cap Sarafan Spetsodezhda Telnyashka Ushanka Valenki Musical instruments Balalaika Garmon Bayan Russian guitar Musical spoons Treshchotka Toys Bird of Happiness Cheburashka Filimonovo toy Dymkovo toys Kargopol toys Matryoshka doll Petrushka Other Izba Fabergé egg Shashka Tula pryanik [hide] v t e Russia Subdivisions of Russia Federal subjects Republics Adygea Altai Bashkortostan Buryatia Chechnya Chuvashia Crimea1 Dagestan Ingushetia Kabardino-Balkaria Kalmykia Karachay-Cherkessia Karelia Khakassia Komi Mari El Mordovia North Ossetia-Alania Sakha Tatarstan Tuva Udmurtia Krais Altai Kamchatka Khabarovsk Krasnodar Krasnoyarsk Perm Primorsky Stavropol Zabaykalsky Oblasts Amur Arkhangelsk Astrakhan Belgorod Bryansk Chelyabinsk Irkutsk Ivanovo Kaliningrad Kaluga Kemerovo Kirov Kostroma Kurgan Kursk Leningrad Lipetsk Magadan Moscow Murmansk Nizhny Novgorod Novgorod Novosibirsk Omsk Orenburg Oryol Penza Pskov Rostov Ryazan Sakhalin Samara Saratov Smolensk Sverdlovsk Tambov Tomsk Tula Tver Tyumen Ulyanovsk Vladimir Volgograd Vologda Voronezh Yaroslavl Federal cities Moscow St. Petersburg Sevastopol1 Autonomous oblast Jewish Autonomous okrugs Chukotka Khanty-Mansi2 Nenets3 Yamalo-Nenets2 1Claimed by Ukraine and considered by most of the international community to be part of Ukraine 2Administratively subordinated to Tyumen Oblast 3Administratively subordinated to Arkhangelsk Oblast Internal additional non-constitutional divisions by different institutions Economic regions (by Ministry of Economic Development) Military districts (by Ministry of Defence) Federal districts (by President) Judicial districts (by law "On arbitration courts") [hide] v t e World Heritage Sites in Russia by federal district Kizhi Pogost Palace Square, Saint Petersburg Moscow Kremlin Central Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye Moscow Kremlin and Red Square Novodevichy Convent Trinity Sergius Lavra White Monuments of Vladimir and Suzdal Historic Centre of Yaroslavl Klyuchevskaya Sopka Volcano Lake Baikal Katun River in Altai Mountains Southern Western Caucasus Northwestern Curonian Spit1 Ferapontov Monastery Kizhi Pogost Virgin Komi Forests Historic Monuments of Novgorod and Surroundings Historic Centre of Saint Petersburg and Surroundings Solovetsky Islands Struve Geodetic Arc2 Far Eastern Lena Pillars Volcanoes of Kamchatka Central Sikhote-Alin Wrangel Island Siberian Golden Mountains of Altai Lake Baikal Landscapes of Dauria3 Putorana Plateau Uvs Nuur Basin3 Volga Assumption Cathedral of Sviyazhsk Bolghar Kazan Kremlin North Caucasian Citadel, Ancient City and Fortress Buildings of Derbent 1 Shared with Lithuania 2 Shared with nine other countries 3 Shared with Mongolia [hide] v t e People from Russia Political and religious leaders Pre-1168 1168–1917 1922–1991 1991–present RSFSR leaders General secretaries Soviet premiers (1st deputies) Soviet heads of state (and their spouses) Prime ministers (1st deputies) Foreign ministers Prosecutors general Metropolitans and Patriarchs Saints (1, 2) Alexander Nevsky, the Name of Russia Military figures and explorers Field marshals Soviet marshals Admirals Aviators Cosmonauts Scientists, engineers and inventors Aerospace engineers Astronomers and astrophysicists Biologists Chemists Earth scientists Electrical engineers IT developers Linguists and philologists Mathematicians Naval engineers Physicians and psychologists Physicists Weaponry makers Artists and writers Architects Ballet dancers Composers Opera singers Novelists Philosophers Playwrights Poets Sportspeople Chess players [hide] Gnome-globe.svg Geographic locale [hide] v t e Sovereign states and dependencies of Europe Sovereign states Albania Andorra Armenia2 Austria Azerbaijan Belarus Belgium Bosnia and Herzegovina Bulgaria Croatia Cyprus2 Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Georgia Germany Greece Hungary Iceland1 Ireland Italy Kazakhstan Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Macedonia Malta Moldova Monaco Montenegro Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Romania Russia San Marino Serbia Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey Ukraine United Kingdom Vatican City Europe orthographic Caucasus Urals boundary (with borders).svg States with limited recognition Abkhazia2 Artsakh2 Kosovo Northern Cyprus2 South Ossetia2 Transnistria Dependencies Denmark Faroe Islands1 autonomous country of the Kingdom of Denmark United Kingdom Akrotiri and Dhekelia2 Sovereign Base Areas Gibraltar British Overseas Territory Guernsey Isle of Man Jersey Crown dependencies Special areas of internal sovereignty Finland Åland Islands autonomous region subject to the Åland Convention of 1921 Norway Svalbard unincorporated area subject to the Svalbard Treaty United Kingdom Northern Ireland country of the United Kingdom subject to the British-Irish Agreement 1 Oceanic islands within the vicinity of Europe are usually grouped with the continent even though they are not situated on its continental shelf. 2 Some countries completely outside the conventional geographical boundaries of Europe are commonly associated with the continent due to ethnological links. [hide] v t e Countries and dependencies of Asia Abkhazia Afghanistan Akrotiri and Dhekelia Armenia Artsakh Azerbaijan Bahrain Bangladesh Bhutan Brunei Cambodia China Christmas Island Cocos (Keeling) Islands Cyprus Egypt Georgia Hong Kong India British Indian Ocean Territory Indonesia Iran Iraq Israel Japan Jordan Kazakhstan North Korea South Korea Kuwait Kyrgyzstan Laos Lebanon Macau Malaysia Maldives Mongolia Myanmar Nepal Northern Cyprus Oman Palestine Pakistan Philippines Qatar Russia Saudi Arabia Singapore South Ossetia Sri Lanka Syria Taiwan Tajikistan Thailand East Timor (Timor-Leste) Turkey Turkmenistan United Arab Emirates Uzbekistan Vietnam Yemen Asia (orthographic projection).svg [hide] v t e Countries bordering the Baltic Sea Denmark Estonia Finland Germany Latvia Lithuania Poland Russia Sweden [hide] v t e Black Sea Countries bordering the Black Sea Bulgaria Georgia Romania Russia Turkey Ukraine Cities Batumi Burgas Constanța Giresun Hopa Istanbul Kerch Mangalia Năvodari Novorossiysk Odessa Ordu Poti Rize Samsun Sevastopol Sochi Sukhumi1 Trabzon Varna Yalta Zonguldak 1 Disputed statehood — partial international recognition, but considered by most countries to be Georgian territory. [hide] International organizations [hide] v t e Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) Nations Australia Brunei Canada Chile China Hong Kong¹ Indonesia Japan South Korea Malaysia Mexico New Zealand Papua New Guinea Peru Philippines Russia Singapore Chinese Taipei² Thailand United States Vietnam Summits 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 Other APEC Business Travel Card APEC blue APEC Climate Center APEC Youth Science Festival 1. A special administrative region of China, participates as "Hong Kong, China"; 2. Officially the Republic of China, participates as "Chinese Taipei" [hide] v t e BRICS Membership Brazil Brazil Russia Russia India India China China South Africa South Africa Summits Yekaterinburg 2009 Brasília 2010 Sanya 2011 New Delhi 2012 Durban 2013 Fortaleza 2014 Ufa 2015 Goa 2016 Xiamen 2017 Johannesburg 2018 Brazil 2019 Bilateral relations Brazil–China Brazil–India Brazil–Russia Brazil–South Africa China–India China–Russia China–South Africa India–Russia India–South Africa Russia–South Africa Leaders Temer Putin Modi Xi Ramaphosa Related New Development Bank BRICS Contingent Reserve Arrangement BRICS Leaders BRICS Cable BRICS Universities League BRICS U-17 Football Cup 2016 Goa [hide] v t e Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) Customs Union of Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Russia Eurasian Economic Union Union State Membership Members Armenia Azerbaijan Belarus Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Moldova Russia Tajikistan Uzbekistan Associate members Turkmenistan Ukraine Former members Georgia (1993–2009) History Russian Empire Soviet Union Dissolution of the Soviet Union Union of Sovereign States Belavezha Accords (Near abroad) Alma-Ata Protocol CIS flag Sports Unified Team at the Olympics Unified Team at the Paralympics CIS national bandy team CIS national football team CIS national ice hockey team CIS national rugby team CIS Cup (football) Military Collective Security Treaty Organization Collective Rapid Reaction Force Joint CIS Air Defense System Economics Economic Court CISFTA Eurasian Economic Community Eurasian Patent Convention Eurasian Patent Organization EU Technical Aid Organization Interstate Aviation Committee Council of Ministers of Defense of the CIS Category Category [hide] v t e Council of Europe Institutions Secretary General Committee of Ministers Parliamentary Assembly Congress Court of Human Rights Commissioner for Human Rights Commission for the Efficiency of Justice Commission against Racism and Intolerance Gold: founding member. Blue: Later (current) full members. Members Albania Andorra Armenia Austria Azerbaijan Belgium Bosnia and Herzegovina Bulgaria Croatia Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Georgia Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Macedonia1 Malta Moldova Monaco Montenegro Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Romania Russia San Marino Serbia Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey Ukraine United Kingdom Observers Canada Holy See Israel Japan Mexico United States Sovereign Military Order of Malta Former members Czechoslovakia (1991–1992) Saar (assoc. 1950–1956) 1 Provisionally referred to by the Council of Europe as "the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia"; see Macedonia naming dispute. [hide] v t e East Asia Summit (EAS) First Second Third Fourth Fifth Sixth Seventh Eighth Ninth Tenth Eleventh Twelfth Australia Brunei Cambodia China India Indonesia Japan Laos Malaysia Myanmar New Zealand Philippines Russia Singapore South Korea Thailand United States Vietnam [hide] v t e Eurasian Economic Union Member states Armenia Belarus Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Russia Flag of the Eurasian Economic Union Observer members Moldova Prospective members Mongolia Syria Tajikistan [hide] v t e Group of Eight (G8) and Group of Eight + Five (G8+5) G8 members Canada France Germany Italy Japan Russia United Kingdom United States Representative European Union G8+5 Brazil China India Mexico South Africa See also Group of Six Group of Seven G7+1 [hide] v t e G20 major economies Argentina Argentina Australia Australia Brazil Brazil Canada Canada China China European Union European Union France France Germany Germany India India Indonesia Indonesia Italy Italy Japan Japan Mexico Mexico Russia Russia Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabia South Africa South Africa South Korea Republic of Korea Turkey Turkey United Kingdom United Kingdom United States United States [hide] v t e Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC) Albania Armenia Azerbaijan Bulgaria Georgia Greece Moldova Romania Russia Serbia Turkey Ukraine [hide] v t e Quartet on the Middle East Negotiating parties Israel Israel Palestinian National Authority Palestinian Authority Diplomatic quartet European Union European Union (Mogherini) Russia Russia (Lavrov) United Nations United Nations (Guterres) United States United States (Sullivan) Special Envoy Netherlands Kito de Boer Associated organizations Elections Reform Support Group [hide] v t e Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) Summits Beijing 2012 Dushanbe 2014 Astana 2017 Member states China India Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Pakistan Russia Tajikistan Uzbekistan Observer states Afghanistan Belarus Iran Mongolia Dialogue partners Armenia Azerbaijan Cambodia Nepal Sri Lanka Turkey Guests ASEAN CIS Turkmenistan See also Eurasian Land Bridge Three Evils Working languages Chinese Russian [hide] v t e Security Council of the United Nations Power Chapter V Chapter VII Veto Resolution Organization Military Observer Peacebuilding Commission Counter-Terrorism Committee Peacekeeping Missions United Nations Command Unified Task Force Members Permanent China France Russia United Kingdom United States 2016–2017 Egypt Japan Senegal Ukraine Uruguay 2017 Italy 2017–2018 Bolivia Ethiopia Kazakhstan Sweden Category Category [hide] v t e World Trade Organization System Accession and membership Appellate Body Dispute Settlement Body International Trade Centre Chronology of key events Issues Criticism Doha Development Round Singapore issues Quota Elimination Peace Clause Agreements General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade Agriculture Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures Technical Barriers to Trade Trade Related Investment Measures Trade in Services Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights Government Procurement Information Technology Marrakech Agreement Doha Declaration Bali Package Ministerial Conferences 1st (1996) 2nd (1998) 3rd (1999) 4th (2001) 5th (2003) 6th (2005) 7th (2009) 8th (2011) 9th (2013) 10th (2015) People Roberto Azevêdo (Director-General) Pascal Lamy Supachai Panitchpakdi Alejandro Jara Rufus Yerxa Members Afghanistan Albania Algeria Angola Antigua and Barbuda Argentina Armenia Australia Bahrain Bangladesh Barbados Belize Benin Bolivia Botswana Brazil Brunei Burkina Faso Burma Burundi Cambodia Cameroon Canada Cape Verde Central African Republic Chad Chile China Colombia Democratic Republic of the Congo Republic of the Congo Costa Rica Côte d'Ivoire Cuba Djibouti Dominica Dominican Republic Ecuador Egypt El Salvador Fiji Gabon The Gambia Georgia Ghana Grenada Guatemala Guinea Guinea-Bissau Guyana Haiti Honduras Hong Kong1 Iceland India Indonesia Israel Jamaica Japan Jordan Kazakhstan Kenya South Korea Kuwait Kyrgyzstan Laos Lesotho Liberia Liechtenstein Macau1 Macedonia Madagascar Malawi Malaysia Maldives Mali Mauritania Mauritius Mexico Moldova Mongolia Montenegro Morocco Mozambique Namibia Nepal New Zealand Nicaragua Niger Nigeria Norway Oman Pakistan Panama Papua New Guinea Paraguay Peru Philippines Qatar Russia Rwanda St. Kitts and Nevis St. Lucia St. Vincent and the Grenadines Samoa Saudi Arabia Senegal Seychelles Sierra Leone Singapore Solomon Islands South Africa Sri Lanka Suriname Swaziland Switzerland Tajikistan Taiwan2 Tanzania Thailand Togo Tonga Trinidad and Tobago Tunisia Turkey Uganda Ukraine United Arab Emirates United States Uruguay Venezuela Vietnam Yemen Zambia Zimbabwe European Union Austria Belgium Bulgaria Croatia Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Germany Greece Hungary Ireland Italy Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malta Netherlands Poland Portugal Romania Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden United Kingdom Special administrative regions of the People's Republic of China, participates as "Hong Kong, China" and "Macao China". Officially the Republic of China, participates as "Separate Customs Territory of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen and Matsu", and "Chinese Taipei" in short. he Soviet Union (Russian: Сове́тский Сою́з, tr. Sovétsky Soyúz, IPA: [sɐˈvʲɛt͡skʲɪj sɐˈjus] (About this sound listen)), officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (Russian: Сою́з Сове́тских Социалисти́ческих Респу́блик, tr. Soyúz Sovétskikh Sotsialistícheskikh Respúblik, IPA: [sɐˈjus sɐˈvʲɛtskʲɪx sətsɨəlʲɪsˈtʲitɕɪskʲɪx rʲɪˈspublʲɪk] (About this sound listen)), abbreviated as the USSR (Russian: СССР, tr. SSSR), was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. Nominally a union of multiple national Soviet republics,[a] its government and economy were highly centralized. The country was a one-party state, governed by the Communist Party with Moscow as its capital in its largest republic, the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic. Other major urban centres were Leningrad, Kiev, Minsk, Tashkent and Novosibirsk. The Soviet Union was one of the five recognized nuclear weapons states and possessed the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction.[7] It was a founding permanent member of the United Nations Security Council, as well as a member of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) and the leading member of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA) and the Warsaw Pact. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917, when the Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, overthrew the Russian Provisional Government which had replaced Tsar Nicholas II during World War I. In 1922, after a civil war, the Soviet Union was formed with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian and Byelorussian republics. Following Lenin's death in 1924 and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Under Stalin's leadership, the Soviet Union transitioned from a market economy into a centrally planned economy which led to a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization. As industrial production skyrocketed, the Soviet Union achieved full employment, implemented a universal healthcare system, sharply reduced illiteracy, and provided guarantees of paid vacations, rest homes, and recreational clubs. This period of industrialization was a time of enormous improvements in the standard of living for millions of people in the country, starkly contrasting with the situations of other countries during the Great Depression, but was also a time characterized by major institutional shortcomings and failures. In the 1930s, with the rise of fascism in Europe, the Communist Party pursued aggressive campaigns to suppress potential counter-revolution, fermenting political paranoia which culminated in the Great Purge in which extrajudicial arrests and executions of suspected counter-revolutionaries led to an estimated 600,000 deaths. As a result of these mass arrests, penal labor through the Gulag system was used to construct infrastructure projects, though this consistently proved to be an inefficient system throughout its existence.[8] Increased demand for agricultural products to pay for industrialization combined with a relatively low harvest yield led to the famine of 1932–33 in which an estimated 2.4 to 4 million people died in the country's agricultural centers of Ukraine, southern Russia, and Kazakhstan.[9][10] After the rise of Adolf Hitler in Germany, Stalin tried repeatedly to form an anti-fascist alliance with other European countries. However, finding no support, shortly before World War II, the Soviet Union became the last major country to sign a treaty with Germany with the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, after which the two countries invaded Poland in September 1939. In June 1941, the pact collapsed as Germany invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theatre of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at intense battles such as Stalingrad and Kursk. The territories overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Soviet Union; the postwar division of Europe into capitalist and communist halves would lead to increased tensions with the West, led by the United States. The Cold War emerged by 1947, as the Eastern Bloc, united under the Warsaw Pact in 1955, confronted the Western Bloc, united under NATO in 1949. On 5 March 1953, Stalin died and was quickly succeeded by Nikita Khrushchev, who in 1956 denounced Stalin and began the De-Stalinization of Soviet society through the Khrushchev Thaw. The Soviet Union took an early lead in the Space Race, with the first artificial satellite and the first human spaceflight. Khrushchev was removed from power by his colleagues in 1964 and was succeeded as head of state by Leonid Brezhnev. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, but tensions resumed with the Soviet–Afghan War in 1979. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost (government transparency) and perestroika (openness, restructuring). Under Gorbachev, the role of the Communist Party in governing the state was removed from the constitution, causing a surge of severe political instability to set in. The Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989, Soviet satellite states in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist governments. With the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the union republics, Gorbachev tried to avert a dissolution of the Soviet Union in the post-Cold War era. A March 1991 referendum, boycotted by some republics, resulted in a majority of participating citizens voting in favor of preserving the union as a renewed federation. Gorbachev's power was greatly diminished after Russian President Boris Yeltsin played a high-profile role in facing down an abortive August 1991 coup d'état attempted by Communist Party hardliners. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the remaining twelve constituent republics emerged as independent post-Soviet states. The Russian Federation—formerly the Russian SFSR—assumed the Soviet Union's rights and obligations and is recognized as the successor state of the Soviet Union.[11][12][13] In summing up the international ramifications of these events, Vladislav Zubok stated: "The collapse of the Soviet empire was an event of epochal geopolitical, military, ideological and economic significance. Soviet Union topics History Index of Soviet Union-related articles Russian Revolution February October Russian Civil War Russian SFSR USSR creation treaty New Economic Policy Stalinism Great Purge Great Patriotic War (World War II) Cold War Khrushchev Thaw 1965 reform Stagnation Perestroika Glasnost Revolutions of 1989 Dissolution Nostalgia Post-Soviet states State Emblem of the Soviet Union.svg Geography Subdivisions Republics autonomous Oblasts autonomous Autonomous okrugs Closed cities list Regions Caspian Sea Caucasus Mountains European Russia North Caucasus Siberia Ural Mountains West Siberian Plain Politics General Constitution Elections Foreign relations Brezhnev Doctrine Government list Human rights LGBT Law Leaders Collective leadership Passport system State ideology Marxism–Leninism Leninism Stalinism Bodies Communist Party organisation Central Committee Politburo Secretariat Congress General Secretary Congress of Soviets (1922–1936) Supreme Soviet (1938–1991) Congress of People's Deputies (1989–1991) Supreme Court Offices Premier President Deputy Premier First Deputy Premier Security services Cheka GPU NKVD MVD MGB KGB Political repression Red Terror Collectivization Great Purge Population transfer Gulag list Holodomor Political abuse of psychiatry Ideological repression Religion Suppressed research Censorship Censorship of images Economy Agriculture Central Bank Energy policy Five-Year Plans Net material product Inventions Ruble (currency) Internet domain Transport Science Communist Academy Academy of Sciences Academy of Medical Sciences Lenin All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences Sharashkas Naukograds list Society Crime Demographics Soviet people working class 1989 census Languages Linguistics LGBT Culture Ballet Cinema Fashion Literature Music opera Propaganda Sports Stalinist architecture Opposition Soviet dissidents and their groups list Anthem republics Emblem republics Flag republics Template Templates Departments Russian Revolution 1917 Joseph Stalin Stagnation Era Fall of Communism Wikipedia book Book Category Category Commons page Commons Portal Portal WikiProject WikiProject [hide] Administrative division of the Soviet Union [hide] v t e Republics of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (1922–1991) Principal Armenia Azerbaijan Byelorussia Estonia1 Georgia Kazakhstan Kirghizia Latvia1 Lithuania1 Moldavia Russian SFSR Tajikistan Turkmenia Ukraine Uzbekistan State Emblem of the Soviet Union Short-lived Karelo-Finnish SSR (1940–1956) Transcaucasian SFSR (1922–1936) Non-union republics SSR Abkhazia (1921–1931) Bukharan SSR (1920–1925) Khorezm SSR (1920–1925) Nakhichevan ASSR (1920–1923) Pridnestrovian Moldavian SSR (1990–1991) South Ossetian SR (1990–1991) 1The annexation of the Baltic republics in 1940 was considered as an illegal occupation and was not recognized by the majority of the international community such as the United States, United Kingdom and the European Community. The Soviet Union officially recognized their independence on September 6, 1991, prior to its final dissolution three months later. [hide] v t e Flag of the Soviet Union.svg Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republics of the Soviet Union Soviet Union By name Abkhaz Adjar Bashkir Buryat1 Chechen-Ingush Chuvash Crimean Dagestan Gorno-Altai Kabardin Kabardino-Balkar Kalmyk Karakalpak Karelian Kazak2 Kirghiz2 Kirghiz Komi Mari Moldavian Mordovian Mountain Nakhchivan North Ossetian Tajik Tatar Turkestan Tuva Udmurt Volga German Yakut Coat of arms of the Soviet Union By year established 1918–1924 Turkestan 1918–1941 Volga German 1919–1990 Bashkir 1920–1925 Kirghiz2 1920–1990 Tatar 1921–1990 Adjar 1921–1945 Crimean 1921–1991 Dagestan 1921–1924 Mountain 1921–1990 Nakhchivan 1922–1991 Yakut 1923–1990 Buryat1 1923–1940 Karelian 1924–1940 Moldavian 1924–1929 Tajik 1925–1992 Chuvash 1925–1936 Kazak2 1926–1936 Kirghiz 1931–1991 Abkhaz 1932–1992 Karakalpak 1934–1990 Mordovian 1934–1990 Udmurt 1935–1943 Kalmyk 1936–1944 Chechen-Ingush 1936–1944 Kabardino-Balkar 1936–1990 Komi 1936–1990 Mari 1936–1990 North Ossetian 1944–1957 Kabardin 1956–1991 Karelian 1957–1990 Chechen-Ingush 1957–1991 Kabardino-Balkar 1958–1990 Kalmyk 1961–1992 Tuva 1990–1991 Gorno-Altai 1991–1992 Crimean 1 Buryat–Mongol until 1958. 2 Kazak ASSR was called Kirghiz ASSR until 1925. [hide] v t e Flag of the Soviet Union.svg Autonomous oblasts of the Soviet Union Soviet Union Adyghe Chechen–Ingush Chechen Ingush Chuvash Gorno-Altai Gorno-Badakhshan Jewish Kabardino-Balkar Kalmyk Kara-Kirghiz Karachay-Cherkess Cherkess Karachay Kara-Kalpak Komi-Zyryan Khakas Mari Moldavian Nagorno-Karabakh North Ossetian South Ossetian Tuvan Udmurt Coat of arms of the Soviet Union [hide] v t e Socialism by country By country American Left Australia British Left Canada Estonia France Hong Kong India Netherlands New Zealand Pakistan History Brazil United Kingdom United States Regional variants African Arab British Burmese Chinese Israeli Melanesian Nicaraguan Tanzanian Venezuelan Vietnamese Communist states Africa Angola Benin Congo-Brazzaville Ethiopia (1974–1987) Ethiopia (1987–1991) Madagascar Mozambique Somalia Americas Cuba Grenada Asia Afghanistan Cambodia (1976–1979) Cambodia (1979–1993) China North Korea Laos Mongolia Tuva Vietnam North Vietnam South Yemen Short-lived Gilan Iranian Azerbaijan Kurdish Republic of Mahabad South Vietnam Soviet China Europe Albania Bulgaria Czechoslovakia East Germany Hungary (1949–1989) Poland Romania Soviet Union Yugoslavia Short-lived Alsace-Lorraine Bavaria Bremen Finland Hungary (1919) Galicia Ireland Slovakia (1919) History of socialism [hide] v t e Eastern Bloc Soviet Union Communism Formation Secret Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact protocol Soviet invasion of Poland Soviet occupations Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina Baltic states Hungary Romania Yalta Conference Annexed as, or into, SSRs Eastern Finland Estonia Latvia Lithuania Memel East Prussia West Belarus Western Ukraine Moldavia Satellite states Hungarian People's Republic Polish People's Republic Czechoslovak Socialist Republic Socialist Republic of Romania German Democratic Republic People's Republic of Albania (to 1961) People's Republic of Bulgaria Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia (to 1948) Annexing SSRs Russian SFSR Ukrainian SSR Byelorussian SSR Organizations Cominform COMECON Warsaw Pact World Federation of Trade Unions (WFTU) World Federation of Democratic Youth (WFDY) Revolts and opposition Welles Declaration Goryani Movement Forest Brothers Ukrainian Insurgent Army Operation Jungle Baltic state continuity Baltic Legations (1940–1991) Cursed soldiers Rebellion of Cazin 1950 1953 uprising in Plzeň 1953 East German uprising 1956 Georgian demonstrations 1956 Poznań protests 1956 Hungarian Revolution Novocherkassk massacre 1965 Yerevan demonstrations Prague Spring / Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia Brezhnev Doctrine 1968 Red Square demonstration 1968 student demonstrations in Belgrade 1968 protests in Kosovo 1970 Polish protests Croatian Spring 1972 unrest in Lithuania SSR June 1976 protests Solidarity / Soviet reaction / Martial law 1981 protests in Kosovo Reagan Doctrine Jeltoqsan Karabakh movement April 9 tragedy Romanian Revolution Black January Cold War events Marshall Plan Berlin Blockade Tito–Stalin split 1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état 1961 Berlin Wall crisis Conditions Emigration and defection (list of defectors) Sovietization of the Baltic states Information dissemination Politics Economies Telephone tapping Decline Revolutions of 1989 Fall of the Berlin Wall Romanian Revolution Fall of communism in Albania Singing Revolution Collapse of the Soviet Union Dissolution of Czechoslovakia January 1991 events in Lithuania January 1991 events in Latvia Post-Cold War topics Baltic Assembly Collective Security Treaty Organization Commonwealth of Independent States Craiova Group European Union European migrant crisis Eurasian Economic Union NATO Post-Soviet states Shanghai Cooperation Organisation Visegrad Group [hide] v t e Disinformation Types Alternative facts Big lie Bullshit Cherry picking Circular reporting Deception Doublespeak Echo chamber Euphemistic misspeaking Euromyth Factoid Fake news by country online Fallacy False accusation False flag Filter bubble Gaslighting Half-truth Hoax Ideological framing Internet manipulation Media manipulation Potemkin village Post-truth Propaganda Quote mining Scientific fabrication Smearing Social bot Spin View from nowhere Yellow journalism Books Disinformation by Ion Mihai Pacepa Dezinformatsia: Active Measures in Soviet Strategy The KGB and Soviet Disinformation The Case for Latvia Who's Who in the CIA Disinformation operations 1995 CIA disinformation controversy CIA Kennedy assassination conspiracy theory Funkspiel Habbush letter Information Operations Roadmap Jihadunspun.com Jonestown conspiracy theories K-1000 battleship Mafkarat al Islam Media censorship and disinformation during the Gezi Park protests Mohamed Atta's alleged Prague connection Niger uranium forgeries Operation INFEKTION Operation Neptune Operation Shocker Operation Toucan Pope Pius XII and Russia Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections Seat 12 Strategy of tension Trolls from Olgino U.S. Army Field Manual 30-31B Web brigades Yellow rain Countering disinformation Active Measures Working Group Counter Misinformation Team Countering Foreign Propaganda and Disinformation Act East StratCom Team FactCheck.org PolitiFact Snopes.com United States Information Agency Related series: Fraud • Media manipulation • Propaganda. |
STAMPLAKE.COM
PROFESSIONAL SELLER
Type of capital investments, as investments in antiques is growing in popularity more and more each day. It's quite a profitable and safe investment, as prices for antiques are steadily growing (on average 20% per year), which often exceeds the growth of stocks in the stock market. In addition, investment in antiques enriches not only materially bringing income but also spiritually, bringing esthetic pleasure.
However, investing money in antiques is a complex activity. In order to make substantial amount of money, You need to acquire special knowledge and build relationships in the appropriate community. It is necessary to understand what things really have the potential to increase in value and which, on the contrary, are hopeless. The word "antique" has Latin roots and means "old". The core value of antiques is in the fact that they are old. Age objects which are considered as antique, can start from 10-15 years, depending on the historical, physical and chemical characteristics of the object. Often, investment in antiques and collecting go hand in hand. That's why making money on old things is going better at those who are careful to things and who are orientating in the history very well. Fortunately for new investors, in the environment of antiques consultants are available whose main task is to help the investor to separate the "wheat from the chaff" and to make competent investment. It should be noted that to start investing in antiques it's not necessary to have a large amount of money.
A lot of people begin with inexpensive paintings of young artists and a variety of interesting subjects. As a rule, in the beginning investor collects works of art in the style that appeales to him, purely for pleasure, and much later investor begins to think about making money.
You can buy antiques literally everywhere, even at the grandmother, neighbor. However, if you are not familiar with antiques, it is wiser to trust the various antique shops, exhibition and museum authority. Such authority have expertise in selling things and do not allow to enter counterfeits into the market.
If you want to do engage in such a profitable and exciting business, as investing in antiques, we will be happy to offer You assistance which will be provided by our experienced consultants who can help You see all the "pitfalls", to make the right choices and get real pleasure from the trip to the mysterious and magical world of collection.
Dear collectors!
StampLake.com are working for you and it's very important for us, that you can always find and buy in our store exactly what you are looking for and dreaming about. Therefore, if you do not succeed in finding the item, let us know and we will find and order the product you are interested in.
Features and further details
Dear collectors! StampLake.com are working for you and it's very important for us, that you can always find and buy in our store exactly what you are looking for and dreaming about. Therefore, if you do not succeed in finding the item, let us know and we will find and order the product you are interested in.
Our company is made by collectors for collectors. We are selling various items which are related to the collection (coins, banknotes, faleras, antiques, various accessories, specialized literature and much else). Definitely here you will find a lot of necessary and useful items which you are interested in. We are always glad to meet you personally and definitely you will find the item you are interested in.
Contact us
We can be contacted at any time through eBay messages if you have any questions, comments or product requests. We will respond to you within 24-48 hours and do our best to help you out! We encourage our customers to contact us with any questions or concerns! We'd like to be sure you are completely satisfied with your purchase.
| Payment | PAYPAL , VISA , MASTERCARD , MASESTRO , AMERICAN EXPRESS |
|---|---|
| Shipping | WITH TRACKING NUMBER IN 1-2 WORKING DAYS AFTER PAYMENT |
| Disclaimer | 14 days returns accepted, buyer pays return shipping cost |
Best regards from STAMPLAKE.COM