Tutankhamun
Tutankhamen, Tutankhaten, Tutankhamon,[1] possibly Nibhurrereya (as referenced in the Amarna letters)
Wooden bust of the boy king, found in his tomb
Wooden bust of the boy king, found in his tomb
Pharaoh
Reign c. 1332–1323 BC, New Kingdom (18th Dynasty)
Predecessor Neferneferuaten
Successor Ay (granduncle/grandfather-in-law)
Royal titulary
Consort Ankhesenamun (half-sister and cousin)
Children Two stillborn daughters
Father KV55 mummy [2] identified as probably Akhenaten
Mother "The Younger Lady"
Born c. 1341 BC
Died c. 1323 BC (aged c. 18 or 19)
Burial KV62
Tutankhamun (/ˌtuːtənkɑːˈmuːn/;[3] alternatively spelled with Tutenkh-, -amen,[a] -amon; c. 1341 – c. 1323 BC) was an Egyptian pharaoh of the 18th dynasty (ruled c. 1332–1323 BC in the conventional chronology), during the period of Egyptian history known as the New Kingdom or sometimes the New Empire Period. He has, since the discovery of his intact tomb, been referred to colloquially as King Tut. His original name, Tutankhaten, means "Living Image of Aten", while Tutankhamun means "Living Image of Amun". In hieroglyphs, the name Tutankhamun was typically written Amen-tut-ankh, because of a scribal custom that placed a divine name at the beginning of a phrase to show appropriate reverence.[4] He is possibly also the Nibhurrereya of the Amarna letters, and likely the 18th dynasty king Rathotis who, according to Manetho, an ancient historian, had reigned for nine years—a figure that conforms with Flavius Josephus's version of Manetho's Epitome.[5]
The 1922 discovery by Howard Carter of Tutankhamun's nearly intact tomb, funded by Lord Carnarvon,[6][7] received worldwide press coverage. It sparked a renewed public interest in ancient Egypt, for which Tutankhamun's mask, now in the Egyptian Museum, remains the popular symbol. Exhibits of artifacts from his tomb have toured the world. In February 2010, the results of DNA tests confirmed that he was the son of the mummy found in the tomb KV55, believed by some to be Akhenaten. His mother was his father's sister and wife, whose name is unknown but whose remains are positively identified as "The Younger Lady" mummy found in KV35.[8] The deaths of a few involved in the discovery of Tutankhamun's mummy have been popularly attributed to the curse of the pharaohs.[9]
Life
Tutankhamun was the son of Akhenaten (formerly Amenhotep IV) and one of Akhenaten's sisters,[10] or possibly one of his cousins.[11] As a prince, he was known as Tutankhaten.[12] He ascended to the throne in 1333 BC, at the age of nine or ten, taking the throne name Nebkheperure.[13] His wet nurse was a woman called Maia, known from her tomb at Saqqara.[14] His teacher was most likely Sennedjem.
Tutankhamun receives flowers from Ankhesenamun
When he became king, he married his half-sister, Ankhesenpaaten, who later changed her name to Ankhesenamun. They had two daughters, neither of whom survived infancy.[8] Computed tomography studies released in 2011 revealed that one daughter was born prematurely at 5–6 months of pregnancy and the other at full-term, 9 months.[15] The daughter born at 9 months gestation had spina bifida, scoliosis, and Sprengel's deformity (a condition affecting the placement of the scapula).[16]
Reign
Given his age, the king probably had very powerful advisers, presumably including General Horemheb (Grand Vizier Ay's possible son in law and successor) and Grand Vizier Ay (who succeeded Tutankhamun). Horemheb records that the king appointed him "lord of the land" as hereditary prince to maintain law. He also noted his ability to calm the young king when his temper flared.[17]
In his third regnal year, under the influence of his advisors, Tutankhamun reversed several changes made during his father's reign. He ended the worship of the god Aten and restored the god Amun to supremacy. The ban on the cult of Amun was lifted and traditional privileges were restored to its priesthood. The capital was moved back to Thebes and the city of Akhetaten abandoned.[18] This is when he changed his name to Tutankhamun, "Living image of Amun", reinforcing the restoration of Amun.
As part of his restoration, the king initiated building projects, in particular at Karnak in Thebes, where he dedicated a temple to Amun. Many monuments were erected, and an inscription on his tomb door declares the king had "spent his life in fashioning the images of the gods". The traditional festivals were now celebrated again, including those related to the Apis Bull, Horemakhet, and Opet. His restoration stela says:
The temples of the gods and goddesses ... were in ruins. Their shrines were deserted and overgrown. Their sanctuaries were as non-existent and their courts were used as roads ... the gods turned their backs upon this land ... If anyone made a prayer to a god for advice he would never respond.[19]
The country was economically weak and in turmoil following the reign of Akhenaten. Diplomatic relations with other kingdoms had been neglected, and Tutankhamun sought to restore them, in particular with the Mitanni. Evidence of his success is suggested by the gifts from various countries found in his tomb. Despite his efforts for improved relations, battles with Nubians and Asiatics were recorded in his mortuary temple at Thebes. His tomb contained body armor, folding stools appropriate for military campaigns, and bows, and he was trained in archery.[20] However, given his youth (he died c. age 18) and physical disabilities, which seemed to require the use of a cane in order to walk, most historians speculate that he did not personally take part in these battles.[8][21][22]
Health and appearance
Close-up of Tutankhamun's head
Tutankhamun was slight of build, and roughly 167 cm (5 ft 6 in) tall.[23][24] He had large front incisors and an overbite characteristic of the Thutmosid royal line to which he belonged. Between September 2007 and October 2009, various mummies were subjected to detailed anthropological, radiological, and genetic studies as part of the King Tutankhamun Family Project. The research showed that Tutankhamun also had "a slightly cleft palate"[25] and possibly a mild case of scoliosis, a medical condition in which the spine deviates to the side from the normal position. It was posited in a 2002 documentary 'Assassination of King Tut' for the Discovery Channel that he suffered from Klippel-Feil syndrome, but subsequent analysis excluded this as an acceptable diagnosis.[26] Examination of Tutankhamun's body has also revealed deformations in his left foot, caused by necrosis of bone tissue. The affliction may have forced Tutankhamun to walk with the use of a cane, many of which were found in his tomb.[27] In DNA tests of Tutankhamun's mummy, scientists found DNA from the mosquito-borne parasites that cause malaria. This is currently the oldest known genetic proof of the disease. More than one strain of the malaria parasite was found, indicating that Tutankhamun contracted multiple malarial infections. According to National Geographic, "The malaria would have weakened Tutankhamun's immune system and interfered with the healing of his foot. These factors, combined with the fracture in his left thighbone, which scientists had discovered in 2005, may have ultimately been what killed the young king."[27]
Genealogy
In 2008, a team began DNA research on Tutankhamun and the mummified remains of other members of his family. The results indicated that his father was Akhenaten, and that his mother was not one of Akhenaten's known wives but one of his father's five sisters. The techniques used in the study, however, have been questioned.[28][29] The team reported it was over 99.99 percent certain that Amenhotep III was the father of the individual in KV55, who was in turn the father of Tutankhamun.[30] The young king's mother was found through the DNA testing of a mummy designated as 'The Younger Lady' (KV35YL), which was found lying beside Queen Tiye in the alcove of KV35. Her DNA proved that, like his father, she was a child of Amenhotep III and Tiye; thus, Tutankhamun's parents were brother and sister.[30] Queen Tiye held much political influence at court and acted as an adviser to her son after the death of her husband. Some geneticists dispute these findings, however, and "complain that the team used inappropriate analysis techniques."[31]
Statue of Tutankhamun and Ankhesenamun at Luxor, hacked at during the damnatio memoriae campaign against the Amarna era pharaohs
While the data are still incomplete, the study suggests that one of the mummified fetuses found in Tutankhamun's tomb is the daughter of Tutankhamun himself, and the other fetus is probably his child as well. So far, only partial data for the two female mummies from KV21 has been obtained.[30] One of them, KV21A, may be the infants' mother, and, thus, Tutankhamun's wife, Ankhesenamun. It is known from history that she was the daughter of Akhenaten and Nefertiti, and thus likely to be her husband's half-sister. One consequence of inbreeding can be children whose genetic defects do not allow them to be brought to term.
Death
Further information: Tutankhamun's mummy
There are no surviving records of Tutankhamun's final days. The cause of his death has been the subject of considerable debate and major studies have been conducted to establish it. There is some evidence, advanced by Harvard microbiologist Ralph Mitchell, that his burial may have been hurried. Mitchell reported that dark brown splotches on the decorated walls of Tutankhamun's burial chamber suggested that he had been entombed even before the paint had a chance to dry.[32]
Although there is some speculation that Tutankhamun was assassinated, the consensus is that his death was accidental.[33] A CT scan taken in 2005 showed that he had suffered a compound left leg fracture[34] shortly before his death, and that the leg had become infected. DNA analysis conducted in 2010 showed the presence of malaria in his system, leading to the belief that a combination of malaria and Köhler disease II led to his death.[35]
In June 2010, German scientists said that they believed there was evidence that he had died of sickle cell disease. Other experts, however, rejected the hypothesis of homozygous sickle cell disease[36] based on survival beyond the age of 5 and the location of the osteonecrosis, which is characteristic of Freiberg-Kohler syndrome rather than sickle-cell disease.[citation needed] Research conducted in 2005 by archaeologists, radiologists, and geneticists, who performed CT scans on the mummy, found that he was not killed by a blow to the head, as previously thought.[30] New CT images discovered congenital flaws, which are more common among the children of incest. Siblings are more likely to pass on twin copies of deleterious alleles, which is why children of incest more commonly manifest genetic defects.[37] It is suspected he also had a partially cleft palate, another congenital defect.[30]
Various other diseases, invoked as possible explanations to his early demise, included Marfan syndrome, Wilson-Turner X-linked mental retardation syndrome, Fröhlich syndrome (adiposogenital dystrophy), Klinefelter syndrome, androgen insensitivity syndrome, aromatase excess syndrome in conjunction with sagittal craniosynostosis syndrome, Antley–Bixler syndrome or one of its variants,[38] and temporal lobe epilepsy.[39]
Stripped of all its jewels, Tutankhamun's mummy remains in the Valley of the Kings in the KV62 chamber.
A research team, consisting of Egyptian scientists Yehia Gad and Somaia Ismail from the National Research Centre in Cairo, conducted further CT scans under the direction of Ashraf Selim and Sahar Saleem of the Faculty of Medicine at Cairo University. Three international experts served as consultants: Carsten Pusch of the Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen, Germany; Albert Zink of the EURAC-Institute for Mummies and the Iceman in Bolzano, Italy;[40] and Paul Gostner of the Central Hospital Bolzano.[30] STR analysis based DNA fingerprinting analysis combined with the other techniques have rejected the hypothesis of gynecomastia and craniosynostoses (e.g., Antley-Bixler syndrome) or Marfan syndrome, but an accumulation of malformations in Tutankhamun's family was evident. Several pathologies including Köhler disease II were diagnosed in Tutankhamun; none alone would have caused death. Genetic testing for STEVOR, AMA1, or MSP1 genes specific for Plasmodium falciparum revealed indications of malaria tropica in 4 mummies, including Tutankhamun's.[8] However, their exact contribution to the causality of his death still is highly debated.
As stated above, the team discovered DNA from several strains of a parasite, proving that he was repeatedly infected with the most severe strain of malaria, several times in his short life. Malaria can cause a fatal immune response in the body or trigger circulatory shock which can also lead to death. If Tutankhamun did suffer from a bone disease which was crippling, it may not have been fatal. "Perhaps he struggled against other [congenital flaws] until a severe bout of malaria or a leg broken in an accident added one strain too many to a body that could no longer carry the load", wrote Zahi Hawass, archeologist and head of the Egyptian Supreme Council of Antiquity involved in the research.[citation needed]
A review of the medical findings to date found that he suffered from mild kyphoscoliosis, pes planus (flat feet), hypophalangism of the right foot, bone necrosis of the second and third metatarsal bones of the left foot, malaria, and a complex bone fracture of the right knee, which occurred shortly before his death.[41]
In late 2013, Egyptologist Dr. Chris Naunton and scientists from the Cranfield Institute performed a "virtual autopsy" of Tutankhamun, revealing a pattern of injuries down one side of his body. Car-crash investigators then created computer simulations of chariot accidents. Naunton concluded that Tutankhamun was killed in a chariot crash: a chariot smashed into him while he was on his knees, shattering his ribs and pelvis. Naunton also referenced Howard Carter's records of the body having been burnt. Working with anthropologist Dr. Robert Connolly and forensic archaeologist Dr. Matthew Ponting, Naunton produced evidence that Tutankhamun's body was burnt while sealed inside his coffin. Embalming oils combined with oxygen and linen had caused a chemical reaction, creating temperatures of more than 200 °C (392 °F). Naunton said, "The charring and possibility that a botched mummification led to the body spontaneously combusting shortly after burial was entirely unexpected."[42][43]
A further investigation, in 2014, revealed that it was unlikely he had been killed in a chariot accident. Scans found that all but one of his bone fractures, including those to his skull, had been inflicted after his death. The scans also showed that he had a partially clubbed foot and would have been unable to stand unaided, thus making it unlikely he ever rode in a chariot; this was supported by the presence of many walking sticks among the contents of his tomb. Instead, it is believed that genetic defects arising from his parents being siblings, complications from a broken leg and his suffering from malaria, together caused his death.[44][45]
However, various orthopaedic doctors, such as Dr. James Gamble, stated that while Tutankhamun's foot is indeed in a twisted position, the individual bones of the left foot are perfectly normal, ruling out the possibility of him having a clubfoot; Dr. Gamble himself believes that the twisted position of the left foot is actually the result of mummification.[46] Robert Connolly, a member of Ronald Harrison's team that x-rayed the mummy in 1969, argued that the left foot was "perfectly normal" when it was x-rayed, arguing that the damage could have been inflicted sometime after the 1969 x-ray.[46] Other experts have stated that idea that Tutankhamun possessing necrosis is highly unlikely, pointing out that the embalming materials applied to the body could have slowly eaten away at the bone over time.[46] Likewise, Egyptologists, such as Dr. Marianne Eaton-Krauss, argue that the diagnosis of Tutankhamun being disabled on the account of possessing so many walking sticks is "aggravating" due to the fact that staffs and staves were a sign of prestige in Ancient Egypt, and were typically used, not as a crutch, but instead in hunting, hand-to-hand combat and to handle snakes.[46] Several experts, such as Dr. Eline Lorenzen, argue that Ancient Egyptian DNA does not always survive to a level that's easily retrievable and question the validity and reliability of the genetic data that is collected from Ancient Egyptian sources. Dr. Benson Harer argues that most of the injuries inflicted upon Tutankhamun had to have happened prior and during mummification, due to a test he performed upon dried bones that crumbled when he attempted to cut them, ruling out that Tutankhamun's chest had been cut by Carter or anyone after him.[46] Several experts, such as Dr. Robert Connolly, Ashraj Selim, and Dr. Zahi Hawass, all support the notion that King Tutankhamun died as the result of an accident, whether it be from hunting or chariot crash. Both Connolly[46] and Hawass[47] believe that Tutankhamun died suddenly away from home and had to be rushed back for mummification. Dr. Jo Marchant, a historian, admits in her book "The Shadow King" that she too, personally believes that Pharaoh Tutankhamun died as the result of an accident, stating that all the evidence suggests that Tutankhamn had been a young man who must have taken one risk too many and ended his life early, also stating that the accident theory supports all of the oddities surrounding Tutankhamun's mummification and burial; she likewise points out that many scientists agree that while Ashraj Selim and his team are wonderful and skilled radiologists, they are not experienced in examining ancient mummies, and therefore cannot easily diagnose an ancient mummy.[46]
Aftermath
Partially restored alabaster jar with two handles. It bears the cartouches of pharaoh Tutankhamen and Queen Ankhesenamun.
With the death of Tutankhamun and the two stillborn children buried with him, the Thutmoside family line came to an end. The Amarna letters indicate that Tutankhamun's wife, recently widowed, wrote to the Hittite king Suppiluliuma I, asking if she could marry one of his sons. The letters do not say how Tutankhamun died. In the message, Ankhesenamun says that she was very afraid, but would not take one of her own people as husband. However, the son was killed before reaching his new wife. Shortly afterward, Ay married Tutankhamun's widow and became Pharaoh as a war was fought between the two countries, and Egypt was left defeated.[48] The fate of Ankhesenamun is not known, but she disappears from record and Ay's second wife Tey became Great Royal Wife. After Ay's death, Horemheb usurped the throne and instigated a campaign of damnatio memoriae against him. Tutankhamun's father Akhenaten, stepmother Nefertiti, his wife Ankhesenamun, half sisters and other family members were also included. Not even Tutankhamun was spared. His images and cartouches were also erased. Horemheb himself was left childless and willed the throne to Paramessu, who founded the Ramesside family line of pharaohs.
Significance
Tutankhamun was nine years old when he became Pharaoh, and he reigned for about ten years.[49] Tutankhamun is historically significant because his reign was near the apogee of Egypt as a world power and because he rejected the radical religious innovations introduced by his predecessor and father, Akhenaten.[50] Secondly, his tomb in the Valley of the Kings was discovered by Carter almost completely intact—the most complete ancient Egyptian royal tomb found. As Tutankhamun began his reign so young, his vizier and eventual successor, Ay, was probably making most of the important political decisions during Tutankhamun's reign.
Kings were venerated after their deaths through mortuary cults and associated temples. Tutankhamun was one of the few kings worshiped in this manner during his lifetime.[51] A stela discovered at Karnak and dedicated to Amun-Ra and Tutankhamun indicates that the king could be appealed to in his deified state for forgiveness and to free the petitioner from an ailment caused by sin. Temples of his cult were built as far away as in Kawa and Faras in Nubia. The title of the sister of the Viceroy of Kush included a reference to the deified king, indicative of the universality of his cult.[52]
Tomb
Main article: KV62
Further information: Mask of Tutankhamun
Howard Carter and associates opening the shrine doors in the burial chamber (1924 reconstruction of the 1923 event)
Tutankhamun was buried in a tomb that was unusually small considering his status. His death may have occurred unexpectedly, before the completion of a grander royal tomb, causing his mummy to be buried in a tomb intended for someone else. This would preserve the observance of the customary 70 days between death and burial.[53]
In 1915, George Herbert, 5th Earl of Carnarvon, the financial backer of the search for and the excavation of Tutankhamun's tomb in the Valley of the Kings, employed English archaeologist Howard Carter to explore it. After a systematic search, Carter discovered the actual tomb of Tutankhamun (KV62) in November 1922,[54] and unsealed the burial chamber on 16 February 1923.[55]
Tutankhamun's mummy still rests in his tomb in the Valley of the Kings. On 4 November 2007, 85 years to the day after Carter's discovery, the 19-year-old pharaoh went on display in his underground tomb at Luxor, when the linen-wrapped mummy was removed from its golden sarcophagus to a climate-controlled glass box. The case was designed to prevent the heightened rate of decomposition caused by the humidity and warmth from tourists visiting the tomb.[56]
His tomb was robbed at least twice in antiquity, but based on the items taken (including perishable oils and perfumes) and the evidence of restoration of the tomb after the intrusions, it seems clear that these robberies took place within several months at most of the initial burial.
Eventually, the location of the tomb was lost because it had come to be buried by stone chips from subsequent tombs, either dumped there or washed there by floods. In the years that followed, some huts for workers were built over the tomb entrance, clearly without anyone's knowing what lay beneath. When the Valley of the Kings burial sites were systematically dismantled at the end of the 20th Dynasty, Tutankhamun's tomb was overlooked, presumably because knowledge of it had been lost, and his name may have been forgotten.
Tutankhamun's death mask
There were 5,398 items found in the tomb, including a solid gold coffin, face mask, thrones, archery bows, trumpets, a lotus chalice, food, wine, sandals, and fresh linen underwear. Howard Carter took 10 years to catalog the items.[57] Recent analysis suggests a dagger recovered from the tomb had an iron blade made from a meteorite; study of artifacts of the time including other artifacts from Tutankhamun's tomb could provide valuable insights into metalworking technologies around the Mediterranean at the time.[58][59][60][61]
According to Nicholas Reeves, almost 80% of Tutankhamun's burial equipment originated from the female pharaoh Neferneferuaten's funerary goods including his famous gold mask, middle coffin, canopic coffinettes, several of the gilded shrine panels, the shabti-figures, the boxes and chests, the royal jewelry, etc.[62][63] In 2015, Reeves published evidence showing that an earlier cartouche on Tutankhamun's famous gold mask read "Ankhkheperure mery-Neferkheperure" (Ankhkheperure beloved of Akhenaten); therefore, the mask was originally made for Nefertiti, Akhenaten's chief queen, who used the royal name Ankhkheperure when she most likely assumed the throne after her husband's death.[64]
This development implies that either Neferneferuaten (likely Nefertiti if she assumed the throne after Akhenaten's death) was deposed in a struggle for power, possibly deprived of a royal burial—and buried as a Queen—or that she was buried with a different set of king's funerary equipment—possibly Akhenaten's own funerary equipment by Tutankhamun's officials since Tutankhamun succeeded her as king.[65] Neferneferuaten was likely succeeded by Tutankhamun based on the presence of her funerary goods in his tomb.
There was strong suspicion in 2015 that in the north wall of Tutankhamun's tomb chamber was a doorway, blocked and hidden by decorated plaster, leading to another chamber, which was purported to possibly contain a burial of Nefertiti.[66]
In January 2019, it was announced that the tomb would re-open to visitors after nine years of restoration.[67]
Curse
For many years, rumors of a "curse of the pharaohs" (probably fueled by newspapers seeking sales at the time of the discovery)[68] persisted, emphasizing the early death of some of those who had entered the tomb. The most prominent was George Herbert, 5th Earl of Carnarvon who died on 5 April 1923, 5 months after the discovery of the first step leading down to the tomb on 4 November 1922.
A study of documents and scholarly sources led The Lancet to conclude as unlikely that Carnarvon's death had anything to do with Tutankhamun's tomb, whether due to a curse or exposure to toxic fungi (mycotoxins).[69] The cause of Carnarvon's death was pneumonia supervening on [facial] erysipelas (a streptococcal infection of the skin and underlying soft tissue). Pneumonia was thought to be only one of various complications, arising from the progressively invasive infection, that eventually resulted in multiorgan failure."[70] The Earl had been "prone to frequent and severe lung infections" according to The Lancet and there had been a "general belief ... that one acute attack of bronchitis could have killed him. In such a debilitated state, the Earl's immune system was easily overwhelmed by erysipelas".[69]
A study showed that of the 58 people who were present when the tomb and sarcophagus were opened, only eight died within a dozen years. All the others were still alive, including Howard Carter,[71] who died of lymphoma in 1939 at the age of 64.[72][73] The last survivors included Lady Evelyn Herbert, Lord Carnarvon's daughter who was among the first people to enter the tomb after its discovery in November 1922, who lived for a further 57 years and died in 1980,[74] and American archaeologist J.O. Kinnaman who died in 1961, 39 years after the event.[75]
Legacy
Further information: Exhibitions of artifacts from the tomb of Tutankhamun
Pectoral belonging to Tutankhamun, representing his prenomen
If Tutankhamun is the world's best known pharaoh, it is largely because his tomb is among the best preserved, and his image and associated artifacts the most exhibited. As Jon Manchip White writes, in his foreword to the 1977 edition of Carter's The Discovery of the Tomb of Tutankhamun, "The pharaoh who in life was one of the least esteemed of Egypt's Pharaohs has become in death the most renowned."
The discoveries in the tomb were prominent news in the 1920s. Tutankhamen came to be called by a modern neologism, "King Tut". Ancient Egyptian references became common in popular culture, including Tin Pan Alley songs; the most popular of the latter was "Old King Tut" by Harry Von Tilzer from 1923, which was recorded by such prominent artists of the time as Jones & Hare and Sophie Tucker. "King Tut" became the name of products, businesses, and even the pet dog of U.S. President Herbert Hoover.
Relics from Tutankhamun's tomb are among the most traveled artifacts in the world. They have been to many countries, but probably the best-known exhibition tour was The Treasures of Tutankhamun tour, which ran from 1972 to 1979. This exhibition was first shown in London at the British Museum from 30 March until 30 September 1972. More than 1.6 million visitors saw the exhibition, some queuing for up to eight hours. It remains the most popular exhibition in the Museum's history.[76] The exhibition moved on to many other countries, including the United States, Soviet Union, Japan, France, Canada, and West Germany. The Metropolitan Museum of Art organized the U.S. exhibition, which ran from 17 November 1976 through 15 April 1979. More than eight million attended.
Gilded bier with representations of Sekhmet, the protector of kings, from the base of Tutankhamun's sarcophagus
In 2004, the tour of Tutankhamun funerary objects entitled Tutankhamen: The Golden Hereafter, consisting of fifty artifacts from Tutankhamun's tomb and seventy funerary goods from other 18th Dynasty tombs, began in Basel, Switzerland and went on to Bonn, Germany, on the second leg of the tour. This European tour was organised by the Art and Exhibition Hall of the Federal Republic of Germany, the Supreme Council of Antiquities (SCA), and the Egyptian Museum in cooperation with the Antikenmuseum Basel and Sammlung Ludwig. Deutsche Telekom sponsored the Bonn exhibition.[77]
In 2005, Egypt's Supreme Council of Antiquities, in partnership with Arts and Exhibitions International and the National Geographic Society, launched a tour of Tutankhamun treasures and other 18th Dynasty funerary objects, this time called Tutankhamun and the Golden Age of the Pharaohs. It featured the same exhibits as Tutankhamen: The Golden Hereafter in a slightly different format. It was expected to draw more than three million people.[78]
The exhibition started in Los Angeles, then moved to Fort Lauderdale, Florida, Chicago and Philadelphia. The exhibition then moved to London[79] before finally returning to Egypt in August 2008. An encore of the exhibition in the United States ran at the Dallas Museum of Art from October 2008 to May 2009.[80] The tour continued to other U.S. cities.[81] After Dallas the exhibition moved to the de Young Museum in San Francisco, followed by the Discovery Times Square Exposition in New York City.[82]
Tutankhamun's chest, now in the Cairo Museum
In 2011, the exhibition visited Australia for the first time, opening at the Melbourne Museum in April for its only Australian stop before Egypt's treasures returned to Cairo in December 2011.[83]
The exhibition included 80 exhibits from the reigns of Tutankhamun's immediate predecessors in the Eighteenth dynasty, such as Hatshepsut, whose trade policies greatly increased the wealth of that dynasty and enabled the lavish wealth of Tutankhamun's burial artifacts, as well as 50 from Tutankhamun's tomb. The exhibition does not include the gold mask that was a feature of the 1972–1979 tour, as the Egyptian government has decided that damage which occurred to previous artifacts on tours precludes this one from joining them.[84]
A separate exhibition called Tutankhamun and the World of the Pharaohs began at the Ethnological Museum in Vienna from 9 March to 28 September 2008, showing a further 140 treasures.[85] Renamed Tutankhamun: The Golden King and the Great Pharaohs, the exhibition toured the US and Canada from November 2008 to 6 January 2013.[86]
Names
Horus name
G5
E1
D40 t G43 t F31 s t G43 Z3
Srxtail2.svg
𓅃𓃒𓂡𓏏𓅱𓏏𓄟𓋴𓏏𓅱𓏪𓊁
Kanakht Tutmesut
The strong bull, pleasing of birth
Nebti name
G16
nfr O4
p G43 M40 Z3 s W11
r V28 D36
N17
N17 N21
N21
wr aH pr Z1 i mn
n nb
r Dr
r A41
𓅒𓄤𓉔𓊪𓅱𓇩𓏪𓋴𓎼𓂋𓎛𓂝𓇿𓇿𓈅𓈅𓅨𓉥𓉐𓏤𓇋𓏠𓈖𓎟𓂋𓇥𓂋𓀯
Neferhepusegerehtawy Werahamun Nebrdjer
One of perfect laws, who pacifies the two lands; Great of the palace of Amun; Lord of all[87]
Golden Horus name
G8
U39 N28
Z2 O34 R4
t p R8A HqA q
Y1 mAat s
Htp
t p R8A w T
z U39 xa
Z2 i t
f
A41
f C2 U39 xa
Z2 Tz
z tA
tA m
𓅉𓍞𓈍𓏥𓊃𓊵𓏏𓊪𓊹𓊹𓊹𓋾𓈎𓏛𓁦𓋴𓊵𓏏𓊪𓊹𓊹𓊹𓅱𓍿𓊃𓍞𓈍𓏥𓇋𓏏𓆑𓀯𓆑𓁛𓍞𓈍𓏥𓋭𓊃𓇾𓇾𓅓
Wetjeskhausehetepnetjeru Heqamaatsehetepnetjeru Wetjeskhauitefre Wetjeskhautjestawyim
Who wears crowns and pleases the gods; Ruler of Truth, who pleases the gods; Who wears the crowns of his father, Re; Who wears crowns, and binds the two lands therein
Prenomen
M23 L2
Hiero Ca1.svg
N5 L1 Z2
nb
Hiero Ca2.svg
𓇓𓆤 𓍹𓇳𓆣𓏥𓎟𓍺
Nebkheperure
Lord of the forms of Re
Son of Re
G39 N5
Hiero Ca1.svg
i mn
n t G43 t S34 HqA iwn Sma
Hiero Ca2.svg
𓅭𓇳 𓍹𓇋𓏠𓈖𓏏𓅱𓏏𓋹𓋾𓉺𓇗𓍺
Tutankhamun Hekaiunushema
Living Image of Amun, ruler of Upper Heliopolis
At the reintroduction of traditional religious practice, his name changed. It is transliterated as twt-ꜥnḫ-ỉmn ḥqꜣ-ỉwnw-šmꜥ, and according to modern Egyptological convention is written Tutankhamun Hekaiunushema, meaning "Living image of Amun, ruler of Upper Heliopolis". On his ascension to the throne, Tutankhamun took a prenomen. This is transliterated as nb-ḫprw-rꜥ, and, again, according to modern Egyptological convention is written Nebkheperure, meaning "Lord of the forms of Re". The name Nibhurrereya (𒉌𒅁𒄷𒊑𒊑𒅀) in the Amarna letters may be closer to how his prenomen was actually pronounced.
Ancestry
Tutankhamun
Family
Akhenaten (father) "The Younger Lady" (mother) Ankhesenamun (wife) Amenhotep III (grandfather)
Mask on Tutankhamun's innermost coffin
Discovery
Howard Carter George Herbert, 5th Earl of Carnarvon KV62 (Tutankhamun's tomb) Tutankhamun's mask Mummy Lotus chalice Trumpets Meteoric iron dagger Anubis Shrine
Other
Curse of the pharaohs Exhibitions
Popular culture
Steve Martin song Of Time, Tombs and Treasures (1977 documentary) The Curse of King Tut's Tomb (1980 film) Mysteries of Egypt (1998 film) Tutenstein (2003 series) The Curse of King Tut's Tomb (2006 film) Tut (2015 miniseries) Tutankhamun (2016 miniseries)
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Amarna Period
Pharaohs
Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten Tutankhamun Ay
Akhenaten, Nefertiti and their children.jpg
Royal family
Tiye Nefertiti Kiya "The Younger Lady" Tey
Children
Meritaten Meketaten Ankhesenamun Neferneferuaten Tasherit Neferneferure Setepenre Meritaten Tasherit Ankhesenpaaten Tasherit
NoblesOfficials
Mutbenret Aperel Bek Huya Meryre II Nakhtpaaten Panehesy Parennefer Penthu Thutmose
Locations
Akhetaten Karnak KV55 KV62 Amarna Tombs
Other
Amarna letters Amarna succession Aten Atenism Dakhamunzu Amarna Art Style
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Pharaohs
Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period (<3150–2040 BC)
Period
Dynasty
Pharaohs (malefemale♀)uncertain
Protodynastic
(pre-3150 BC)
Lower
Hedju Hor [de; fr] Ny-Hor [de; es] Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Nat-Hor [de; es] Mekh Double Falcon Wash [de]
Upper
Finger snail [de] Fish Pen-abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes
Early Dynastic
(3150–2686 BC)
I
Narmer / Menes Hor-Aha Djer Djet Merneith♀ Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird
II
Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy
Old Kingdom
(2686–2181 BC)
III
Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni
IV
Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis
V
Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas
VI
Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah
1st Intermediate
(2181–2040 BC)
VII/VIII
Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare III Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare IV Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare V Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare VI Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Iby Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Wadjkare Khuiqer Khui
IX
Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut
X
Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare
Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period (2040–1550 BC)
Period
Dynasty
Pharaohs (malefemale♀)uncertain
Middle Kingdom
(2040–1802 BC)
XI
Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV
Nubia
Segerseni Qakare Ini Iyibkhentre
XII
Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀
2nd Intermediate
(1802–1550 BC)
XIII
Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep Sonbef Nerikare Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Ameny Qemau Hotepibre Iufni Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI Semenkare Nebnuni Sehetepibre Sewadjkare Nedjemibre Khaankhre Sobekhotep Renseneb Hor Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw Djedkheperew Sebkay Sedjefakare Wegaf Khendjer Imyremeshaw Sehetepkare Intef Seth Meribre Sobekhotep III Neferhotep I Sihathor Sobekhotep IV Merhotepre Sobekhotep Khahotepre Sobekhotep Wahibre Ibiau Merneferre Ay Merhotepre Ini Sankhenre Sewadjtu Mersekhemre Ined Sewadjkare Hori Merkawre Sobekhotep Mershepsesre Ini II Sewahenre Senebmiu Merkheperre Merkare Sewadjare Mentuhotep Seheqenre Sankhptahi
XIV
Yakbim Sekhaenre Ya'ammu Nubwoserre Qareh Khawoserre 'Ammu Ahotepre Maaibre Sheshi Nehesy Khakherewre Nebefawre Sehebre Merdjefare Sewadjkare III Nebdjefare Webenre Nebsenre Sekheperenre Djedkherewre Bebnum 'Apepi Nuya Wazad Sheneh Shenshek Khamure Yakareb Yaqub-Har
XV
Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Sakir-Har Khyan Apepi Khamudi
XVI
Djehuti Sobekhotep VIII Neferhotep III Mentuhotepi Nebiryraw I Nebiriau II Semenre Bebiankh Sekhemre Shedwast Dedumose I Dedumose II Montuemsaf Merankhre Mentuhotep Senusret IV Pepi III
Abydos
Senebkay Wepwawetemsaf Pantjeny Snaaib
XVII
Rahotep Nebmaatre Sobekemsaf I Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef Nubkheperre Intef Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef Senakhtenre Ahmose Seqenenre Tao Kamose
New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period (1550–664 BC)
Period
Dynasty
Pharaohs (malefemale♀)uncertain
New Kingdom
(1550–1070 BC)
XVIII
Ahmose I Amenhotep I Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose III Hatshepsut♀ Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb
XIX
Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀
XX
Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI
3rd Intermediate
(1069–664 BC)
XXI
Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II
XXII
Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Osorkon IV
XXIII
Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Menkheperre Ini
XXIV
Tefnakht Bakenranef
XXV
Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun
Late Period and Hellenistic Period (664–30 BC)
Period
Dynasty
Pharaohs (malefemale♀)uncertain
Late
(664–332 BC)
XXVI
Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III
XXVII
Cambyses II Petubastis III Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II
XXVIII
Amyrtaeus
XXIX
Nepherites I Hakor Psammuthes Nepherites II
XXX
Nectanebo I Teos Nectanebo II
XXXI
Artaxerxes III Khabash Arses Darius III
Hellenistic
(332–30 BC)
Argead
Alexander the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV
Ptolemaic
Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Ptolemy VIII Euergetes Ptolemy IX Soter Ptolemy X Alexander I Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Berenice IV♀ Cleopatra♀ Ptolemy XV Caesarion
Dynastic genealogies
1st 2nd 3rd 4th 11th 12th 18th 19th 20th 21st to 23rd 24th 25th 26th 27th 30th 31st Ptolemaic. This is Gold Plated