100% Original Old Stamp
Netherlands 1967 - Space - FDC - Cosmic Symposium Issue
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History of the post and postage stamps of the Netherlands
Material from Wikipedia — free encyclopedia
Flag of the Netherlands Kingdom of the Netherlands Netherlands
Koninkrijk der Nederlanden
The extinguished postage stamp of the Netherlands with a face value
of 5 cents from a series first issued in 1852 (Sc #??)
Mail History
The post office has been in existence since 1500
Member of the UPU since July 1 , 1875
Monetary system
1 guilder (florin) = 100 cents
The first postage stamps
Standard 1852
Commemorative 1907
Semi - post 1906
Surcharge 1870
Service 1913-1918
Telegraph 1877-1903
Parcel 1923-1924
Airmail 1921
Automatic 1989
Other stamps of postal orders (1884), stamps for correspondence of interned soldiers (1916), stamps of non-carrying mail (1921)
Post Office Block 1965
Philately
The WNS participant does not participate
FIP member from the country Royal Federation of Philatelic Societies of the Netherlands
Koninklijke Nederlandse Bond v. Filatelisten Verenigingen Office, Postbus 4034, NL-3502 HA Utrecht, Netherlands
The company's website knbf.nl
Map of the Netherlands
Wikimedia Commons logo Media files on Wikimedia Commons
The history of mail and postage stamps of the Netherlands describes the development of postal communication in the Kingdom of the Netherlands, located in Western Europe next to the North Sea (from the north and west), Belgium (in the south) and Germany (in the east), with its capital in Amsterdam, and can be conditionally divided into the home-market period and the period of use in the circulation of postal stamps (since 1852[1]). The Netherlands is a member of the Universal Postal Union (since 1875)[2].
Content
1 Development of mail
1.1 Early history
1.2 Further development
2 Issues of postage stamps
2.1 First stamps
2.2 Subsequent releases
2.3 World War II
2.3.1 The Government of the Netherlands in exile
2.4 Post-war period
2.5 Provincial postage stamps
2.6 Overprints on postage stamps of the Netherlands
3 Other types of postage stamps
3.1 Airmail
3.2 Additional payments
3.3 Monitoring the payment of transfers
3.4 For correspondence of interned soldiers
3.5 Telegraphic
3.6 Settlement parcels
3.7 Stamps of non-current mail
3.8 Official
3.9 Vintage booklets
3.10 Stamps of the printing machine
4 Preliminary cancellation of postage stamps
5 Private Mail
6 International Court of Justice of the United Nations
7 Development of philately
8 See also
9 Notes
10 Literature
11 Links
Mail Development
Early history
The European postal system known in the history of the post office, Thurn and Taxis, was of Spanish-Dutch origin. In 1500, Franz von Taxis was awarded the title of fr. capitaine et maistre des postes in the Netherlands and Burgundy. According to the agreement concluded in 1504 with King Philip the Handsome, Franz von Taxis undertook to establish and maintain a post office between the Netherlands and the courts of the emperor and the kings of France and Spain[3].
The postal dynasty of Taxis, founded by Johann Baptist von Taxis, had separate branches that operated, including in the Netherlands, and rendered great services in the development of postal communications. The main early postal line of the Thurn-and-Taxis post ran along the route Brussels — Vienna — Italy[3].
Further development
The government post office in the Netherlands was first established in 1752. At the end of the XIX — beginning of the XX century, the Main Directorate of Posts and Telegraphs of the country was part of the Ministry of Trade and Railways. Postal operations were conducted by post offices (Netherlands postkantoren) and auxiliary postal places (hulpkantoren)[3].
In 1852, the first postage stamps of the Netherlands were issued (see below), which were stamped with calendar stamps with the name of the city, the date (with and without specifying the year) and with the inscription of the Netherlands. "Franko" ("Franco")[4]. In 1861, the post office introduced a stamp with the word "franco" in a rectangular frame[4].
The Netherlands was among the first States to sign the Universal Postal Convention on October 9, 1874. According to the data on the number and activity of postal institutions in 1894, there were[3]:
1,288 postal institutions, which amounted to one postal institution per 25.8 km2 and per 8,738 inhabitants of the country;
244,776,000 shipments, including:
79,944 thousand letters,
36,792 thousand open letters,
118 276 thousand works of print,
3151 thousand postal transfers and
4518 thousand parcels.
There was an average of 6.8 postal items per inhabitant of the Netherlands. The excess of the postal administration's income over expenses, in terms of rubles of the Russian Empire at that time, amounted to 121,000 rubles[3].
At the Washington UPU Congress of 1897[de] The Netherlands has joined the international agreement on the forwarding of periodicals. Postal orders in the Netherlands were sent by official procedure directly from the postal place of departure to the postal destination, which paid money to the addressee at home or called him to receive money by summons. In the Netherlands, postal bons (bons de poste) were also used — postal transfers for small certain amounts, which were sold in postal institutions at a nominal price with a commission surcharge and could be presented for payment within a certain period of time at any postal institution of the country that performed the corresponding operations[3].
At the Lisbon UPU Congress of 1885[de] The Netherlands is among the States that have concluded an agreement among themselves on mutual operations of postal orders[de]. In 1905, this country signed an agreement on the mutual exchange of postal money transfers with Russia[3].
In 1903, the Netherlands ranked fifth in the world in terms of the density of the postal network, having one postal institution of 24.2 km2[5].
Postage stamp issues
The first stamps
The first postage stamps of the Netherlands were issued on January 1, 1852[1][4]. The series consisted of three postage stamps without teeth[4]. The stamps depicted King Willem III[6] and had the inscription of the Netherlands "Post Zegel" ("Postage stamp")[4]. Interestingly, until 1867, the stamps did not indicate their nationality[7].
Postage stamps in denominations of 5 and 10 cents were printed until 1862-1863, with a circulation of over 15 million complete series)[4].
Subsequent releases
In May 1864, postage stamps of the same denominations with toothed and new drawings were put into circulation[4].
In 1867, new postage stamps of six different denominations were issued, and on all stamps the figures were of two types[4]. For the first time, the name of the state was indicated on the stamps of this series: "Nederland" ("Netherlands")[4]. The whole series is known in the toothless version[4].
Until 1906, the post office issued only standard stamps, and in 1876 postage stamps of low denominations were issued, the figure of which was the nominal value[4]. This tradition exists to the present time[4].
In 1906, the first charity stamps were issued with an additional payment to the tuberculosis control fund[4].
In 1907, the first series of commemorative stamps was issued for the 300th anniversary of the birth of Admiral de Ruyter, and these stamps were used only to pay for the shipment of domestic mail[4].
In 1919-1923, due to the increase in postal tariffs, an overprint of the new tariff was made on several postage stamps[4].
In 1923, due to a strike of printing workers, postage stamps in denominations of 5 and 10 cents were issued without teeth[4].
The opening of the International Philatelic Exhibition in The Hague in September 1924 was dedicated to the issue of three standard stamps in modified colors, which were extinguished at the exhibition with three different special stamps[4].
In December 1924, a series of stamps with an additional payment to the Children's aid fund was put into circulation, which has since been issued annually, except for 1942-1944, in November—December[4].
Another traditionally issued series are the so-called "summer stamps" with an additional payment for cultural purposes, which have been issued since 1935 with a break in 1942-1946[4].
One of the characteristic features of postage stamps of the Netherlands are the teeth of roll stamps[4]. Stamps produced in rolls of 500 and 1000 stamps, as well as in sheets (since 1926), do not have two external and two central holes on the short side[4]. Perforation of this type appeared in 1925[4]. In 1928, such a notching was introduced on all sides of the postage stamp[4]. In 1930, a new tooth was released: there is no one extreme hole on the short side of the stamp[4]. Since the middle of 1934, the special toothing for roll stamps has been abolished[4].
In 1927, the Netherlands Post attempted to introduce a new experimental toothing, in which there are two groups of three holes on the long side of the stamp[4]. Only one standard stamp with a face value of 7½ cents in purple, issued in an edition of 3,000 copies, had such a tooth.[4]
World War II
During World War II, the Netherlands was occupied by Germany[6]. A pro-fascist occupation government was formed in the country, and the issue of postage stamps was continued, while postage stamps of previous issues remained in circulation, with the exception of stamps with the portrait of the queen[4]. A number of postal and charity stamps were also issued[6].
In October 1940, an overprint of the new value was made on postage stamps of low denominations of the standard series.
In April 1941, a new standard series was released, which was withdrawn from circulation on June 30, 1948[4].
The second series of standard stamps issued during the occupation with symbols and portraits was withdrawn from circulation on May 31, 1946[4].
European Union
Austria Belgium Bulgaria Croatia Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Germany Greece Hungary Ireland Italy Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malta Netherlands Poland Portugal Romania Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden United Kingdom
Special administrative regions of the People's Republic of China, participates as "Hong Kong, China" and "Macao China". Officially the Republic of China, participates as "Separate Customs Territory of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen and Matsu", and "Chinese Taipei" in short.
he Soviet Union (Russian: Сове́тский Сою́з, tr. Sovétsky Soyúz, IPA: [sɐˈvʲɛt͡skʲɪj sɐˈjus] (About this sound listen)), officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (Russian: Сою́з Сове́тских Социалисти́ческих Респу́блик, tr. Soyúz Sovétskikh Sotsialistícheskikh Respúblik, IPA: [sɐˈjus sɐˈvʲɛtskʲɪx sətsɨəlʲɪsˈtʲitɕɪskʲɪx rʲɪˈspublʲɪk] (About this sound listen)), abbreviated as the USSR (Russian: СССР, tr. SSSR), was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. Nominally a union of multiple national Soviet republics,[a] its government and economy were highly centralized. The country was a one-party state, governed by the Communist Party with Moscow as its capital in its largest republic, the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic. Other major urban centres were Leningrad, Kiev, Minsk, Tashkent and Novosibirsk. The Soviet Union was one of the five recognized nuclear weapons states and possessed the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction.[7] It was a founding permanent member of the United Nations Security Council, as well as a member of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) and the leading member of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA) and the Warsaw Pact.
The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917, when the Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, overthrew the Russian Provisional Government which had replaced Tsar Nicholas II during World War I. In 1922, after a civil war, the Soviet Union was formed with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian and Byelorussian republics. Following Lenin's death in 1924 and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Under Stalin's leadership, the Soviet Union transitioned from a market economy into a centrally planned economy which led to a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization. As industrial production skyrocketed, the Soviet Union achieved full employment, implemented a universal healthcare system, sharply reduced illiteracy, and provided guarantees of paid vacations, rest homes, and recreational clubs. This period of industrialization was a time of enormous improvements in the standard of living for millions of people in the country, starkly contrasting with the situations of other countries during the Great Depression, but was also a time characterized by major institutional shortcomings and failures. In the 1930s, with the rise of fascism in Europe, the Communist Party pursued aggressive campaigns to suppress potential counter-revolution, fermenting political paranoia which culminated in the Great Purge in which extrajudicial arrests and executions of suspected counter-revolutionaries led to an estimated 600,000 deaths. As a result of these mass arrests, penal labor through the Gulag system was used to construct infrastructure projects, though this consistently proved to be an inefficient system throughout its existence.[8] Increased demand for agricultural products to pay for industrialization combined with a relatively low harvest yield led to the famine of 1932–33 in which an estimated 2.4 to 4 million people died in the country's agricultural centers of Ukraine, southern Russia, and Kazakhstan.[9][10]
After the rise of Adolf Hitler in Germany, Stalin tried repeatedly to form an anti-fascist alliance with other European countries. However, finding no support, shortly before World War II, the Soviet Union became the last major country to sign a treaty with Germany with the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, after which the two countries invaded Poland in September 1939. In June 1941, the pact collapsed as Germany invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theatre of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at intense battles such as Stalingrad and Kursk. The territories overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Soviet Union; the postwar division of Europe into capitalist and communist halves would lead to increased tensions with the West, led by the United States.
The Cold War emerged by 1947, as the Eastern Bloc, united under the Warsaw Pact in 1955, confronted the Western Bloc, united under NATO in 1949. On 5 March 1953, Stalin died and was quickly succeeded by Nikita Khrushchev, who in 1956 denounced Stalin and began the De-Stalinization of Soviet society through the Khrushchev Thaw. The Soviet Union took an early lead in the Space Race, with the first artificial satellite and the first human spaceflight. Khrushchev was removed from power by his colleagues in 1964 and was succeeded as head of state by Leonid Brezhnev. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, but tensions resumed with the Soviet–Afghan War in 1979. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost (government transparency) and perestroika (openness, restructuring). Under Gorbachev, the role of the Communist Party in governing the state was removed from the constitution, causing a surge of severe political instability to set in. The Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989, Soviet satellite states in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist governments.
With the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the union republics, Gorbachev tried to avert a dissolution of the Soviet Union in the post-Cold War era. A March 1991 referendum, boycotted by some republics, resulted in a majority of participating citizens voting in favor of preserving the union as a renewed federation. Gorbachev's power was greatly diminished after Russian President Boris Yeltsin played a high-profile role in facing down an abortive August 1991 coup d'état attempted by Communist Party hardliners. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the remaining twelve constituent republics emerged as independent post-Soviet states. The Russian Federation—formerly the Russian SFSR—assumed the Soviet Union's rights and obligations and is recognized as the successor state of the Soviet Union.[11][12][13] In summing up the international ramifications of these events, Vladislav Zubok stated: "The collapse of the Soviet empire was an event of epochal geopolitical, military, ideological and economic significance.
1995 CIA disinformation controversy CIA Kennedy assassination conspiracy theory Funkspiel Habbush letter Information Operations Roadmap Jihadunspun.com Jonestown conspiracy theories K-1000 battleship Mafkarat al Islam Media censorship and disinformation during the Gezi Park protests Mohamed Atta's alleged Prague connection Niger uranium forgeries Operation INFEKTION Operation Neptune Operation Shocker Operation Toucan Pope Pius XII and Russia Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections Seat 12 Strategy of tension Trolls from Olgino U.S. Army Field Manual 30-31B Web brigades Yellow rain
Countering
disinformation
Active Measures Working Group Counter Misinformation Team Countering Foreign Propaganda and Disinformation Act East StratCom Team FactCheck.org PolitiFact Snopes.com United States Information Agency
Related series: Fraud • Media manipulation • Propaganda.
Material from Wikipedia — free encyclopedia
Flag of the Netherlands Kingdom of the Netherlands Netherlands
Koninkrijk der Nederlanden
The extinguished postage stamp of the Netherlands with a face value
of 5 cents from a series first issued in 1852 (Sc #??)
Mail History
The post office has been in existence since 1500
Member of the UPU since July 1 , 1875
Monetary system
1 guilder (florin) = 100 cents
The first postage stamps
Standard 1852
Commemorative 1907
Semi - post 1906
Surcharge 1870
Service 1913-1918
Telegraph 1877-1903
Parcel 1923-1924
Airmail 1921
Automatic 1989
Other stamps of postal orders (1884), stamps for correspondence of interned soldiers (1916), stamps of non-carrying mail (1921)
Post Office Block 1965
Philately
The WNS participant does not participate
FIP member from the country Royal Federation of Philatelic Societies of the Netherlands
Koninklijke Nederlandse Bond v. Filatelisten Verenigingen Office, Postbus 4034, NL-3502 HA Utrecht, Netherlands
The company's website knbf.nl
Map of the Netherlands
Wikimedia Commons logo Media files on Wikimedia Commons
The history of mail and postage stamps of the Netherlands describes the development of postal communication in the Kingdom of the Netherlands, located in Western Europe next to the North Sea (from the north and west), Belgium (in the south) and Germany (in the east), with its capital in Amsterdam, and can be conditionally divided into the home-market period and the period of use in the circulation of postal stamps (since 1852[1]). The Netherlands is a member of the Universal Postal Union (since 1875)[2].
Content
1 Development of mail
1.1 Early history
1.2 Further development
2 Issues of postage stamps
2.1 First stamps
2.2 Subsequent releases
2.3 World War II
2.3.1 The Government of the Netherlands in exile
2.4 Post-war period
2.5 Provincial postage stamps
2.6 Overprints on postage stamps of the Netherlands
3 Other types of postage stamps
3.1 Airmail
3.2 Additional payments
3.3 Monitoring the payment of transfers
3.4 For correspondence of interned soldiers
3.5 Telegraphic
3.6 Settlement parcels
3.7 Stamps of non-current mail
3.8 Official
3.9 Vintage booklets
3.10 Stamps of the printing machine
4 Preliminary cancellation of postage stamps
5 Private Mail
6 International Court of Justice of the United Nations
7 Development of philately
8 See also
9 Notes
10 Literature
11 Links
Mail Development
Early history
The European postal system known in the history of the post office, Thurn and Taxis, was of Spanish-Dutch origin. In 1500, Franz von Taxis was awarded the title of fr. capitaine et maistre des postes in the Netherlands and Burgundy. According to the agreement concluded in 1504 with King Philip the Handsome, Franz von Taxis undertook to establish and maintain a post office between the Netherlands and the courts of the emperor and the kings of France and Spain[3].
The postal dynasty of Taxis, founded by Johann Baptist von Taxis, had separate branches that operated, including in the Netherlands, and rendered great services in the development of postal communications. The main early postal line of the Thurn-and-Taxis post ran along the route Brussels — Vienna — Italy[3].
Further development
The government post office in the Netherlands was first established in 1752. At the end of the XIX — beginning of the XX century, the Main Directorate of Posts and Telegraphs of the country was part of the Ministry of Trade and Railways. Postal operations were conducted by post offices (Netherlands postkantoren) and auxiliary postal places (hulpkantoren)[3].
In 1852, the first postage stamps of the Netherlands were issued (see below), which were stamped with calendar stamps with the name of the city, the date (with and without specifying the year) and with the inscription of the Netherlands. "Franko" ("Franco")[4]. In 1861, the post office introduced a stamp with the word "franco" in a rectangular frame[4].
The Netherlands was among the first States to sign the Universal Postal Convention on October 9, 1874. According to the data on the number and activity of postal institutions in 1894, there were[3]:
1,288 postal institutions, which amounted to one postal institution per 25.8 km2 and per 8,738 inhabitants of the country;
244,776,000 shipments, including:
79,944 thousand letters,
36,792 thousand open letters,
118 276 thousand works of print,
3151 thousand postal transfers and
4518 thousand parcels.
There was an average of 6.8 postal items per inhabitant of the Netherlands. The excess of the postal administration's income over expenses, in terms of rubles of the Russian Empire at that time, amounted to 121,000 rubles[3].
At the Washington UPU Congress of 1897[de] The Netherlands has joined the international agreement on the forwarding of periodicals. Postal orders in the Netherlands were sent by official procedure directly from the postal place of departure to the postal destination, which paid money to the addressee at home or called him to receive money by summons. In the Netherlands, postal bons (bons de poste) were also used — postal transfers for small certain amounts, which were sold in postal institutions at a nominal price with a commission surcharge and could be presented for payment within a certain period of time at any postal institution of the country that performed the corresponding operations[3].
At the Lisbon UPU Congress of 1885[de] The Netherlands is among the States that have concluded an agreement among themselves on mutual operations of postal orders[de]. In 1905, this country signed an agreement on the mutual exchange of postal money transfers with Russia[3].
In 1903, the Netherlands ranked fifth in the world in terms of the density of the postal network, having one postal institution of 24.2 km2[5].
Postage stamp issues
The first stamps
The first postage stamps of the Netherlands were issued on January 1, 1852[1][4]. The series consisted of three postage stamps without teeth[4]. The stamps depicted King Willem III[6] and had the inscription of the Netherlands "Post Zegel" ("Postage stamp")[4]. Interestingly, until 1867, the stamps did not indicate their nationality[7].
Postage stamps in denominations of 5 and 10 cents were printed until 1862-1863, with a circulation of over 15 million complete series)[4].
Subsequent releases
In May 1864, postage stamps of the same denominations with toothed and new drawings were put into circulation[4].
In 1867, new postage stamps of six different denominations were issued, and on all stamps the figures were of two types[4]. For the first time, the name of the state was indicated on the stamps of this series: "Nederland" ("Netherlands")[4]. The whole series is known in the toothless version[4].
Until 1906, the post office issued only standard stamps, and in 1876 postage stamps of low denominations were issued, the figure of which was the nominal value[4]. This tradition exists to the present time[4].
In 1906, the first charity stamps were issued with an additional payment to the tuberculosis control fund[4].
In 1907, the first series of commemorative stamps was issued for the 300th anniversary of the birth of Admiral de Ruyter, and these stamps were used only to pay for the shipment of domestic mail[4].
In 1919-1923, due to the increase in postal tariffs, an overprint of the new tariff was made on several postage stamps[4].
In 1923, due to a strike of printing workers, postage stamps in denominations of 5 and 10 cents were issued without teeth[4].
The opening of the International Philatelic Exhibition in The Hague in September 1924 was dedicated to the issue of three standard stamps in modified colors, which were extinguished at the exhibition with three different special stamps[4].
In December 1924, a series of stamps with an additional payment to the Children's aid fund was put into circulation, which has since been issued annually, except for 1942-1944, in November—December[4].
Another traditionally issued series are the so-called "summer stamps" with an additional payment for cultural purposes, which have been issued since 1935 with a break in 1942-1946[4].
One of the characteristic features of postage stamps of the Netherlands are the teeth of roll stamps[4]. Stamps produced in rolls of 500 and 1000 stamps, as well as in sheets (since 1926), do not have two external and two central holes on the short side[4]. Perforation of this type appeared in 1925[4]. In 1928, such a notching was introduced on all sides of the postage stamp[4]. In 1930, a new tooth was released: there is no one extreme hole on the short side of the stamp[4]. Since the middle of 1934, the special toothing for roll stamps has been abolished[4].
In 1927, the Netherlands Post attempted to introduce a new experimental toothing, in which there are two groups of three holes on the long side of the stamp[4]. Only one standard stamp with a face value of 7½ cents in purple, issued in an edition of 3,000 copies, had such a tooth.[4]
World War II
During World War II, the Netherlands was occupied by Germany[6]. A pro-fascist occupation government was formed in the country, and the issue of postage stamps was continued, while postage stamps of previous issues remained in circulation, with the exception of stamps with the portrait of the queen[4]. A number of postal and charity stamps were also issued[6].
In October 1940, an overprint of the new value was made on postage stamps of low denominations of the standard series.
In April 1941, a new standard series was released, which was withdrawn from circulation on June 30, 1948[4].
The second series of standard stamps issued during the occupation with symbols and portraits was withdrawn from circulation on May 31, 1946[4].
European Union
Austria Belgium Bulgaria Croatia Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Germany Greece Hungary Ireland Italy Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malta Netherlands Poland Portugal Romania Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden United Kingdom
Special administrative regions of the People's Republic of China, participates as "Hong Kong, China" and "Macao China". Officially the Republic of China, participates as "Separate Customs Territory of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen and Matsu", and "Chinese Taipei" in short.
he Soviet Union (Russian: Сове́тский Сою́з, tr. Sovétsky Soyúz, IPA: [sɐˈvʲɛt͡skʲɪj sɐˈjus] (About this sound listen)), officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (Russian: Сою́з Сове́тских Социалисти́ческих Респу́блик, tr. Soyúz Sovétskikh Sotsialistícheskikh Respúblik, IPA: [sɐˈjus sɐˈvʲɛtskʲɪx sətsɨəlʲɪsˈtʲitɕɪskʲɪx rʲɪˈspublʲɪk] (About this sound listen)), abbreviated as the USSR (Russian: СССР, tr. SSSR), was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. Nominally a union of multiple national Soviet republics,[a] its government and economy were highly centralized. The country was a one-party state, governed by the Communist Party with Moscow as its capital in its largest republic, the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic. Other major urban centres were Leningrad, Kiev, Minsk, Tashkent and Novosibirsk. The Soviet Union was one of the five recognized nuclear weapons states and possessed the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction.[7] It was a founding permanent member of the United Nations Security Council, as well as a member of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) and the leading member of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA) and the Warsaw Pact.
The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917, when the Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, overthrew the Russian Provisional Government which had replaced Tsar Nicholas II during World War I. In 1922, after a civil war, the Soviet Union was formed with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian and Byelorussian republics. Following Lenin's death in 1924 and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Under Stalin's leadership, the Soviet Union transitioned from a market economy into a centrally planned economy which led to a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization. As industrial production skyrocketed, the Soviet Union achieved full employment, implemented a universal healthcare system, sharply reduced illiteracy, and provided guarantees of paid vacations, rest homes, and recreational clubs. This period of industrialization was a time of enormous improvements in the standard of living for millions of people in the country, starkly contrasting with the situations of other countries during the Great Depression, but was also a time characterized by major institutional shortcomings and failures. In the 1930s, with the rise of fascism in Europe, the Communist Party pursued aggressive campaigns to suppress potential counter-revolution, fermenting political paranoia which culminated in the Great Purge in which extrajudicial arrests and executions of suspected counter-revolutionaries led to an estimated 600,000 deaths. As a result of these mass arrests, penal labor through the Gulag system was used to construct infrastructure projects, though this consistently proved to be an inefficient system throughout its existence.[8] Increased demand for agricultural products to pay for industrialization combined with a relatively low harvest yield led to the famine of 1932–33 in which an estimated 2.4 to 4 million people died in the country's agricultural centers of Ukraine, southern Russia, and Kazakhstan.[9][10]
After the rise of Adolf Hitler in Germany, Stalin tried repeatedly to form an anti-fascist alliance with other European countries. However, finding no support, shortly before World War II, the Soviet Union became the last major country to sign a treaty with Germany with the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, after which the two countries invaded Poland in September 1939. In June 1941, the pact collapsed as Germany invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theatre of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at intense battles such as Stalingrad and Kursk. The territories overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Soviet Union; the postwar division of Europe into capitalist and communist halves would lead to increased tensions with the West, led by the United States.
The Cold War emerged by 1947, as the Eastern Bloc, united under the Warsaw Pact in 1955, confronted the Western Bloc, united under NATO in 1949. On 5 March 1953, Stalin died and was quickly succeeded by Nikita Khrushchev, who in 1956 denounced Stalin and began the De-Stalinization of Soviet society through the Khrushchev Thaw. The Soviet Union took an early lead in the Space Race, with the first artificial satellite and the first human spaceflight. Khrushchev was removed from power by his colleagues in 1964 and was succeeded as head of state by Leonid Brezhnev. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, but tensions resumed with the Soviet–Afghan War in 1979. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost (government transparency) and perestroika (openness, restructuring). Under Gorbachev, the role of the Communist Party in governing the state was removed from the constitution, causing a surge of severe political instability to set in. The Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989, Soviet satellite states in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist governments.
With the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the union republics, Gorbachev tried to avert a dissolution of the Soviet Union in the post-Cold War era. A March 1991 referendum, boycotted by some republics, resulted in a majority of participating citizens voting in favor of preserving the union as a renewed federation. Gorbachev's power was greatly diminished after Russian President Boris Yeltsin played a high-profile role in facing down an abortive August 1991 coup d'état attempted by Communist Party hardliners. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the remaining twelve constituent republics emerged as independent post-Soviet states. The Russian Federation—formerly the Russian SFSR—assumed the Soviet Union's rights and obligations and is recognized as the successor state of the Soviet Union.[11][12][13] In summing up the international ramifications of these events, Vladislav Zubok stated: "The collapse of the Soviet empire was an event of epochal geopolitical, military, ideological and economic significance.
1995 CIA disinformation controversy CIA Kennedy assassination conspiracy theory Funkspiel Habbush letter Information Operations Roadmap Jihadunspun.com Jonestown conspiracy theories K-1000 battleship Mafkarat al Islam Media censorship and disinformation during the Gezi Park protests Mohamed Atta's alleged Prague connection Niger uranium forgeries Operation INFEKTION Operation Neptune Operation Shocker Operation Toucan Pope Pius XII and Russia Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections Seat 12 Strategy of tension Trolls from Olgino U.S. Army Field Manual 30-31B Web brigades Yellow rain
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Related series: Fraud • Media manipulation • Propaganda.
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Type of capital investments, as investments in antiques is growing in popularity more and more each day. It's quite a profitable and safe investment, as prices for antiques are steadily growing (on average 20% per year), which often exceeds the growth of stocks in the stock market. In addition, investment in antiques enriches not only materially bringing income but also spiritually, bringing esthetic pleasure.
However, investing money in antiques is a complex activity. In order to make substantial amount of money, You need to acquire special knowledge and build relationships in the appropriate community. It is necessary to understand what things really have the potential to increase in value and which, on the contrary, are hopeless. The word "antique" has Latin roots and means "old". The core value of antiques is in the fact that they are old. Age objects which are considered as antique, can start from 10-15 years, depending on the historical, physical and chemical characteristics of the object. Often, investment in antiques and collecting go hand in hand. That's why making money on old things is going better at those who are careful to things and who are orientating in the history very well. Fortunately for new investors, in the environment of antiques consultants are available whose main task is to help the investor to separate the "wheat from the chaff" and to make competent investment. It should be noted that to start investing in antiques it's not necessary to have a large amount of money.
A lot of people begin with inexpensive paintings of young artists and a variety of interesting subjects. As a rule, in the beginning investor collects works of art in the style that appeales to him, purely for pleasure, and much later investor begins to think about making money.
You can buy antiques literally everywhere, even at the grandmother, neighbor. However, if you are not familiar with antiques, it is wiser to trust the various antique shops, exhibition and museum authority. Such authority have expertise in selling things and do not allow to enter counterfeits into the market.
If you want to do engage in such a profitable and exciting business, as investing in antiques, we will be happy to offer You assistance which will be provided by our experienced consultants who can help You see all the "pitfalls", to make the right choices and get real pleasure from the trip to the mysterious and magical world of collection.
Dear collectors!
StampLake.com are working for you and it's very important for us, that you can always find and buy in our store exactly what you are looking for and dreaming about. Therefore, if you do not succeed in finding the item, let us know and we will find and order the product you are interested in.
Features and further details
Dear collectors! StampLake.com are working for you and it's very important for us, that you can always find and buy in our store exactly what you are looking for and dreaming about. Therefore, if you do not succeed in finding the item, let us know and we will find and order the product you are interested in.
Our company is made by collectors for collectors. We are selling various items which are related to the collection (coins, banknotes, faleras, antiques, various accessories, specialized literature and much else). Definitely here you will find a lot of necessary and useful items which you are interested in. We are always glad to meet you personally and definitely you will find the item you are interested in.
Contact us
We can be contacted at any time through eBay messages if you have any questions, comments or product requests. We will respond to you within 24-48 hours and do our best to help you out! We encourage our customers to contact us with any questions or concerns! We'd like to be sure you are completely satisfied with your purchase.
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