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TITANIC,
SINKING OF THE. On 12 April 1912 the White Star Line's royal mail
steamer Titanic, a ship many considered unsinkable, set sail on its
maiden voyage from Southampton, England, with stops at Cherbourg,
France, and Queenstown, Ireland. On board were many of the most wealthy
and influential people in early twentieth-century society and hundreds
of emigrants. On 14 April, at 11:40 p.m., the Titanic, some four hundred
miles from the coast of Newfoundland, hit an iceberg on its starboard
side. Shortly after midnight the crew was instructed to prepare the
lifeboats and to alert the passengers. The lifeboats had capacity for
one-half of the passengers, and some of the boats left not fully loaded.
At 2:20 a.m. the Titanic disappeared.
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Although
the Titanic sent out distress calls, few vessels carried wireless
radios, and those that did staffed them only during daytime hours. The
eastbound liner Carpathia, some fifty miles away, responded to the
Titanic's signals and began taking on survivors. The Carpathia rescued
705 people, but 1,523 died.
Five days after the sinking, the
White Star Line chartered a commercial cable company vessel, the
Mackay-Bennett, to search the crash area for bodies. Ultimately three
other ships joined the search, and 328 bodies were recovered. To aid in
identification, hair color, weight, age, birthmarks, jewelry, clothing,
and pocket contents were recorded. Nevertheless 128 bodies remained
unidentified.
Amid calls for an investigation of the tragedy,
hearings began in the United States and in England. Neither inquiry
blamed the White Star Line, but both issued a series of recommendations,
including lifeboats for all passengers, lifeboat drills, a
twenty-four-hour wireless, and an international ice patrol to track
icebergs.
The Titanic story evolved into a major cultural
phenomenon. The fascination began with the initial newspaper reports,
which, while exaggerating stories of supposed heroism, led to the
erection of countless memorial plaques, statues, fountains, and
buildings in both England and the United States.
After this
initial outpouring of grief, interest in the Titanic lagged, but
following the publication in 1955 of Walter Lord's A Night to Remember,
additional books and films about the tragedy appeared. Robert Ballard's
discovery of the wrecked Titanic in 1985 and the subsequent publication
in 1987 of his book, The Discovery of the Titanic, brought a deluge of
Titanica. Included in this flood were video games, CD-ROMs, classical
music scores, documentaries, and traveling exhibits of artifacts,
mementos, and memorabilia from the ship. In 1997 a Broadway musical was
staged, and in 1999 James Cameron directed an epic film. The discovery
also revealed new information that it was not a long gash but a
strategically placed hull puncture that sank the ship. This information
in turn raised speculation about the strength and reliability of the
steel and rivets used in its construction and renewed questions about
the vessel's speed, iceberg warnings, the conduct of the crew and
certain first-class passengers, treatment of third-class passengers, and
the ship on the horizon.
The Titanic saga seems unending. It
continually fascinates as a microcosm of the Edwardian world of the
early twentieth century. The wealth and status of its passengers, like
John Jacob Astor, Benjamin Guggenheim, Isadore and Ida Straus, and
Charles Thayer, represent the equivalents of rock music, entertainment,
and sports figures. The Titanic story has something for everyone—the
ultimate shipwreck, strictures against overconfidence in technology, the
results of greed and rampant capitalism, and what-ifs and
might-have-beens. The Titanic, if sinkable in reality, remains
unsinkable in cultural memory and imagination.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ballard, Robert D., with Rick Archbold. The Discovery of the "Titanic." New York: Warner, 1987.
Biel, Steven. Down with the Old Canoe: A Cultural History of the "Titanic" Disaster. New York: Norton, 1996.
Eaton, John P., and Charles A. Hass. "Titanic": Destination Disaster. New York: Norton, 1987
———. "Titanic": Triumph and Tragedy. New York: Norton, 1995.
Lord, Walter. A Night to Remember. New York: Holt, 1955.
———. The Night Lives On. New York: Morrow, 1986.
Lynch, Don, and Ken Marschall. "Titanic": An Illustrated History. Toronto: Madison Press, 1992.
Titanic Disaster
The
pride of the British-owned White Star Line, the Titanic was the largest
ship ever built when it made its first, ill-fated voyage in 1912. Like
most companies, the White Star Line was always searching for ways to
outperform the competition. Their main rival at the time was Cunard, the
company that manufactured the doomed Lusitania (sunk by the Germans in
1917) and the Mauritania. Both Cunard ships were impressive in terms of
speed. Their engines were state of the art, the finest produced at that
time. White Star Line's president, J. Bruce Ismay (1862–1937), was
confident, however, that he could produce a vessel that would be bigger,
heavier, and more luxurious than any ship to date.
Deemed indestructible
White
Star Line's plan to surpass its competition produced the Titanic. At
883 feet (269.1 meters, or 1/6 mile) long, 92 feet (28 meters) wide, and
104 feet (31.7 meters) tall, it dwarfed all other sailing vessels. It
boasted 46,328 tons (42,019.5 metric tons) of steel, and Ismay boasted
that it was “practically unsinkable.” After the sinking of the ship,
everyone would forget the “practically” part of his claim and label
Ismay a greedy scoundrel and a liar.
The Titanic cost $7.5
million to build (the equivalent of around $400 million today).
Passengers who could afford a first-class passage enjoyed use of the
on-deck heated swimming pool (the first of its kind), four electric
elevators, and a fully equipped gymnasium. They could eat in the elegant
dining hall (seating capacity of 554), or pay extra to enjoy their food
served on fine china and glassware in a more private setting. At any
time of day, these passengers could borrow books from the magnificent
library, then stroll to one of the decks to read while basking in the
sun. Those in need of a haircut visited one of two barbershops. For this
segment of the Titanic's passengers, the experience was one of
unforgettable luxury.
Less glamorous steerage class
Beneath
the grandeur of first and even second class was the steerage section of
the ship. Steerage was in stark contrast to the opulence (luxury) of the
top floors. There were no dining rooms nor dance floors for these
passengers: They slept in small, windowless rooms the size of closets,
in beds made up with rough, inferior-quality sheets and blankets.
Compared with the $4,350 one-way ticket for a first-class parlor
passage, the $40 steerage passage got its buyers little else than
transportation across the ocean.
Many passengers in third
class were women and children. A large number of them did not speak
English, which made communication with the White Star Line crew working
in third class difficult. Unlike their first- and second-class
shipmates, the passengers in third class were not given the required
lifeboat drill. It would prove to be a costly omission.
The
Titanic set out on its maiden (first) voyage on April 10, 1912. It
departed from Southampton, England, for a six-day voyage to New York.
Through the years, the number of people on board the Titanic has been
disputed. It is generally accepted that on the day the ship hit the
iceberg, 329 passengers were in first class, 285 were in second class,
and 710 were in third class. There were 899 crew members on board as
well.
Warning came too late
On the evening of April 14, 1912,
the captain and crew received more than one warning of ice in the area.
Despite those warnings, the Titanic forged ahead. The crew member on
lookout saw the iceberg before the collision. He rang the warning bell
three times. He phoned the bridge with the warning, but by then it was
too late. Thirty-seven seconds later, at 11:40 pm, the Titanic hit the
iceberg. It was about four hundred miles off the coast of Newfoundland,
Canada. Distress signals were immediately sent to other ships in the
area to let them know the Titanic needed help. The Carpathia was
nearest, but even so, was 58 miles (93 kilometers) away.
At 12:25
am, order was given to get women and children into the lifeboats.
Twenty minutes later, the first boat was lowered into the water. Even
though it could seat sixty-five people, only nineteen of the seats
were
filled. This underusage happened with all but two of the lifeboats (in
each of those two, capacity was overflowing with seventy passengers) and
would be a source of criticism in the investigation that followed.
Pandemonium
Those
unfortunate passengers riding in steerage were all but forgotten. In
the mass confusion above deck, the record remains unclear whether orders
were ever given to evacuate passengers from the lower decks. Some of
the gates to the upper deck were locked. Some passengers who did manage
to reach an open gate for escape were turned back by crew members. Other
crew allowed only women and children from third class to ascend the
stairs to rescue.
By the time third-class passengers were able to
get to the upper decks, most of the lifeboats were either rowing toward
the Carpathia or had already made it to the rescue ship. It would later
be revealed that, had the lifeboats been filled to capacity, another
473 passengers could have made their way to safety. All the women and
children lost in the disaster could have been saved.
At 2:20 am
on April 15, 1912, the Titanic disappeared beneath the sea. The ship
that had taken three years to build took fewer than three hours to sink.
Of the more than two thousand people on board, approximately fifteen
hundred died.
Official inquiry revealed desperation
An
investigation was conducted by British officials from May 2 to July 3,
1912. Crew members and survivors testified during the inquiry. Accounts
of what happened that fateful night varied greatly, which is common in
the aftermath of an event marked by mass confusion. Some eyewitnesses
reported that crew members were more interested in saving themselves
rather than the passengers. It was also reported that certain crew
members actually shot some passengers during the chaos, either to keep
order or to get themselves a spot on the lifeboats.
Whatever may
have happened that night, the first International Convention for Safety
of Life at Sea was called in London, England, in 1913. Rules and
regulations were established. Every ship would be required to have
enough lifeboat space for each passenger on board. A law now required
lifeboat drills for all passengers during each voyage. Ships would also
need to maintain a twenty-four-hour radio watch. Another direct result
of the tragedy was the formation of the International Ice Patrol. This
organization would warn ships of icebergs in the North Atlantic shipping
lanes.
A poster is a temporary promotion of an idea, product, or
event put up in a public space for mass consumption.[1] Typically,
posters include both textual and graphic elements, although a poster may
be either wholly graphical or wholly text. Posters are designed to be
both eye-catching and informative. Posters may be used for many
purposes. They are a frequent tool of advertisers (particularly of
events, musicians, and films), propagandists, protestors, and other
groups trying to communicate a message. Posters are also used for
reproductions of artwork, particularly famous works, and are generally
low-cost compared to the original artwork. The modern poster, as we know
it, however, dates back to the 1840s and 1850s when the printing
industry perfected colour lithography and made mass production
possible.[2]
History
"Moulin Rouge - La Goulue"
Toulouse-Lautrec, 1891
Lithograph poster for Ranch 10, a Western-themed play by Harry Meredith that opened in New York City in August 1882
Introduction
According
to the French historian Max Gallo, "for over two hundred years, posters
have been displayed in public places all over the world. Visually
striking, they have been designed to attract the attention of
passers-by, making us aware of a political viewpoint, enticing us to
attend specific events, or encouraging us to purchase a particular
product or service."[3] The modern poster, as we know it, however, dates
back to the mid-nineteenth century, when several separate, but related,
changes took place. First, the printing industry perfected colour
lithography and made mass production of large and inexpensive images
possible. Second, government censorship of public spaces in countries
such as France was lifted. And finally, advertisers began to market
mass-produced consumer goods to a growing populace in urban areas.[4]
"In
little more than a hundred years", writes poster expert John Barnicoat,
"it has come to be recognized as a vital art form, attracting artists
at every level, from painters such as Toulouse-Lautrec and Mucha to
theatrical and commercial designers."[5] They have ranged in styles from
Art Nouveau, Symbolism, Cubism, and Art Deco to the more formal Bauhaus
and the often incoherent hippie posters of the 1960s.
Mass production
The Queen of Chinatown by Joseph Jarrow, Broadway poster, 1899
Posters,
in the form of placards and posted bills, have been used since earliest
times, primarily for advertising and announcements. Purely textual
posters have a long history: they advertised the plays of Shakespeare
and made citizens aware of government proclamations for centuries. The
great revolution in posters, however, was the development of printing
techniques that allowed for cheap mass production and printing, notably
including the technique of lithography, which was invented in 1796 by
the German Alois Senefelder. The invention of lithography was soon
followed by chromolithography, which allowed for mass editions of
posters illustrated in vibrant colors to be printed.
Developing art form
By
the 1890s, the technique had spread throughout Europe. A number of
noted French artists created poster art in this period, foremost amongst
them Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, Jules Chéret, Eugène Grasset, Adolphe
Willette, Pierre Bonnard, Louis Anguetin, the brothers Léon and Alfred
Choubrac, Georges de Feure, and Henri-Gabriel Ibels.[6] Chéret is
considered to be the "father" of advertisement placards. He was a pencil
artist and a scene decorator, who founded a small lithography office in
Paris in 1866. He used striking characters, contrast, and bright
colors, and created more than 1000 advertisements, primarily for
exhibitions, theatres, and products. The industry soon attracted the
service of many aspiring painters who needed a source of revenue to
support themselves.
Chéret developed a new lithographic technique
that better suited the needs of advertisers: he added a lot more colour
which, in conjunction with innovative typography, rendered the poster
much more expressive. Chéret is said to have introduced sexuality in
advertising or, at least, to have exploited the feminine image as an
advertising ploy. In contrast with those previously painted by
Toulouse-Lautrec, Chéret's laughing and provocative feminine figures,
often called "chérettes", meant a new conception of art as being of
service to advertising.
Posters soon transformed the
thoroughfares of Paris, making the streets into what one contemporary
called "the poor man’s picture gallery."[7] Their commercial success was
such that some fine artists took up poster design in earnest. Some of
these artists, such as Alphonse Mucha, were in great demand and theatre
stars personally selected their own favorite artist to do the poster for
an upcoming performance. The popularity of poster art was such that in
1884 a major exhibition was held in Paris.
Golden age of the posters
Poster about Tungsram filaments, Hungary ca.1910
By
the 1890s, poster art had widespread use in other parts of Europe,
advertising everything from bicycles to bullfights. By the end of the
nineteenth century, during an era known as the Belle Époque, the
standing of the poster as a serious art form was raised even further.
Between 1895 and 1900, Jules Chéret created the Maîtres de l'Affiche
series (Masters of the Poster) that became not only a commercial
success, but is now recognized as an important historical publication.
Eugène
Grasset and Alphonse Mucha were also influential poster designers of
this generation, known for their Art Nouveau style and stylized figures,
particularly of women. Advertisement posters became a special type of
graphic art in the modern age. Poster artists such as Théophile
Steinlen, Albert Guillaume, Leonetto Cappiello, Henri Thiriet, and
others became important figures of their day, their art form transferred
to magazines for advertising as well as for social and political
commentary. Indeed, as design historian Elizabeth Guffey notes, “As
large, colorful posters began to command the spaces of public streets,
markets, and squares, the format itself took on a civic respectability
never afforded to Victorian handbills.”[8]
Poster for Ringling Brothers (circa 1899) featuring Madam Ada Castello and her horse, Jupiter
In
the United States, posters underwent a slightly different evolution. By
the 1850s, the advent of the traveling circus brought colorful posters
to tell citizens that a carnival was coming to town. While many of these
posters were beautifully printed, the earliest were mass-produced
woodcuts; that technique, as well as their subject matter, crowded
style, and bright colors, was often derided by contemporary critics. As
chromo-lithography began to reshape European posters, American artists
began to take that medium more seriously. Indeed, the work of designers
such as Edward Penfield and Will Bradley gained an audience in Europe as
well as America.
Decline and resurgence
Challenged by newer
modes of advertising, the poster as a communicative tool began to
decline after the First World War. Civic groups had long assailed the
poster, arguing that the nature of the poster made public spaces ugly.
But the real threat to posters came from newer forms of advertising.
Mass-market magazines, radio, and later, television, as well as
billboards all cut into advertiser's marketing budgets. While posters
continued to be made and advertised products, they were no longer
considered a primary form of advertising. More and more, the purpose of
posters shifted toward political and decorative uses.
Indeed, by
the mid 1960s, posters were reborn as part of a broader counter-cultural
shift. By 1968 the contemporary poster resurgence was described as
"half way between a passing fashion and a form of mass hysteria."[9]
Sometimes called a “second golden age” or "postermania"[10] however,
this resurgence of popularity saw posters used as decoration and
self-expression as much as public protest or advertising.[11]
Commercial uses
Office of War Information, Bureau of Special Services, 1943
By
the 1890s, poster art had widespread use in other parts of Europe,
advertising everything from bicycles to bullfights. Many posters have
had great artistic merit. These include the posters advertising consumer
products and entertainment, but also events such as the World's Fairs
and Colonial Exhibitions.
Political uses
The first widespread
use of illustrated posters for political ends occurred during the First
World War. War bond drives and recruitment posters soon replaced
commercial advertisements. German graphic designers who had pioneered
the simple Sachplakat style in the years leading up to the war, applied
their talents to the war effort. Artists working for the Allied cause
also adapted their art in wartime, as well.
During the Second
World War many posters were distributed by the U.S. government and often
were displayed in post offices. Many were designed to provide rationale
for adaptation to the rationing of supplies such as gasoline and foods.
The
1960s saw the rise of pop art and protest movements throughout the
West; both made great use of posters and contributed to the
revitalization of posters at this time. Perhaps the most acclaimed
posters were those produced by French students during the so-called,
"événements", of May 1968. During the 1968 Paris student riots and for
years to come, Jim Fitzpatrick's stylized poster of Marxist
revolutionary Che Guevara (based on the photograph, Guerrillero
Heroico), also became a common youthful symbol of rebellion.[12]
After
the September 11 attacks, in the United States, public schools across
the country hung framed posters of "In God We Trust" in their
"libraries, cafeterias, and classrooms." The American Family Association
supplied several 11-by-14-inch posters to school systems.[13]
Poster printing
Many
printing techniques are used to produce posters. While most posters are
mass-produced, posters may also be printed by hand or in limited
editions. Most posters are printed on one side and left blank on the
back, the better for affixing to a wall or other surface. Pin-up sized
posters are usually printed on A3 Standard Silk paper in full colour.
Upon purchase, most commercially available posters are often rolled up
into a cylindrical tube to allow for damage-free transportation.
Rolled-up posters may then be flattened under pressure for several hours
to regain their original form.
It is possible to use poster creation software to print large posters on standard home or office printers.
Poster collecting
There
exists a community that collect rare or vintage posters, analogous to
fine art collectors. Popular categories include Belle Époque, movies,
war and propaganda, and travel. Because of their low cost, the number of
forged posters is relatively low compared to other mediums.[14] The
International Vintage Poster Dealers Association (IVPDA) maintains a
list of reputable poster dealers.[15] Collectable poster artists include
Jules Chéret, Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, Alphonse Mucha, and Théophile
Steinlen.
Types of poster designs
Many posters, particularly
early posters, were used for advertising products. Posters continue to
be used for this purpose, with posters advertising films, music (both
concerts and recorded albums), comic books, and travel destinations
being particularly notable examples.
Propaganda and political posters
German propaganda poster, Weimar Republic, 1921
A soldier blowing a bugle. The poster states “‘Fall in’ answer now in your country’s hour of need.”
“Fall In” war poster created [between 1914 and 1918] from the Archives of Ontario poster collection.
During
the First and Second World Wars, recruiting posters became extremely
common, and many of them have persisted in the national consciousness,
such as the "Lord Kitchener Wants You" posters from the United Kingdom,
the "Uncle Sam wants you" posters from the United States, or the "Loose
Lips Sink Ships" posters[16] that warned of foreign spies. Also in
Canada, they were widespread.[17]
Posters during wartime were
also used for propaganda purposes, persuasion, and motivation, such as
the famous Rosie the Riveter posters that encouraged women to work in
factories during World War II. The Soviet Union also produced a plethora
of propaganda posters,[18] some of which became iconic representations
of the Great Patriotic War.
During the democratic revolutions of
1989 in Central and Eastern Europe the poster was a very important
weapon in the hand of the opposition. Brave printed and hand-made
political posters appeared on the Berlin Wall, on the statue of St.
Wenseslas in Prague, and around the unmarked grave of Imre Nagy in
Budapest. Their role was indispensable for democratic change. An example
of an influential political poster is Shepard Fairey's, Barack Obama
"HOPE" poster.
Movie posters
Main article: Film poster
The
film industry quickly discovered that vibrantly coloured posters were an
easy way to sell their films. Today, posters are produced for most
major films, and movie posters are some of the most actively collected.
The record price for a poster was set on November 15, 2005 when
US$690,000 was paid for a poster of Fritz Lang's 1927 film, Metropolis,
from the Reel Poster Gallery in London.[19] Other early horror and
science fiction posters are known to bring tremendous prices as well,
with an example from The Mummy realizing $452,000 in a 1997 Sotheby's
auction,[19] and posters from both The Black Cat and Bride of
Frankenstein selling for $334,600 in various Heritage Auctions.[20] The
1931 Frankenstein 6-sheet poster, of which only one copy is known to
exist, is considered to be the most valuable film poster in the
world.[21]
Travel posters
Poster advertising, proposing a
travel destination, or simply artistically articulating a place have
been made. An example is the Beach Town Posters series, a collection of
Art Deco travel posters of American beach resorts that epitomise the
advertising style of the 1920s and 1930s.[citation needed]
Railway posters
In
the early days of steam powered railways in Britain, the various rail
companies advertised their routes and services on simple printed sheets.
By the 1850s, with increasing competition and improvements in printing
technology, pictorial designs were being incorporated in their
advertising posters. The use of graphic artists began to influence the
design of the pictorial poster. In 1905, the London and North Western
Railway (LNWR) commissioned Norman Wilkinson to produce artwork for a
new landscape poster, advertising their rail and steam packet link to
Ireland. In 1908, for the Great Northern Railway (GNR), John Hassall
produced the famous image of the "Jolly Fisherman" with the "Skegness is
so Bracing" slogan. Fortunino Matania painted a number of posters for
the LMS. The development of this commercial art form throughout the
first half of the twentieth century reflected the changes in British
society, along with the changing styles of art, architecture, and
fashion as well as changing patterns of holiday making.[22] Terence
Cuneo produced poster art for the London, Midland and Scottish Railway,
the London and North Eastern Railway, and British Railways.[23]
Sheffield artist, Kenneth Steel, produced posters for British
Railways.[24]
Event poster, 2005
Exhibition posters. Malmö Konsthall's 25th anniversary in 2000.
Event posters
Posters
advertising events have become common. Any sort of public event, from a
rally to a play, may be advertised with posters. A few types of events
have become notable for their poster advertisements.
Boxing posters
Boxing
Posters were used in and around the venue to advertise the forthcoming
fight, date, and ticket prices, and they usually consisted of pictures
of each boxer. Boxing Posters vary in size and vibrancy, but are not
usually smaller than 18x22 inches. In the early days, few boxing posters
survived the event and have thus become a collectible.
Concert posters
Many
concerts, particularly rock concerts, have custom-designed posters that
are used as advertisement for the event. These often become collectors
items as well.
Music group promotional posters
Posters that
showcase a person's favorite artist or music group are popular in
teenagers' bedrooms, as well as in college dorm rooms and apartments.
Many posters have pictures of popular rock bands and artists.
Blacklight poster
Main article: Blacklight poster
Blacklight posters are designed to fluoresce or glow under a black light (ultraviolet light).
Pin-up posters
Pinup
posters, "pinups", or "cheesecake" posters are images of attractive
women designed to be displayed. They first became popular in the 1920s.
The popularity of pin-up girl posters has been erratic in recent
decades. Pin-ups such as Betty Grable and Jane Russell were highly
popular with soldiers during World War II, but much less so during the
Vietnam War. Large posters of television actresses, for example the red
swimsuit poster of Farrah Fawcett and the pink bikini poster of Cheryl
Tiegs, became popular during the 1970s and into the early 1980s.
An example of an affirmation poster
Affirmation posters
Main article: Affirmation posters
This
refers to decorative posters that are meant to be motivational and
inspirational. One popular series has a black background, a scene from
nature, and a word such as "Leadership" or "Opportunity". Another
version (usually framed and matted) uses a two-image hologram that
changes as the viewer walks past.
Comic book posters
The
resurgence of comic book popularity in the 1960s led to the mass
production of comic book posters in the 1970s and onward. These posters
typically feature popular characters in a variety of action poses.
The
fact that comic books are a niche market means that a given poster
usually has a smaller printing run than other genres of poster.
Therefore, older posters may be quite sought after by collectors.
Promotional posters are usually distributed folded, whereas retail posters intended for home decoration are rolled.
Educational posters
Research posters and "poster sessions"
Main article: Poster session
Posters
are used in academia to promote and explain research work. They are
typically shown during conferences, either as a complement to a talk or
scientific paper, or as a publication. They are of lesser importance
than articles, but they can be a good introduction to a new piece of
research before the paper is published. They may be considered as grey
literature. Poster presentations are often not peer-reviewed, but may
instead be submitted, meaning that as many as can fit will be accepted.
Classroom posters
Posters
are a standard feature of classrooms worldwide. A typical school in
North America will display a variety, including: advertising tie-ins
(e.g. an historical movie relevant to a current topic of study):
alphabet and grammar, numeracy and scientific tables, safety and other
instructions (such as lab safety and proper hand washing), artwork, and
those created by the students for display.
Further information: Motivational poster
See also
The Tennis Girl poster was an iconic image from the late 1970s
Graphic design
Grey literature
Illustrations
List of poster artists
Mediascape
Pin-up (disambiguation)
Street Poster Art
Swann Galleries
References
Lippert, Angelina (18 August 2017). "What is a poster?". article. Poster House. Retrieved 18 July 2019.
Stephen Eskilson, Graphic Design: A New History, Yale University Press, 2012, pp. 43-7.
Gallo, Max, The Poster in History, (2002) W.W. Norton
Elizabeth Guffey, Posters: A Global History, Reaktion: 2015, pp. 8-9.
Barnicoat, John, Posters: A Concise History, (1985) Thames and Hudson
The modern poster by Arsène Alexandre
Roger Marx, Masters of the Poster, 1896–1900 (New York, 1977), p. 7.
Guffey, op cit, p. 13.
David Kunzle, Posters of Protest: The Posters of Political Satire in the U.S., 1966–1970 (New York, 1971), p. 14.
Hilton Kramer, ‘Postermania’, New York Times Magazine (11 February 1968).
Guffey, op cit, 127.
Che Guevara: Revolutionary & Icon, by Trisha Ziff, Abrams Image, 2006, pg 19
"'In God We Trust' pressed for schools - USA Today". Usatoday30.usatoday.com. 2002-02-19. Retrieved 2013-02-28.
Hunter, Lisa (2006). The Intrepid Art Collector. New York: Three Rivers Press. p. 123. ISBN 0307237133.
"Our
Members - International Vintage Poster Dealers Association - Authentic
Posters, Expert Dealers". www.ivpda.com. Retrieved 2021-07-18.
[1] Archived October 22, 2006, at the Wayback Machine
"Canadian War Poster Collection". Digital.library.mcgill.ca. Retrieved 2013-02-28.
"Propaganda
posters - Collection of 1400+ POSTERS from Russia, Czech republic,
Poland and Cuba". Posters.nce.buttobi.net. Retrieved 2013-02-28.
"Lang film poster fetches record". BBC News. 2005-11-15. Retrieved 2009-01-11.
"Heritage Auctions Search [54 790 231]".
BIRD GEI Consultoria Idiomas. "http://birdgei.com/2012/02/07/film-posters/"
"Railway posters - Our collection - National Railway Museum". Nrm.org.uk. 2009-10-13. Retrieved 2013-02-28.
"Terence Cuneo: the railway artist with a surprising lucky charm | Art UK". www.artuk.org. Retrieved 2019-01-17.
"Sheffield's Kenneth Steel: The famous rail travel artist you have
never heard of". BBC News. 27 December 2021. Archived from the original
on 27 December 2021. Retrieved 27 December 2021.
Further reading
Josef Müller-Brockmann: Geschichte des Plakates Phaidon Press 2004, ISBN 978-0714844039
Franz-Josef Deiters: Bilder ohne Rahmen: Zur Rhetorik des Plakats, in:
Medienrhetorik, ed. by Joachim Knape. Attempto, Tübingen (Germany) 2005,
ISBN 3-89308-370-7, S. 81–112.
Franz-Josef Deiters: Plakat, in:
Historisches Wörterbuch der Rhetorik, ed by. Gert Ueding (et al.). Max
Niemeyer, Tübingen (Germany) 2003, ISBN 3-484-68100-4, vol. 6, pp.
1230–39.
New Masters of Poster Design. John Foster, Rockport Publishers 2008 ISBN 978-1592534340
100 Best Posters - NO ART. Hermann Schmidt Publisher 2006, Fons Hickmann, Niklaus Troxler ISBN 978-3874397032
Fons Hickmann, Sven Lindhorst-Emme (Hrsg) Anschlag Berlin -
Zeitgeistmedium Plakat. Verlag Seltmann+Söhne, Berlin 2015, ISBN
978-3-944721-56-9
Gosling, Peter. (1999). Scientist's Guide to Poster Presentations. New York: Kluwer. ISBN 978-0-306-46076-0.
King, Emily. (2003). A Century of Movie Posters: From Silent to Art House. Barron's. ISBN 978-0-7641-5599-4.
Noble, Ian. (2002). Up Against the Wall: International Poster Design. Mies, Switzerland: RotoVision. ISBN 978-2-88046-561-2.
Timmers, Margaret. (2003). Power of the Poster. Victoria and Albert Museum. ISBN 978-0-8109-6615-4.
Le Coultre, Martijn F. & Purvis, Alston W. (2002) A Century of Posters, Lund Humphries ISBN 978-0-85331-863-7
Rennert, Jack. (1990). Posters of the Belle Epoque, Wine Spectator Press, ISBN 978-0-9664202-1-0
Wrede, Stuart. (1988). The Modern Poster, Little Brown and Company, ISBN 978-0-87070-570-0
Gold, Laura. (1988). Posters, Please ISBN 978-0-9664202-0-3
Cole, Beverley & Durack, Richard (1992), Railway Posters 1923–1947, Laurence King, ISBN 978-1-85669-014-0
Kempa, Karolina. (2018). Polnische Kulturplakate im Sozialismus. Eine
kunstsoziologische Untersuchung zur (Be-)Deutung des Werkes von Jan
Lenica und Franciszek Starowieyski, Wiesbaden: Springer, ISBN
978-3658188542
Salter, Colin. (2020). 100 Posters that Changed the World. London: Pavilion Books ISBN 978-1-911641-45-2
Hillier, Bevis. (1972). 100 Years of Posters. London: Pall Mall Press ISBN 0269028382
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Posters.
Look up poster in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
"Poster" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 22 (11th ed.). 1911.
Posters from World War I and II – A selection of posters covering
subjects such as recruitment and enlisting, saving stamps and munitions,
from the UBC Library Digital Collections
World War I and World
II Poster Collection - featuring propaganda posters and broadsides from
the United States, Western Europe and the Axis powers from the
University of Washington Library
circusmuseum.nl Features nearly 8,000 circus posters from 1880 to the present
London Transport posters Over 5,000 posters from the London Transport museum
Posters of the Russian Civil War, 1918-1922 New York Public Library digital collection
USSR posters Ben Perry's Flickr photoset with almost 1500 Soviet
propaganda, advertising, theatre and movie posters from 1917-1991
Psychedelic posters Andrew Olsen's collection of hundreds of psychedelic posters for gigs at The Fillmore and The Avalon
Millie, Elena and Zbigniew Kantorosinski (1993). The Polish Poster:
from Young Poland through the Second World War : Holdings in the Prints
and Photographs Division, Library of Congress
More than 33,000
political posters from around the world, primarily from the twentieth
century, available online at the Hoover Institution Archives, Stanford
University.