Somalia,^[b] officially the FederalRepublic of Somalia^[10] (Somali: Jamhuuriyadda FederaalkaSoomaaliya; Arabic: جمهورية الصومالالفيدرالية),is a country inthe Horn of Africa.The country is bordered by Ethiopia to thewest, Djibouti^[11] to the northwest, the Gulf of Aden to the north, the Indian Ocean to the east, and Kenya tothe southwest. Somalia has the longest coastline on Africa's mainland.^[12] Its terrain consists mainly ofplateaus, plains, and highlands.^[1] Hot conditions prevailyear-round, with periodic monsoon winds and irregular rainfall.^[13] Somalia has an estimatedpopulation of around 17.1 million,^[14][15] of which over 2 million livein the capital andlargest city Mogadishu, and has beendescribed as Africa's most culturally homogeneous country.^[16][17] Around 85% of its residentsare ethnic Somalis,^[1] who have historically inhabitedthe country's north. Ethnic minorities are largely concentrated in the south.^[18] The official languages ofSomalia are Somali and Arabic.^[1] Most people in the countryare Muslims,^[19] the majority of them Sunni.^[20]

In antiquity, Somalia was an important commercial center.^[21][22] It is among the most probablelocations of the ancient Land of Punt.^[23][24][25] During the Middle Ages,several powerful Somali empires dominated the regional trade, includingthe Imamate of Awsame, Ajuran Sultanate, the Adal Sultanate, and the Sultanate of theGeledi.

In the late 19th century, Somali Sultanates like the Isaaq Sultanate,^[26] Habr Yunis Sultanate andthe Majeerteen Sultanate werecolonized by both the Italian and British Empires.^[27][28][29] European colonists merged thetribal territories into two colonies,which were Italian Somaliland andthe BritishSomaliland Protectorate.^[30][31] Meanwhile, in the interior,the Dervishes led by Mohammed AbdullahHassan engaged in a two-decade confrontation against Abyssinia,Italian Somaliland, and British Somaliland and were finally defeated inthe 1920 SomalilandCampaign.^[32][33][34] Italy acquired full control ofthe northeastern, central, and southern parts of the area after successfullywaging the Campaign of theSultanates against the ruling Majeerteen Sultanate and Sultanate of Hobyo.^[31] In 1960, the two territoriesunited to form the independent Somali Republic under a civiliangovernment.^[35]

Siad Barre ofthe SupremeRevolutionary Council (SRC) seized power in 1969 andestablished the SomaliDemocratic Republic, brutally attempting to squash the SomalilandWar of Independence in the north of the country.^[36] The SRC collapsed in 1991 withthe onset of the Somali Civil War.^[37]

Since the onset of the civil war, which involves various warringgroups, most regions of Somalia have returned to customary and religious law. In the early 2000s, a number ofinterim federal administrations were created. The Transitional National Government (TNG)was established in 2000, followed by the formation of the Transitional Federal Government (TFG) in2004, which reestablished the Somali Armed Forces.^[1][38]

In 2006, with a US-backed Ethiopianintervention, the TFG assumed control of most of the nation'ssouthern conflict zones from the newly formed Islamic Courts Union (ICU).The ICU subsequently splintered into more radical groups, including the jihadist group al-Shabaab,which battled the TFG and its AMISOM allies for control of the region.^[1] By mid-2012, the insurgents hadlost most of the territory they had seized, and a search for more permanentdemocratic institutions began.^[39] Despite this, insurgents stillcontrol much of central and southern Somalia,^[40][41] and wield influence ingovernment-controlled areas,^[41] with the town of Jilib actingas the insurgents' de facto capital.^[40][42] A new provisional constitution waspassed in August 2012,^[43][44] reforming Somalia as a federation.^[45] The same month, the FederalGovernment of Somalia was formed^[46] and a period of reconstructionbegan in Mogadishu, despiteal-Shabaab frequently carrying out attacksthere.^[39][47]

Somalia's GDPper capita is one of the world's lowest, and it belongs tothe least developedcountry group.^[48] In 2019, Somalia had thelowest HDI inthe world, and in the same year, 69% of Somalia's population was living belowthe poverty line.^[49] As of 2023, Somalia is placedthe highest in the FragileStates Index.^[50] It has maintained an informal economy mainly based onlivestock, remittances from Somalis working abroad, andtelecommunications.^[51] It is a member of the United Nations,^[52] the Arab League,^[53] African Union,^[54] Non-Aligned Movement,^[55] East AfricanCommunity,^[56] and the Organisationof Islamic Cooperation.^[57]

Main article: History of Somalia

Prehistory

Neolithicrock art at the Laas Geel complexdepicting a long-horned cow.

Somalia was likely one of the first lands to be settled by earlyhumans due to its location. Hunter-gatherers who would later migrateout of Africa likely settled here before their migrations.^[58] During the Stone Age, theDoian and Hargeisan cultures flourished here.^{[59][60][61][58][62][63]} The oldest evidence of burialcustoms in the Horn of Africa comes from cemeteries in Somalia dating back tothe 4th millennium BCE.^[64] The stone implements from theJalelo site in the north were also characterized in 1909 as important artifactsdemonstrating the archaeological universality during the Paleolithic betweenthe East and the West.^[65]

According to linguists, the first Afroasiatic-speakingpopulations arrived in the region during the ensuing Neolithic period from the family'sproposed urheimat ("originalhomeland") in the Nile Valley,^[66] or the Near East.^[67]

The Laas Geel complexon the outskirts of Hargeisa innorthwestern Somalia dates back approximately 5,000 years, and has rock art depicting both wild animals anddecorated cows.^[68] Other cave paintings are found in thenorthern Dhambalin region,which feature one of the earliest known depictions of a hunter on horseback.The rock art is dated to 1,000 to 3,000 BCE.^[69][70] Additionally, between thetowns of Las Khorey and El Ayo in northern Somalia lies Karinhegane, the site of numerous cavepaintings of both real and mythical animals. Each painting has an inscriptionbelow it, which collectively have been estimated to be around 2,500 years old.^[71][72]

Antiquity and classical era

Main articles: Somali Architecture and Sesea

Ancient pyramidical structures, mausoleums, ruined cities and stone walls,such as the Wargaade Wall, areevidence of an old civilization that once thrived in the Somali peninsula.^[73][74] This civilization enjoyed atrading relationship with ancient Egypt and Mycenaean Greece since the secondmillennium BCE, supporting the hypothesis that Somalia or adjacent regions werethe location of the ancient Land of Punt.^[73][75] The Puntites native to theregion traded myrrh, spices, gold, ebony, short-hornedcattle, ivory and frankincense withthe Egyptians, Phoenicians, Babylonians, Indians, Chinese and Romans throughtheir commercial ports. An Egyptian expedition sent to Punt by the 18th dynasty Queen Hatshepsut is recorded on the templereliefs at Deir el-Bahari,during the reign of the Puntite King Parahu and Queen Ati.^[73] In 2015, isotopic analysis ofancient baboon mummies from Punt that had been brought to Egypt as giftsindicated that the specimens likely originated from an area encompassingeastern Somalia and the Eritrea-Ethiopia corridor.^[76]

In the classical era,the Macrobians, who may have been ancestral toSomalis, established a powerful tribal kingdom that ruled large parts of modernSomalia. They were reputed for their longevity and wealth, and were said to bethe "tallest and handsomest of all men".^[77] The Macrobians were warriorherders and seafarers. According to Herodotus' account, the Persian Emperor Cambyses II, upon his conquest ofEgypt in 525 BC, sent ambassadors to Macrobia, bringing luxurygifts for the Macrobian king to entice his submission. The Macrobian ruler, whowas elected based on his stature and beauty, replied instead with a challengefor his Persian counterpart in the form of an unstrung bow: if the Persianscould manage to draw it, they would have the right to invade his country; butuntil then, they should thank the gods that the Macrobians never decided toinvade their empire.^[77][78] The Macrobians were a regionalpower reputed for their advanced architecture and gold wealth,which was so plentiful that they shackled their prisoners in golden chains.^[78] The camel isbelieved to have been domesticated in the Horn region sometime between the 2ndand 3rd millennium BCE. From there, it spread to Egypt andthe Maghreb.^[79]

During the classical period, the Barbara city-states also known as sesea of Mosylon, Opone, Mundus, Isis, Malao, Avalites, Essina, Nikon and Sarapion developed a lucrative tradenetwork, connecting with merchants from Ptolemaic Egypt, Ancient Greece, Phoenicia, Parthian Persia, Saba, the Nabataean Kingdom, and the Roman Empire. They used the ancient Somalimaritime vessel known as the beden totransport their cargo.

The Beden isa fast, ancient Somali single or double-masted maritime ship.

After the Roman conquest of the Nabataean Empire andthe Roman naval presence at Aden to curb piracy,Arab and Somali merchants agreed with the Romans to bar Indian ships fromtrading in the free port cities of the Arabian peninsula^[80] to protect the interests ofSomali and Arab merchants in the lucrative commerce between the Red andMediterranean Seas.^[81] However, Indian merchantscontinued to trade in the port cities of the Somali peninsula, which was freefrom Roman interference.^[82] For centuries, Indianmerchants brought large quantities of cinnamon to Somalia and Arabia from Ceylon and the Spice Islands. The source of the cinnamon andother spices is said to have been the best-kept secret of Arab and Somalimerchants in their trade with the Roman and Greek world; the Romans and Greeksbelieved the source to have been the Somali peninsula.^[83] The collusive agreement amongSomali and Arab traders inflated the price of Indian and Chinese cinnamon inNorth Africa, the Near East, and Europe, and made the cinnamon trade a veryprofitable revenue generator, especially for the Somali merchants through whosehands large quantities were shipped across sea and land routes.^[81]

Birth of Islam and the Middle Ages

Main articles: Somaliaristocratic and court titles, Ifat Sultanate, Walashma dynasty, Sultanate ofMogadishu, Adal Sultanate, and Ajuran Sultanate

The Silk Road extendingfrom China to southern Europe, Arabia, Somalia, Egypt, Persia, India, and Java.

Islam was introduced to the area early onby the first Muslims of Mecca fleeing prosecution during the first Hejira with Masjidal-Qiblatayn in Zeila beingbuilt before the Qiblah towards Mecca.It is one of the oldest mosques in Africa.^[84] In the late 9th century, Al-Yaqubi wrote that Muslims were livingalong the northern Somali seaboard.^[85] He also mentioned thatthe Adal Kingdom hadits capital in the city.^[85][86] According to Leo Africanus, the Adal Sultanate was governed bylocal Somali dynastiesand its realm encompassed the geographical area between the Bab el Mandeb andCape Guardafui. It was thus flanked to the south by the Ajuran Empire and to the west bythe Abyssinian Empire.^[87]

Throughout the Middle Ages, Arab immigrants arrived inSomaliland, a historical experience which would later lead to the legendarystories about Muslim sheikhs such as Daarood and Ishaaq bin Ahmed (the purported ancestorsof the Darod and Isaaq clans,respectively) travelling from Arabia to Somalia and marrying into thelocal Dir clan.^[88]

In 1332, the Zeila-based King of Adal was slain in a militarycampaign aimed at halting Abyssinian emperor Amda Seyon I's march toward the city.^[89] When the last Sultan ofIfat, Sa'ad ad-Din II,was also killed by Emperor Dawit I inZeila in 1410, his children escaped to Yemen, before returning in 1415.^[90] In the early 15th century,Adal's capital was moved further inland to the town of Dakkar, where Sabr ad-Din II, the eldest son of Sa'ad ad-DinII, established a new base after his return from Yemen.^[91][92]

The Ajuran Sultanate maintained commercialties with the Ming dynasty andother kingdoms.

Adal's headquarters were again relocated the following century,this time southward to Harar. From this newcapital, Adal organised an effective army led by Imam Ahmad ibnIbrahim al-Ghazi (Ahmad "Gurey" or "Gran";both meaning "the left-handed") and his closest top general Garad Hirabu"Emir Of The Somalis that invaded the Abyssinian empire.^[92] This 16th-century campaign ishistorically known as the Conquest of Abyssinia (Futuhal-Habash). During the war, Imam Ahmad pioneered the use of cannonssupplied by the Ottoman Empire, which he imported through Zeila and deployedagainst Abyssinian forces and their Portuguese allies led by Cristóvão da Gama.^[93] Some scholars argue that thisconflict proved, through their use on both sides, the value of firearms such asthe matchlock musket, cannon, and the arquebus over traditional weapons.^[94]

During the Ajuran Sultanate period, the city-statesand republics of Merca, Mogadishu, Barawa, Hobyo andtheir respective ports flourished and had a lucrative foreign commerce withships sailing to and from Arabia, India, Venetia,^[95] Persia, Egypt, Portugal, andas far away as China. Vasco da Gama, whopassed by Mogadishu in the 15th century, noted that it was a large city withhouses several storeys high and large palaces in its centre, in addition tomany mosques with cylindrical minarets.^[96] The Harla, an early Hamitic group of tall stature whoinhabited parts of Somalia, Tchertcher and other areas in the Horn, alsoerected various tumuli.^[97] These masons are believed tohave been ancestral to ethnic Somalis.^[98]

In the 16th century, Duarte Barbosa noted that many ships fromthe Kingdom of Cambaya in modern-day Indiasailed to Mogadishu with cloth and spices, for which they in return receivedgold, wax and ivory. Barbosa also highlighted the abundance of meat, wheat,barley, horses, and fruit on the coastal markets, which generated enormous wealthfor the merchants.^[99] Mogadishu, the center of athriving textile industry known as toob benadir (specializedfor the markets in Egypt, among other places^[100]), together with Merca and Barawa,also served as a transit stop for Swahili merchants from Mombasa and Malindi and for the gold trade from Kilwa.^[101] Jewish merchants from the Hormuz brought their Indian textile andfruit to the Somali coast in exchange for grain andwood.^[102]

Trading relations were established with Malacca in the 15th century,^[103] with cloth, ambergris andporcelain being the main commodities of the trade.^[104] Giraffes, zebras and incensewere exported to the Ming Empire ofChina, which established Somali merchants as leaders in the commerce betweenEast Asia and the Horn.^[105] Hindu merchants from Surat andSoutheast African merchants from Pate, seeking to bypass both the Portuguese India blockade ( and later theOmani interference), used the Somali ports of Merca and Barawa (which were outof the two powers' direct jurisdiction) to conduct their trade in safety andwithout interference.^[106]

Early modern era and the scramble for Africa

Main articles: Geledi sultanate, Isaaq Sultanate, Sultanate of Hobyo,and Dervish movement(Somali)

See also: Italian Somaliland and British Somaliland

In the early modern period,successor states to the Adal Sultanate and Ajuran Sultanate began to flourishin Somalia. These included the Hiraab Imamate, the Isaaq Sultanate led by the Guled dynasty,^[107][108] the Habr Yunis Sultanate ledby the Ainanshe dynasty,^[27] the Sultanate of theGeledi (Gobroon dynasty), the Majeerteen Sultanate (Migiurtinia),and the Sultanate of Hobyo (Obbia).They continued the tradition of castle-building and seaborne trade establishedby previous Somali empires.

Sultan Yusuf Mahamud Ibrahim,the third Sultan of the House of Gobroon, started the golden age of the GobroonDynasty. His army came out victorious during the Bardheere Jihad, whichrestored stability in the region and revitalized the East African ivory trade. He also had cordial relations andreceived gifts from the rulers of neighbouring and distant kingdoms such as theOmani, Witu and Yemeni Sultans.

Sultan Ibrahim's son Ahmed Yusuf succeededhim as one of the most important figures in 19th-century East Africa, receivingtribute from Omani governors and creating alliances with important Muslimfamilies on the East African coast.

In Somalland, the Isaaq Sultanate was established in 1750. TheIsaaq Sultanate was a Somali kingdomthat ruled parts of the Horn of Africa during the 18th and 19thcenturies.^[107] It spanned the territories ofthe Isaaq clan, descendants of the Banu Hashim clan,^[109] in modern-day Somaliland and Ethiopia. The sultanate was governed by theRer Guled branch established by the first sultan, Sultan Guled Abdi,of the Eidagale clan. The sultanate is thepre-colonial predecessor to the modern Republic of Somaliland.^{[110][111][112]} According to oral tradition,prior to the Guled dynasty the Isaaq clan-familywere ruled by a dynasty of the Tolje'lo branch starting from, descendants ofAhmed nicknamed Tol Je'lo, the eldest son of Sheikh Ishaaq's Harari wife. There were eight Tolje'lorulers in total, starting with Boqor Harun (Somali: Boqor Haaruun) who ruled the Isaaq Sultanate for centuriesstarting from the 13th century.^[113][114] The last Tolje'lo ruler Garad DhuhBarar (Somali: Dhuux Baraar) was overthrown by a coalition of Isaaqclans. The once strong Tolje'lo clan were scattered and took refuge amongstthe Habr Awal with whom they still mostlylive.^[115][116]

Oneof the forts of the Majeerteen Sultanate in Hafun.Mogadishu,capital of Italian Somaliland,with the Catholic Cathedral atthe center and the Arch monument in honor of King Umberto I of Italy.

In the late 19th century, after the Berlin Conference of 1884, Europeanpowers began the Scramble for Africa.In that year, a British protectorate was declared over part of Somalia, on theAfrican coast opposite South Yemen.^[117] Initially, this region wasunder the control of the Indian Office, and so administered as part of theIndian Empire; in 1898 it was transferred to control by London.^[117] In 1889, the protectorate andlater colony of Italian Somalia wasofficially established by Italy through various treaties signedwith a number of chiefs and sultans;^[118] Sultan Yusuf Ali Kenadid first sent a request toItaly in late December 1888 to make his Sultanate of Hobyo anItalian protectorate before later signing a treaty in 1889.^[119]

The Dervish movement successfully repulsed the British Empirefour times and forced it to retreat to the coastal region.^[120] The Darawiish defeatedthe Italian, British, Abyssinian colonial powers on numerous occasions, mostnotably, the 1903 victory at Cagaarweyne commanded by Suleiman Aden Galaydh,^[121] forcing the British Empire to retreat to the coastalregion in the late 1900s.^[122] The Dervishes were finallydefeated in 1920 by British airpower.^[123]

The dawn of fascism in the early1920s heralded a change of strategy for Italy, as the north-eastern sultanateswere soon to be forced within the boundaries of La Grande Somalia ("Greater Somalia") according to theplan of Fascist Italy. With the arrival of Governor Cesare Maria DeVecchi on 15 December 1923, things began to change for thatpart of Somaliland known as Italian Somaliland.The last piece of land acquired by Italy in Somalia was Oltre Giuba, present-day Jubaland region, in 1925.^[119]

The Italians began local infrastructure projects, including theconstruction of hospitals, farms and schools.^[124] Fascist Italy,under Benito Mussolini,attacked Abyssinia (Ethiopia) in 1935, with an aim to colonize it. The invasionwas condemned by the League of Nations, but little was done to stopit or to liberate occupied Ethiopia. In 1936, Italian Somalia was integratedinto Italian East Africa,alongside Eritrea and Ethiopia, as the Somalia Governorate.On 3 August 1940, Italian troops, including Somali colonial units, crossed fromEthiopia to invadeBritish Somaliland, and by 14 August, succeeded in taking Berbera from the British.^{[citation needed]}

A British force, including troops from several Africancountries, launched the campaignin January 1941 from Kenya to liberate British Somaliland andItalian-occupied Ethiopia and conquer Italian Somaliland. By February most ofItalian Somaliland was captured and, in March, British Somaliland was retakenfrom the sea. The forces of the British Empire operating in Somalilandcomprised the three divisions of South African, West African, and East Africantroops. They were assisted by Somali forces led by Abdulahi Hassan with Somalisof the Isaaq, Dhulbahante, and Warsangali clans prominentlyparticipating. The number of Italian Somalis began to decline afterWorld War II, with fewer than 10,000 remaining in 1960.^[125]

Independence (1960–1969)

Main articles: State of Somaliland, Somali Republic, Greater Somalia, and Somali Youth League

Anavenue in downtown Mogadishu in 1963.

Following World War II, Britain retained control of both British Somaliland andItalian Somaliland as protectorates. In 1945, during the Potsdam Conference,the United Nations granted Italy trusteeship of Italian Somaliland as the TrustTerritory of Somaliland, on the condition first proposed by theSomali Youth League (SYL) and other nascent Somali political organizations,such as Hizbia Digil Mirifle Somali (HDMS) and the Somali National League(SNL)—that Somalia achieve independence within ten years.^[126][127] British Somaliland remained aprotectorate of Britain until 1960.^[125]

To the extent that Italy held the territory by UN mandate, thetrusteeship provisions gave the Somalis the opportunity to gain experience inWestern political education and self-government. These were advantages thatBritish Somaliland, which was to be incorporated into the new Somali state, didnot have. Although in the 1950s British colonial officials attempted, throughvarious administrative development efforts, to make up for past neglect, theprotectorate stagnated in political administrative development. The disparitybetween the two territories in economic development and political experiencewould later cause serious difficulties integrating the two parts.^[128]

Meanwhile, in 1948, under pressure from their World War IIallies and to the dismay of the Somalis,^[129] the British returnedthe Haud (an important Somali grazing areathat was presumably protected by British treaties with the Somalis in 1884 and1886) and the Somali Region toEthiopia, based on a treaty they signed in 1897 in which the British cededSomali territory to the Ethiopian Emperor Menelik inexchange for his help against possible advances by the French.^[130]

Britain included the conditional provision that the Somaliresidents would retain their autonomy, but Ethiopia immediately claimedsovereignty over the area. This prompted an unsuccessful bid by Britain in 1956to buy back the Somali lands it had turned over.^[126] Britain also grantedadministration of the almost exclusively Somali-inhabited NorthernFrontier District (NFD) to Kenyan nationalists.^[131][132] This was despite a plebiscite in which, according to aBritish colonial commission, almost all of the territory's ethnic Somalisfavored joining the newly formed Somali Republic.^[133]

A referendum was held in neighbouring Djibouti (then known as French Somaliland) in 1958, on the eve ofSomalia's independence in 1960, to decide whether or not to join the SomaliRepublic or to remain with France. The referendum turned out in favour of acontinued association with France, largely due to a combined yes vote by the sizable Afar ethnic group and resident Europeans.^[134] There was also widespreadvote rigging, with the French expelling thousands of Somalis before thereferendum reached the polls.^[135]

The majority of those who voted 'no' were Somalis who werestrongly in favour of joining a united Somalia, as had been proposed by Mahmoud Harbi, Vice President of theGovernment Council. Harbi was killed in a plane crash two years later.^[134] Djibouti finally gainedindependence from France in 1977,and Hassan Gouled Aptidon,a Somali who had campaigned for a 'yes' vote in the referendum of 1976,eventually became Djibouti's first president (1977–1999).^[134]

On 1 July 1960, five days after the former British Somalilandprotectorate obtained independence as the State of Somaliland, the territoryunited with the Trust Territory of Somaliland to form the Somali Republic,^[136] albeit within boundariesdrawn up by Italy and Britain.^[137][138] A government was formedby Abdullahi Issa and Muhammad HajiIbrahim Egal with other members of the trusteeship andprotectorate governments, with AbdulcadirMuhammed Aden as President of the Somali NationalAssembly, Aden AbdullahOsman Daar as President ofthe Somali Republic, and Abdirashid AliShermarke as Prime Minister (laterto become president from 1967 to 1969). On 20 July 1961 and through a popularreferendum, was ratified popularly by the people of Somalia underItalian trusteeship, Most of the people from the former Somaliland Protectoratedid not participate in the referendum, although only a small number ofSomalilanders who participated the referendum voted against the new constitution,^[139] which was first drafted in1960.^[35] In 1967, Muhammad Haji IbrahimEgal became Prime Minister, a position to which he was appointed by Shermarke.Egal would later become the President of the autonomous Somaliland region in northwesternSomalia.

On 15 October 1969, while paying a visit to the northern townof Las Anod, Somalia's then President AbdirashidAli Shermarke was shot dead by one of his own bodyguards. His assassination wasquickly followed by a military coup d'état on 21 October 1969 (the dayafter his funeral), in which the Somali Army seizedpower without encountering armed opposition — essentially a bloodless takeover.The putsch was spearheaded by Major General Mohamed Siad Barre, who at the time commandedthe army.^[140]

Somali Democratic Republic (1969–1991)

Main articles: SomaliDemocratic Republic and 1969 Somali coupd'état

Mohamed AinansheGuled in North Korea meeting President Kim Il Sung 1970

Alongside Barre, the SupremeRevolutionary Council (SRC) that assumed power after PresidentSharmarke's assassination was led by Brigadier General Mohamed AinansheGuled, Lieutenant Colonel Salaad Gabeyre Kediye andChief of Police Jama Korshel.Kediye officially held the title "Father of the Revolution", andBarre shortly afterwards became the head of the SRC.^[141] The SRC subsequently renamedthe country the Somali Democratic Republic,^[142][143] dissolved the parliament andthe Supreme Court, and suspended the constitution.^[144]

MajorGeneral Mohamed Siad Barre,Chairman of the SupremeRevolutionary Council, meeting with President of Romania Nicolae Ceauşescu.

The revolutionary army established large-scale public worksprograms and successfully implemented an urban and rural literacy campaign, which helpeddramatically increase the literacy rate. In addition to a nationalizationprogram of industry and land, the new regime's foreign policy placed anemphasis on Somalia's traditional and religious links with the Arab world, eventually joining the Arab League in February, 1974.^[145] That same year, Barre alsoserved as chairman of the Organisationof African Unity (OAU), the predecessor of the African Union (AU).^[146]

In July 1976, Barre's SRC disbanded itself and established inits place the SomaliRevolutionary Socialist Party (SRSP), a one-party governmentbased on scientific socialism andIslamic tenets. The SRSP was an attempt to reconcile the official stateideology with the official state religion by adapting Marxistprecepts to local circumstances. Emphasis was placed on theMuslim principles of social progress, equality and justice, which thegovernment argued formed the core of scientific socialism and its own accent onself-sufficiency, public participation and popular control, as well as directownership of the means of production. While the SRSP encouraged privateinvestment on a limited scale, the administration's overall direction wasessentially communist.^[144]

In July 1977, the Ogaden War broke out after Barre'sgovernment used a plea for national unity to justify an aggressive incorporation of thepredominantly Somali-inhabited Ogaden region of Ethiopia into aPan-Somali Greater Somalia,along with the rich agricultural lands of south-eastern Ethiopia,infrastructure, and strategically important areas as far north as Djibouti.^[147] In the first week of theconflict, Somali armed forces took southern and central Ogaden and for most ofthe war, the Somali army scored continuous victories on the Ethiopian army andfollowed them as far as Sidamo. By September 1977, Somalia controlled90% of the Ogaden and captured strategic cities such as Jijiga and put heavy pressure on Dire Dawa, threatening the train route fromthe latter city to Djibouti. After the siege of Harar, a massive unprecedentedSoviet intervention consisting of 20,000 Cuban forcesand several thousand Soviet experts came to the aid of Ethiopia'scommunist Derg regime. By 1978, the Somali troopswere ultimately pushed out of the Ogaden. This shift in support by the SovietUnion motivated the Barre government to seek allies elsewhere. It eventuallysettled on the Soviets' Cold War arch-rival,the United States,which had been courting the Somali government for some time. All in all,Somalia's initial friendship with the Soviet Union and later partnership withthe United States enabled it to build the largest army in Africa.^[148]

A new constitution was promulgated in 1979 under which electionsfor a People's Assembly were held. However, Barre's Somali RevolutionarySocialist Party politburo continuedto rule.^[143] In October 1980, the SRSP wasdisbanded, and the Supreme Revolutionary Council was re-established in itsplace.^[144] By that time, Barre'sgovernment had become increasingly unpopular. Many Somalis had becomedisillusioned with life under military dictatorship.

The regime was weakened further in the 1980s as the Cold Wardrew to a close and Somalia's strategic importance was diminished. Thegovernment became increasingly authoritarian, and resistance movements,encouraged by Ethiopia, sprang up across the country, eventually leading tothe Somali Civil War.Among the militia groups were the SomaliSalvation Democratic Front (SSDF), United SomaliCongress (USC), Somali NationalMovement (SNM) and the Somali PatrioticMovement (SPM), together with the non-violent politicaloppositions of the SomaliDemocratic Movement (SDM), the SomaliDemocratic Alliance (SDA) and the Somali Manifesto Group (SMG).

Somalia Civil War

Main articles: Somali Civil War, History ofSomalia (1991–2006), Isaaq genocide, and SomalilandWar of Independence

Exhumedskeletal remains of victims of the Isaaq genocide found from a mass gravesite located in Berbera, Somaliland.Map of the sites related to the Isaaq genocide

As the moral authority of Barre's government wasgradually eroded, many Somalis became disillusioned with life under militaryrule. By the mid-1980s, resistance movements supported by Ethiopia'scommunist Derg administration had sprung up acrossthe country. Barre responded by ordering punitive measures against those heperceived as locally supporting the guerrillas, especially in the northernregions. The clampdown included bombing of cities, with the northwesternadministrative centre of Hargeisa, a Somali NationalMovement (SNM) stronghold, among the targeted areas in 1988.^[149][150] The bombardment was led byGeneral Mohammed SaidHersi Morgan, Barre's son-in-law.^[151]

During 1990, in the capital city of Mogadishu, the residentswere prohibited from gathering publicly in groups greater than three or four.Fuel shortages caused long lines of cars at petrol stations. Inflation haddriven the price of pasta (ordinary dry Italian noodles, a staple at that time)to five U.S. dollars per kilogram. The price of khat,imported daily from Kenya, was also five U.S. dollars per standard bunch. Papercurrency notes were of such low value that several bundles were needed to payfor simple restaurant meals.

A thriving black market existed in the centre of the city asbanks experienced shortages of local currency for exchange. At night, the cityof Mogadishu lay in darkness. Close monitoring of all visiting foreigners wasin effect. Harsh exchange control regulationswere introduced to prevent export of foreign currency. Although no travelrestrictions were placed on foreigners, photographing many locations wasbanned. During daytime in Mogadishu, the appearance of any government militaryforce was extremely rare. Alleged late-night operations by governmentauthorities, however, included "disappearances" of individuals fromtheir homes.^[152]

In 1991, the Barre administration was ousted by a coalition ofclan-based opposition groups, backed by Ethiopia's then-ruling Derg regimeand Libya.^[153] Following a meeting ofthe Somali NationalMovement and northern clans' elders, the northern formerBritish portion of the country declaredits independence as the Republic of Somaliland in May 1991.Although defacto independent andrelatively stable compared to the tumultuous south, it has not been recognizedby any foreign government.^[154][155]

Priorto the civil war, Mogadishu was known as the "White pearl of the IndianOcean".^[156]

Many of the opposition groups subsequently began competing forinfluence in the power vacuum that followed the ouster of Barre's regime. Inthe south, armed factions led by USC commanders General Mohamed Farah Aidid and Ali Mahdi Mohamed, in particular, clashed aseach sought to exert authority over the capital.^[157] In 1991, a multi-phasedinternational conference on Somalia was held in neighbouring Djibouti. Aididboycotted the first meeting in protest.^[158]

Owing to the legitimacy bestowed on Muhammad by the Djibouticonference, he was subsequently recognized by the international community asthe new President of Somalia. Djibouti, Egypt, Saudi Arabia and Italy wereamong the countries that officially extended recognition to Muhammad'sadministration.^[158] He was not able to exert hisauthority beyond parts of the capital. Power was instead vied with otherfaction leaders in the southern half of Somalia and with autonomoussub-national entities in the north.^[159] The Djibouti conference wasfollowed by two abortive agreements for national reconciliation anddisarmament, which were signed by 15 political stakeholders: an agreement tohold an Informal Preparatory Meeting on National Reconciliation, and the 1993Addis Ababa Agreement made at the Conference on National Reconciliation.^{[citation needed]}

In the early 1990s, due to the protracted lack of a permanentcentral authority, Somalia began to be characterized as a "failed state".^{[160][161][162]} Political scientist Ken Menkhaus argues that evidencesuggested that the nation had already attained failed state status by themid-1980s,^[163] while Robert I. Rotberg similarly posits thatthe state failure had preceded the ouster of the Barre administration.^[164] Hoehne (2009), Branwen (2009)and Verhoeven (2009) also used Somalia during this period as a case study tocritique various aspects of the "state failure" discourse.^[165]

Transitional institutions

Main articles: TransitionalNational Government, TransitionalFederal Institutions, TransitionalFederal Government, and TransitionalFederal Parliament

The Transitional National Government (TNG) was established inApril–May 2000 at the Somalia National Peace Conference (SNPC) held in Arta,Djibouti. Abdiqasim SaladHassan was selected as the President of the nation's newTransitional National Government (TNG), an interim administration formed toguide Somalia to its third permanent republican government.^[166] The TNG's internal problemsled to the replacement of the Prime Minister four times in three years, and theadministrative body's reported bankruptcy in December 2003. Its mandate endedat the same time.^[167]

On 10 October 2004, legislators elected Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed asthe first President of the TransitionalFederal Government (TFG), the Transitional NationalGovernment's successor.^[168] the TFG was the secondinterim administration aiming to restore national institutions to Somalia afterthe 1991 collapse of the Siad Barre regime and the ensuing civil war.^[169]

The Transitional Federal Government (TFG) was theinternationally recognised government of Somalia until 20 August 2012, when itstenure officially ended.^[46] It was established as one ofthe TransitionalFederal Institutions (TFIs) of government as defined inthe TransitionalFederal Charter (TFC) adopted in November 2004 by the TransitionalFederal Parliament (TFP). The Transitional Federal Governmentofficially comprised the executive branchof government, with the TFP serving as the legislative branch. The government washeaded by the President of Somalia,to whom the cabinet reportedthrough the Prime Minister.However, it was also used as a general term to refer to all three branchescollectively.^{[citation needed]}

Islamic Courts Union

See also: Islamic Courts Union

Mapshowing the ICU at the peak of its influence.

In 2006, the Islamic Courts Union (ICU),assumed control of much of the southern part of the country for 6 months andimposed Shari'a law. Top UN officials havereferred to this brief period as a 'Golden era' in the history of Somalipolitics.^[170][171]

Transitional Federal Government

See also: Somalia War(2006–2009) and Battle ofMogadishu (2006)

The Transitional Federal Government sought to re-establish itsauthority, and, with the assistance of Ethiopiantroops, African Union peacekeepersand air support by the United States, drove out the ICU and solidified itsrule.^[172] On 8 January 2007, TFGPresident Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed enteredMogadishu with the Ethiopian military support for the first time since beingelected to office. The government then relocated to Villa Somalia in the capital from itsinterim location in Baidoa. This marked thefirst time since the fall of the Siad Barre regime in 1991 that the federalgovernment controlled most of the country.^[173]

Al Shabaab insurgency

See also: Al-Shabaab(militant group)

Al-Shabaab opposedthe Ethiopian military's presence in Somalia and continued an insurgencyagainst the TFG. Throughout 2007 and 2008, Al-Shabaab scored militaryvictories, seizing control of key towns and ports in both central and southernSomalia. By January 2009, Al-Shabaab and other militias had forced theEthiopian troops to retreat, leaving behind an under-equipped African Unionpeacekeeping force to assist the Transitional Federal Government's troops.^[174]

Owing to a lack of funding and human resources, an arms embargo that made it difficult tore-establish a national security force, and general indifference on the part ofthe international community, Yusuf found himself obliged to deploy thousands oftroops from Puntland to Mogadishu to sustain the battle against insurgentelements in the southern part of the country. Financial support for this effortwas provided by the autonomous region's government. This left little revenuefor Puntland's own security forces and civil service employees, leaving theterritory vulnerable to piracy and terrorist attacks.^[175][176]

On 29 December 2008, Yusuf announced before a united parliamentin Baidoa his resignation as President of Somalia. In his speech, which wasbroadcast on national radio, Yusuf expressed regret at failing to end thecountry's seventeen-year conflict as his government had been mandated to do.^[177] He also blamed theinternational community for their failure to support the government, and saidthat the speaker of parliament would succeed him in office per the Charter of the Transitional Federal Government.^[178]

End of transitional period

See also: Hizbul Islam, Ahlu Sunna Waljama'a, Alliancefor the Re-liberation of Somalia, SomaliCivil War (2009–present), and 2009timeline of the War in Somalia

Sharif Sheikh Ahmed

Between 31 May and 9 June 2008, representatives of Somalia'sfederal government and the Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia (ARS)participated in peace talks in Djibouti brokered by the former United NationsSpecial Envoy to Somalia, Ahmedou Ould-Abdallah.The conference ended with a signed agreement calling for the withdrawal ofEthiopian troops in exchange for the cessation of armed confrontation.Parliament was subsequently expanded to 550 seats to accommodate ARS members,which then elected Sheikh SharifSheikh Ahmed, as president.^[1]

Politicaland military situation in Somalia as of March 2023

With the help of a small team of African Union troops, the TFGbegan a counteroffensive inFebruary 2009 to assume full control of the southern half of the country. Tosolidify its rule, the TFG formed an alliance with the Islamic Courts Union,other members of the Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia, and Ahlu Sunna Waljama'a,a moderate Sufi militia.^[179] Furthermore, Al-Shabaab andHizbul Islam, the two main Islamist groups in opposition, began to fightamongst themselves in mid-2009.^[180] As a truce, in March 2009,the TFG announced that it would re-implement Shari'a as the nation's officialjudicial system.^[181] However, conflict continuedin the southern and central parts of the country. Within months, the TFG hadgone from holding about 70% of south-central Somalia's conflict zones, tolosing control of over 80% of the disputed territory to the Islamist insurgents.^[173]

In October 2011, a coordinated operation, Operation Linda Nchi betweenthe Somali and Kenyan militaries and multinational forces began against theAl-Shabaab in southern Somalia.^[182][183] By September 2012, Somali,Kenyan, and Raskamboni forceshad managed to capture Al-Shabaab's last major stronghold, the southern port ofKismayo.^[184] In July 2012, three EuropeanUnion operations were launched to engage with Somalia: EUTMSomalia, EU Naval Force Somalia Operation Atalanta offthe Horn of Africa, and EUCAP Nestor.^[185]

Structureof the FederalParliament of Somalia.

As part of the official "Roadmap for the End ofTransition", a political process that provided clear benchmarks leadingtoward the formation of permanent democratic institutions in Somalia, theTransitional Federal Government's interim mandate ended on 20 August 2012.^[39] The FederalParliament of Somalia was concurrently inaugurated.^[46]

Federal government

The FederalGovernment of Somalia, the first permanent central government in thecountry since the start of the civil war, was established in August 2012. InAugust 2014, the Somali government-led Operation IndianOcean was launched against insurgent-held pockets in thecountryside.^[186]

Main article: Geography of Somalia

Somalia is bordered by Ethiopia to the west, the Gulf of Aden to the north, the Somali Seaand Guardafui Channel tothe east, and Kenya to the southwest. With a land areaof 637,657 square kilometers, Somalia's terrain consists mainly of plateaus, plains and highlands.^[187] Its coastline ismore than 3,333 kilometers in length, the longest of mainland Africa.^[12] It has been described as beingroughly shaped "like a tilted number seven".^[188]

In the far north, the rugged east–west ranges of the Ogo Mountains lie at varying distancesfrom the Gulf of Aden coast. Hot conditions prevail year-round, along withperiodic monsoon winds and irregular rainfall.^[13] Geology suggests the presenceof valuable mineral deposits. Somalia is separated from Seychelles by the Somali Sea and isseparated from Socotra by the Guardafui Channel.

Administrative divisions

Main articles: Administrativedivisions of Somalia and States andregions of Somalia

Somalia is officially divided into eighteen regions (gobollada,singular gobol),^[1] which in turn are subdividedinto districts. The regions are:

A map of Somalia's regions.

Northern Somalia is now de facto divided upamong the autonomousregions of Puntland (whichconsiders itself an autonomous state), Somaliland (a self-declared but unrecognizedstate) and newly established Khatumo State of Somalia. In centralSomalia, Galmudug is another regional entity thatemerged just south of Puntland. Jubaland in the far south is a fourthautonomous region within the federation.^[1] In 2014, a new South WestState was likewise established.^[189] In April 2015, a formationconference was also launched for a new Hirshabelle State.^[190]

The FederalParliament is tasked with selecting the ultimate number andboundaries of the autonomous regional states (officially FederalMember States) within the Federal Republic of Somalia.^[191][192]

Location

The Cal Madow mountain range in Somalilandfeatures the nation's highest peak, Shimbiris.

Baalade Valley near Bendergazimphotographed by French explorer & diplomat Georges Revoil in 1881

Somalia is bordered by Kenya to the southwest, the Gulf of Aden to the north, the Guardafui Channel and Indian Ocean to theeast, and Ethiopia to the west. The country borders Djibouti. It lies between latitudes 2°S and 12°N, andlongitudes 41° and 52°E.Strategically located at the mouth of the Bab el Mandeb gateway to the Red Sea and the Suez Canal, the country occupies the tip of aregion that, due to its resemblance on the map to a rhinoceros' horn, is commonly referred to asthe Horn of Africa.^[1][193]

Waters

Main article: Islands of Somalia

Somalia has the longest coastline on the mainland of Africa,^[194] with a seaboard thatstretches 3,333 kilometres (2,071 mi). Its terrain consists mainlyof plateaus, plains and highlands. The nation has a total area of637,657 square kilometres (246,201 sq mi) of which constitutes land,with 10,320 square kilometres (3,980 sq mi) of water. Somalia's landboundaries extend to about 2,340 kilometres (1,450 mi); 58 kilometres(36 mi) of that is shared with Djibouti, 682 kilometres (424 mi) withKenya, and 1,626 kilometres (1,010 mi) with Ethiopia. Its maritime claimsinclude territorial waters of200 nautical miles (370 km; 230 mi).^[1]

Somalia has several islands and archipelagos on its coast,including the Bajuni Islands andthe Saad ad-Din Archipelago:see islands of Somalia.

The Jubba River

Habitat

Somalia contains seven terrestrial ecoregions: Ethiopian montaneforests, Northern Zanzibar–Inhambane coastal forest mosaic, Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets, Ethiopianxeric grasslands and shrublands, Hobyograsslands and shrublands, Somalimontane xeric woodlands, and East Africanmangroves.^[195]

In the north, a scrub-covered, semi-desert plain referred asthe Guban lies parallel to the Gulf ofAden littoral. With awidth of twelve kilometres in the west to as little as two kilometres in theeast, the plain is bisected by watercourses that are essentially beds of drysand except during the rainy seasons. When the rains arrive, the Guban's lowbushes and grass clumps transform into lush vegetation.^[193] This coastal strip is part ofthe Ethiopianxeric grasslands and shrublands ecoregion.

Cal Madow isa mountain range inthe northeastern part of the country. Extending from several kilometres west ofthe city of Bosaso to the northwest of Erigavo, it features Somalia's highest peak, Shimbiris, which sits at an elevation of about2,416 metres (7,927 ft).^[1] The rugged east–west ranges ofthe Karkaar Mountains also lie to the interior of the Gulf of Aden littoral.^[193] In the central regions, thecountry's northern mountain ranges give way to shallow plateaus and typicallydry watercourses that are referred to locally as the Ogo. The Ogo'swestern plateau, in turn, gradually merges into the Haud,an important grazing area for livestock.^[193]

Somalia has only two permanent rivers, the Jubba and Shabele, both of which begin in the Ethiopian Highlands.These rivers mainly flow southwards, with the Jubba River entering the IndianOcean at Kismayo. The Shabele River at one timeapparently used to enter the sea near Merca,but now reaches a point just southwest of Mogadishu. After that, it consists ofswamps and dry reaches before finally disappearing in the desert terrain eastof Jilib, near the Jubba River.^[193]

Environment

Somalia's coral reefs, ecological parks and protectedareas

Somalia is a semi-arid country with about 1.64% arable land.^[1] The first local environmentalorganizations were Ecoterra Somalia and the Somali Ecological Society, both ofwhich helped promote awareness about ecological concerns and mobilizedenvironmental programs in all governmental sectors as well as in civil society.From 1971 onward, a massive tree-planting campaign on a nationwide scale wasintroduced by the Siad Barre government to halt the advance of thousands ofacres of wind-driven sand dunes thatthreatened to engulf towns, roads and farm land.^[196] By 1988, 265 hectares of aprojected 336 hectares had been treated, with 39 range reserve sites and 36forestry plantation sites established.^[193] In 1986, the Wildlife Rescue,Research and Monitoring Centre was established by Ecoterra International, withthe goal of sensitizing the public to ecological issues. This educationaleffort led in 1989 to the so-called "Somalia proposal" and a decisionby the Somali government to adhere to the Conventionon International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES),which established for the first time a worldwide ban on the trade ofelephant ivory.

Thecoast south of Mogadishu

Later, Fatima Jibrell, a prominent Somalienvironmental activist, mounted a successful campaign to conserve old-growthforests of acacia trees in the northeastern part ofSomalia.^[197] These trees, which can livefor 500 years, were being cut down to make charcoal which was highly in demandin the Arabian Peninsula, where the region's Bedouin tribes believe the acacia to besacred.^{[197][198][199]} However, while being arelatively inexpensive fuel that meets a user's needs, the production ofcharcoal often leads to deforestation and desertification.^[199] As a way of addressing thisproblem, Jibrell and the Horn of Africa Relief and Development Organization(Horn Relief; now Adeso), an organization ofwhich she was the founder and executive director, trained a group of teens toeducate the public on the permanent damage that producing charcoal can create.In 1999, Horn Relief coordinated a peace march in the northeastern Puntlandregion of Somalia to put an end to the so-called "charcoal wars". Asa result of Jibrell's lobbying and education efforts, the Puntland governmentin 2000 prohibited the exportation of charcoal. The government has also sinceenforced the ban, which has reportedly led to an 80% drop in exports of theproduct.^[200] Jibrell was awarded the GoldmanEnvironmental Prize in 2002 for her efforts againstenvironmental degradation and desertification.^[200] In 2008, she also wonthe NationalGeographic Society/Buffett Foundation Awardfor Leadership in Conservation.^[201]

Following the massive tsunami ofDecember 2004, there have also emerged allegations that after theoutbreak of the Somali Civil War inthe late 1980s, Somalia's long, remote shoreline was used as a dump site forthe disposal of toxic waste. The huge waves that battered northern Somaliaafter the tsunami are believed to have stirred up tons of nuclear and toxicwaste that might have been dumped illegally in the country by foreign firms.^[202]

The European Green Party followedup these revelations by presenting before the press and the European Parliament in Strasbourg copies of contracts signed bytwo European companies — the Italian Swiss firm, Achair Partners, and anItalian waste broker,Progresso — and representatives of the then President of Somalia, the factionleader Ali Mahdi Mohamed, to accept 10 million tonnes of toxic waste inexchange for $80 million (then about £60 million).^[202]

According to reports by the UnitedNations Environment Programme (UNEP), the waste has resulted infar higher than normal cases of respiratory infections, mouth ulcers andbleeding, abdominal haemorrhages and unusual skin infections among manyinhabitants of the areas around the northeastern towns of Hobyo and Benadir on the Indian Ocean coast —diseases consistent with radiation sickness. UNEP adds that the situation alongthe Somali coastline poses a very serious environmental hazard not only inSomalia, but also in the eastern Africa sub-region.^[202]

Climate

Somaliamap of Köppen climate classification.

See also: Climate change inSomalia

Owing to Somalia's proximity to the equator, there is not much seasonal variationin its climate. Hot conditions prevail year-round along with periodic monsoon winds and irregular rainfall.Mean daily maximum temperatures range from 30 to 40 °C (86 to104 °F), except at higher elevations along the eastern seaboard, where theeffects of a cold offshore current can be felt. In Mogadishu, for instance,average afternoon highs range from 28 to 32 °C (82 to 90 °F) inApril. Some of the highest mean annual temperatures in the world have beenrecorded in the country; Berbera on thenorthwestern coast has an afternoon high that averages more than 38 °C(100 °F) from June through September. Nationally, mean daily minimumsusually vary from about 15 to 30 °C (59 to 86 °F).^[193] The greatest range in climateoccurs in northern Somalia, where temperatures sometimes surpass 45 °C(113 °F) in July on the littoral plains and drop below the freezing pointduring December in the highlands.^[13][193] In this region, relativehumidity ranges from about 40% in the mid-afternoon to 85% at night, changingsomewhat according to the season.^[193] Unlike the climates of mostother countries at this latitude, conditions in Somalia range from arid in thenortheastern and central regions to semiarid in the northwest and south. Inthe northeast, annual rainfall is less than 100 mm (4 in); in thecentral plateaus, it is about 200 to 300 mm (8 to 12 in). Thenorthwestern and southwestern parts of the nation, however, receive considerablymore rain, with an average of 510 to 610 mm (20 to 24 in) falling peryear. Although the coastal regions are hot and humid throughout the year, thehinterland is typically dry and hot.^[193]

There are four main seasons around which pastoral andagricultural life revolve, and these are dictated by shifts in the windpatterns. From December to March is the Jilal, the harshest dryseason of the year. The main rainy season, referred to as the Gu,lasts from April to June. This period is characterized by the southwestmonsoons, which rejuvenate the pasture land, especially the central plateau,and briefly transform the desert into lush vegetation. From July to Septemberis the second dry season, the Xagaa (pronounced"Hagaa"). The Dayr, which is the shortest rainy season,lasts from October to December.^[193] The tangambili periodsthat intervene between the two monsoons (October–November and March–May) arehot and humid.^[193]

Wildlife

Main article: Wildlife of Somalia

Acamel in the northern mountains.

Somalia contains a variety of mammals due to its geographicaland climatic diversity. Wildlife still occurring includes cheetah, lion, reticulated giraffe, baboon, serval, elephant, bushpig, gazelle, ibex, kudu, dik-dik, oribi, Somali wild ass, reedbuck and Grévy's zebra, elephant shrew, rock hyrax, golden mole and antelope. It also has a large population ofthe dromedary camel.^[203]

Somalia is home to around 727 species of birds. Of these, eightare endemic, one has been introduced by humans, and one is rare or accidental.Fourteen species are globally threatened. Birds species found exclusively inthe country include the Somali Pigeon, Alaemon hamertoni (Alaudidae), LesserHoopoe-Lark, Heteromirafra archeri (Alaudidae),Archer's Lark, Mirafra ashi,Ash's Bushlark, Mirafra somalica (Alaudidae),Somali Bushlark, Spizocorys obbiensis (Alaudidae),Obbia Lark, Carduelis johannis (Fringillidae),and Warsangli Linnet.^[204]

Somalia's territorial waters are prime fishing grounds forhighly migratory marine species, such as tuna. A narrow but productivecontinental shelf contains several demersal fish and crustacean species.^[205] Fish species foundexclusively in the nation include Cirrhitichthys randalli (Cirrhitidae), Symphurus fuscus (Cynoglossidae), Parapercis simulata OC(Pinguipedidae), Cociella somaliensis OC(Platycephalidae), and Pseudochromismelanotus (Pseudochromidae).

There are roughly 235 species of reptiles. Of these, almost halflive in the northern areas. Reptiles endemic to Somalia include theHughes' saw-scaled viper,the Southern Somali garter snake, a racer (Platyceps messanai), a diademsnake (Spalerosophis josephscorteccii), the Somali sand boa, the angled worm lizard,a spiny-tailed lizard (Uromastyx macfadyeni), Lanza's agama, a gecko (Hemidactylusgranchii), the Somali semaphore gecko,and a sand lizard (Mesalina or Eremias). A colubrid snake (Aprosdoketophisandreonei) and Haacke-Greer's skink (Haackgreerius miopus) areendemic species.^[206]

Main article: Politics of Somalia

Mohamed Osman Jawari,Former Speaker of the FederalParliament

Somalia is a parliamentary representativedemocratic republic. The President of Somalia isthe head of state and commander-in-chief ofthe Somali Armed Forces andselects a Prime Minister toact as head of government.^[207]

The FederalParliament of Somalia is the national parliament of Somalia.The bicameral National Legislature consists of the House of the People (lowerhouse) and the Senate (upperhouse), whose members are elected to serve four-year terms. The parliamentelects the President, Speaker of Parliament and Deputy Speakers. It also hasthe authority to pass and veto laws.^[208]

The Judiciary of Somalia isdefined by the ProvisionalConstitution of the Federal Republic of Somalia. Adopted on 1August 2012 by a National Constitutional Assembly in Mogadishu,^[209][210] the document was formulatedby a committee of specialists chaired by attorney and Speaker of the FederalParliament, Mohamed Osman Jawari.^[211] It provides the legalfoundation for the existence of the Federal Republic and source of legalauthority.^[212]

The national court structure is organized into three tiers: theConstitutional Court, Federal Government level courts and State levelcourts. A nine-member Judicial Service Commission appoints any Federal tiermember of the judiciary. It also selects and presents potential ConstitutionalCourt judges to the House of the People of the Federal Parliament for approval.If endorsed, the President appoints the candidate as a judge of theConstitutional Court. The five-member Constitutional Court adjudicates issuespertaining to the constitution, in addition to various Federal and sub-nationalmatters.^[212]

Somali law draws from a mixture of three differentsystems: civil law, Islamic law and customarylaw.^[213]

According to 2023 V-Dem Democracyindices Somalia is 5th least democratic country inAfrica.^[214]

After the collapse of Somalia in 1991, there were norelations or any contact between the Somalilandgovernment, which declared itself a country, and the government of Somalia.^[215][216]

Foreign relations

Main article: Foreignrelations of Somalia

Presidentof Somalia Hassan Sheikh Mohamud withTurkish President Recep Tayyip Erdogan openingthe new terminal of Aden Abdulle International Airport in Mogadishu, Somalia.(25 January 2015)

Somalia's foreignrelations are handled by the President as the head of state,the Prime Minister as the head of government, and the federal Ministryof Foreign Affairs.^[212]

Turkish embassy in Mogadishu

According to Article 54 of the national constitution, theallocation of powers and resources between the Federal Government and theFederal Republic of Somalia's constituent Federal Member States shall benegotiated and agreed upon by the Federal Government and the Federal MemberStates, except in matters pertaining to foreign affairs, national defence,citizenship and immigration, and monetary policy. Article 53 also stipulatesthat the Federal Government shall consult the Federal Member States on major issuesrelated to international agreements, including negotiations vis-a-vis foreigntrade, finance and treaties.^[212] The Federal Governmentmaintains bilateral relations witha number of other central governments in the international community. Amongthese are Djibouti, Ethiopia, Egypt,the UnitedArab Emirates, Yemen, Turkey, Italy,the UnitedKingdom, Denmark, France,the UnitedStates, the People's Republicof China, Japan, Russian Federation and South Korea.

Additionally, Somalia has several diplomaticmissions abroad. There are likewise various foreignembassies and consulates based in the capital Mogadishu andelsewhere in the country.

Somalia is also a member of many international organizations,such as the United Nations,African Union and Arab League. It wasa founding member of the Organisationof Islamic Cooperation in 1969.^[217] Other memberships includethe AfricanDevelopment Bank, East AfricanCommunity, Group of 77, IntergovernmentalAuthority on Development, International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, InternationalCivil Aviation Organization, InternationalDevelopment Association, InternationalFinance Corporation, Non-Aligned Movement, WorldFederation of Trade Unions and WorldMeteorological Organization.

Military

Main article: Somali Armed Forces

Instructorsfrom the EuropeanUnion Training Mission in Somalia (EUTM) take Somali soldiersthrough training drills at Jazeera Training Camp in Mogadishu.

The Somali Armed Forces (SAF)are the military forces of the Federal Republic of Somalia.^[218] Headed by the President asCommander in Chief, they are constitutionally mandated to ensure the nation'ssovereignty, independence and territorial integrity.^[212]

The SAF was initially made up of the Army, Navy, Air Force, Police Force andthe NationalSecurity Service.^[219] In the post-independenceperiod, it grew to become among the larger militaries on the continent.^[148] The subsequent outbreak ofthe civil war in1991 led to the disbandment of the Somali National Army.^[220]

In 2004, the gradual process of reconstituting the military wasput in motion with the establishment of the Transitional Federal Government(TFG). The Somali Armed Forces are now overseen by the Ministry ofDefence of the Federal Government of Somalia, formed inmid-2012. In January 2013, the Somali federal government also re-opened thenational intelligence service in Mogadishu, renaming the agency the NationalIntelligence and Security Agency (NISA).^[221] The Somaliland and Puntland regionalgovernments maintain their own security and police forces.

Human rights

Main article: Human rights inSomalia

Both male and female same-sex sexualactivity are punishableby death within Somalia.^[222]

On October 3, 2020, a UN humanrights investigator raised concerns over Somali government's backtracking ofhuman rights commitments. According to information collected by theinvestigator, Somali authorities were regressing on commitments to protectpeoples' economic, social and cultural rights.^[223]

Main article: Economy of Somalia

Air Somalia Tupolev Tu-154 in Sharjah, United Arab Emirates.Somalia today has several private airlinesA proportional representation of Somalia exports, 2019

According to the CIA andthe Central Bank ofSomalia, despite experiencing civil unrest, Somalia has maintained ahealthy informal economy, based mainlyon livestock, remittance/money transfer companies and telecommunications.^[1][51] Owing to a dearth of formalgovernment statistics and the recent civil war, it is difficult to gauge the sizeor growth of the economy. For 1994, the CIA estimated the GDP at$3.3 billion.^[224] In 2001, it was estimated tobe $4.1 billion.^[225] By 2009, the CIA estimatedthat the GDP had grown to $5.731 billion, with a projected real growth rate of2.6%.^[1] According to a 2007 BritishChambers of Commerce report, the private sector also grew,particularly in the service sector. Unlike the pre-civil war period when mostservices and the industrial sector were government-run,there has been substantial, albeit unmeasured, private investment in commercialactivities; this has been largely financed by the Somali diaspora, and includes trade andmarketing, money transfer services, transportation, communications, fisheryequipment, airlines, telecommunications, education, health, construction andhotels.^[226] Libertarian economist Peter Leeson attributes this increasedeconomic activity to the Somali customary law (referred to as Xeer),which he suggests provides a stable environment to conduct business in.^[227]

Shoppersin Hamarwayne market in Mogadishu

According to the Central Bank of Somalia, the country's GDP percapita as of 2012 is $226, a slight reduction in real terms from 1990.^[228] About 43% of the populationlives on less than 1 US dollar a day, with around 24% of those found in urbanareas and 54% living in rural areas.^[51]

Somalia's economy consists of both traditional and modernproduction, with a gradual shift toward modern industrial techniques. Somaliahas the largest population of camels in the world.^[229] According to the Central Bankof Somalia, about 80% of the population are nomadic or semi-nomadicpastoralists, who keep goats, sheep, camels and cattle. The nomads also gatherresins and gums to supplement their income.^[51]

Agriculture

See also: Agriculture inSomalia

Agriculture is the most important economic sector of Somalia. Itaccounts for about 65% of the GDP and employs 65% of the workforce.^[226] Livestock contributes about40% to GDP and more than 50% of export earnings.^[1] Other principal exportsinclude fish, charcoal and bananas; sugar, sorghum and corn areproducts for the domestic market.^[1] According to the Central Bankof Somalia, imports of goods total about $460 million per year, surpassingaggregate imports prior to the start of the civil war in 1991. Exports, whichtotal about $270 million annually, have also surpassed pre-war aggregate exportlevels. Somalia has a trade deficit of about $190 million per year, but this isexceeded by remittances sent by Somalis in the diaspora, estimated to be about$1 billion.^[51]

With the advantage of being located near the Arabian Peninsula,Somali traders have increasingly begun to challenge Australia's traditional dominance over theGulf Arab livestock and meat market, offering quality animals at very lowprices. In response, Gulf Arab states have started to make strategicinvestments in the country, with Saudi Arabia building livestock exportinfrastructure and the United Arab Emirates purchasinglarge farmlands.^[230] Somalia is also a major worldsupplier of frankincense and myrrh.^[231]

The Port of Bosaso

The modest industrialsector, based on the processing of agricultural products, accountsfor 10% of Somalia's GDP.^[1] According to the SomaliChamber of Commerce and Industry, over six private airline firms also offer commercialflights to both domestic and international locations, including Daallo Airlines, Jubba Airways, African ExpressAirways, East Africa 540, Central Air and Hajara.^[232] In 2008, the Puntlandgovernment signed a multimillion-dollar deal with Dubai'sLootah Group, a regional industrial group operating in the Middle East andAfrica. According to the agreement, the first phase of the investment isworth Dhs 170 mand will see a set of new companies established to operate, manage andbuild Bosaso's free trade zone and sea and airportfacilities. The Bosaso Airport Company is slated to develop the airport complexto meet international standards, including a new 3,400 m (11,200 ft)runway, main and auxiliary buildings, taxi and apron areas, and securityperimeters.^[233]

Prior to the outbreak of the civil war in 1991, the roughly 53state-owned small, medium and large manufacturing firms were foundering, withthe ensuing conflict destroying many of the remaining industries. However,primarily as a result of substantial local investment by the Somali diaspora,many of these small-scale plants have re-opened and newer ones have beencreated. The latter include fish-canning and meat-processing plants in thenorthern regions, as well as about 25 factories in the Mogadishu area, whichmanufacture pasta, mineral water, confections, plastic bags, fabric, hides and skins, detergent and soap, aluminium, foam mattresses and pillows, fishing boats,carry out packaging, and stone processing.^[234] In 2004, an $8.3million Coca-Cola bottling plant also opened inthe city, with investors hailing from various constituencies in Somalia.^[235] Foreigninvestment also included multinationals including General Motors and Dole Fruit.^[236]

Monetary and payment system

Main articles: Central Bank ofSomalia and Somali shilling

2022 Somalia 1 oz Silver coin Leopard (100 shillings)

The Central Bank of Somalia is the official monetary authority of Somalia.^[51] In terms of financialmanagement, it is in the process of assuming the task of both formulating andimplementing monetary policy.^[237]

Owing to a lack of confidence in the local currency, the US dollar iswidely accepted as a medium of exchange alongside the Somali shilling. Dollarization notwithstanding, the largeissuance of the Somali shilling has increasingly fuelled price hikes,especially for low value transactions. According to the Central Bank, thisinflationary environment is expected to come to an end as soon as the bank assumesfull control of monetary policy and replaces the presently circulating currencyintroduced by the private sector.^[237]

Although Somalia has had no central monetary authority for morethan 15 years between the outbreak of the civil war in 1991 and the subsequentre-establishment of the Central Bank of Somalia in 2009, the nation's paymentsystem is fairly advanced primarily due to the widespread existence ofprivate money transfer operators (MTO)that have acted as informal banking networks.^[238]

These remittance firms (hawalas) have become a large industry inSomalia, with an estimated US$1.6 billion annually remitted to the regionby Somalis inthe diaspora via money transfer companies.^[1] Most are members of the SomaliMoney Transfer Association (SOMTA), an umbrella organization that regulates thecommunity's money transfer sector, or its predecessor, the Somali FinancialServices Association (SFSA).^[239][240] The largest of the SomaliMTOs is Dahabshiil, aSomali-owned firm employing more than 2,000 people across 144 countries withbranches in London and Dubai.^[240]

500 Somali shilling banknote

As the reconstituted Central Bank of Somalia fully assumes itsmonetary policy responsibilities, some of the existing money transfer companiesare expected in the near future to seek licenses so as to develop intofull-fledged commercial banks. This will serve to expand the national paymentssystem to include formal cheques, which in turn is expected to reinforce theefficacy of the use of monetary policy in domestic macroeconomic management.^[238]

With a significant improvement in local security, Somaliexpatriates began returning to the country for investment opportunities.Coupled with modest foreign investment, the inflow of funds have helped theSomali shilling increase considerably in value. By March 2014, the currency hadappreciated by almost 60% against the U.S. dollar over the previous 12 months.The Somali shilling was the strongest among the 175 global currencies tradedby Bloomberg, risingclose to 50 percentage points higher than the next most robust global currencyover the same period.^[241]

The Somalia StockExchange (SSE) is the national bourse of Somalia. It was founded in 2012by the Somali diplomat Idd Mohamed,Ambassador extraordinary and deputy permanent representative to the UnitedNations. The SSE was established to attract investment from both Somali-ownedfirms and global companies in order to accelerate the ongoing post-conflictreconstruction process in Somalia.^[242]

Energy and natural resources

Main articles: Mineralindustry of Somalia and Oil explorationin Puntland

The World Bank reports that electricity is now in large part suppliedby local businesses.^[226] Among these domestic firms isthe Somali Energy Company,which performs generation, transmission and distribution of electric power.^[243] In 2010, the nation produced310 million kWh and consumed 288.3 million kWh of electricity, ranked 170th and177th, respectively, according to the CIA.^{[1][needsupdate]}

Oil blocks inPuntland

Somalia has reserves of several natural resources,including uranium, iron ore, tin, gypsum, bauxite, copper, salt and natural gas. The CIA reports that there are5.663 billion cubic metres of proven natural gas reserves.^[1]

The presence or extent of proven oil reserves in Somalia isuncertain. The CIA asserts that as of 2011 there are no proven reserves ofoil in the country,^[1] while UNCTAD suggests that most proven oilreserves in Somalia lie off its northwestern coast, in the Somaliland region.^[244] An oil group listed in Sydney, Range Resources, estimates that the Puntlandregion in the northeast has the potential to produce 5 billion barrels (790×10⁶ m³)to 10 billion barrels (1.6×10⁹ m³) of oil,^[245] compared to the 6.7 billionbarrels of proven oil reserves in Sudan.^[246] As a result of thesedevelopments, the SomaliaPetroleum Corporation was established by the federalgovernment.^[247]

In the late 1960s, UN geologists also discovered major uraniumdeposits and other rare mineral reserves in Somalia. The find was the largestof its kind, with industry experts estimating that the amount of the depositscould amount to over 25% of the world's then known uranium reserves of 800,000tons.^[248] In 1984, the IUREPOrientation Phase Mission to Somalia reported that the country had 5,000 tonsof uranium reasonably assured resources (RAR), 11,000 tons of uranium estimatedadditional resources (EAR) in calcrete deposits, as well as 0–150,000tons of uranium speculative resources (SR) in sandstone and calcrete deposits.^[249] Somalia evolved into a majorworld supplier of uranium, with American, UAE, Italian and Brazilian mineralcompanies vying for extraction rights. Link Natural Resources has a stake inthe central region, and Kilimanjaro Capital has a stake in the 1,161,400 acres(470,002 ha) Amsas-Coriole-Afgoi (ACA) Block, which includes uraniumexploration.^[250]

The Trans-National Industrial Electricity and Gas Company isan energy conglomerate basedin Mogadishu. It unites five major Somali companies from the trade, finance, security and telecommunications sectors,following a 2010 joint agreement signed in Istanbul to provide electricity and gasinfrastructure in Somalia. With an initial investment budget of $1 billion, thecompany launched the Somalia Peace Dividend Project, a labour-intensive energyprogram aimed at facilitating local industrialization initiatives.

According to the Central Bank of Somalia, as the nation embarkson the path of reconstruction, the economy is expected to not only match itspre-civil war levels, but also to accelerate in growth and development due toSomalia's untapped natural resources.^[51]

Telecommunications and media

Main articles: Communications inSomalia and Media of Somalia

The Hormuud Telecom building in Mogadishu

After the start of the civil war, various new telecommunicationscompanies began to spring up and compete to provide missing infrastructure.Funded by Somali entrepreneurs and backed by expertise from China, South Korea and Europe, these nascenttelecommunications firms offer affordable mobile phone and Internet services thatare not available in many other parts of the continent. Customers canconduct money transfers (suchas through the popular Dahabshiil) andother banking activities via mobile phones, aswell as easily gain wireless Internet access.^[251]

After forming partnerships with multinational corporations suchas Sprint, ITT and Telenor, these firms now offer the cheapestand clearest phone calls in Africa.^[252] These Somalitelecommunication companies also provide services to every city and town inSomalia. There are presently around 25 mainlines per 1,000 persons, and thelocal availability of telephone lines (tele-density) is higher than inneighbouring countries; three times greater than in adjacent Ethiopia.^[234] Prominent Somalitelecommunications companies include Golis Telecom Group, Hormuud Telecom, Somafone, Nationlink, Netco, Telcom and Somali Telecom Group.Hormuud Telecom alone grosses about $40 million a year. Despite their rivalry,several of these companies signed an inter-connectivity deal in 2005 thatallows them to set prices, maintain and expand their networks, and ensure thatcompetition does not get out of control.^[251]

Investment in the telecom industry is held to be one of theclearest signs that Somalia's economy has continued to develop despite civilstrife in parts of the country.^[251]

The state-run Somali NationalTelevision is the principal national public service TV channel.After a twenty-year hiatus, the station was officially re-launched on 4 April2011.^[253] Its radio counterpart Radio Mogadishu also broadcasts from thecapital. Somaliland NationalTV and Puntland TV and Radio airfrom the northern regions.

Additionally, Somalia has several private television and radionetworks. Among these are Horn Cable Television and Universal TV.^[1] The political Xog Doon and XogOgaal and Horyaal Sports broadsheets publish out of the capital. There are alsoa number of online media outlets covering local news,^[254] including Garowe Online, Wardheernews, and Puntland Post.

The internet country codetop-level domain (ccTLD) for Somalia is .so.It was officially relaunched on 1 November 2010 by .SO Registry, which isregulated by the nation's Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications.^[255]

On 22 March 2012, the Somali Cabinet also unanimously approvedthe National Communications Act. The bill paves the way for the establishmentof a National Communications regulator in the broadcasting andtelecommunications sectors.^[256]

In November 2013, following a Memorandum of Understanding signedwith Emirates Post inApril of the year, the federal Ministry of Posts and Telecommunicationsofficially reconstituted the Somali Postal Service (SomaliPost).^[257] In October 2014, the ministryalso relaunched postal delivery from abroad.^[258] The postal system is slatedto be implemented in each of the country's 18 administrative provinces via anew postal coding and numbering system.^[259]

Tourism

Main article: Tourism in Somalia

Ancientcave paintings at the Laas Geel, Hargeisa

Somalia has a number of local attractions, consisting ofhistorical sites, beaches, waterfalls, mountain ranges and national parks. Thetourist industry is regulated by the national Ministry of Tourism. Theautonomous Puntland and Somaliland regions maintain their own tourism offices.^[260] The Somali TourismAssociation (SOMTA) also provides consulting services from within the countryon the national tourist industry.^[261] As of March 2015, theMinistry of Tourism and Wildlife of the South West State announcedthat it is slated to establish additional game reserves and wildlife ranges.^[262] The United States Governmentrecommends travelers to not travel to Somalia.^[263]

Notable sights include the Laas Geel caves containingNeolithic rock art; the Cal Madow, Golis Mountains and Ogo Mountains; the Iskushuban and Lamadaya waterfalls; and the Hargeisa NationalPark, Jilib National Park, Kismayo National Park and Lag BadanaNational Park.

Transport

Main articles: Transport in Somalia and List ofairports in Somalia

The Aden AddeInternational Airport

Somalia's network of roads is 22,100 km (13,700 mi)long. As of 2000, 2,608 km (1,621 mi) streets are paved and 19,492 km (12,112 mi)are unpaved.^[1] A 750 km (470 mi)highway connects major cities in the northern part of the country, suchas Bosaso, Galkayo and Garowe, with towns in the south.^[264]

The SomaliCivil Aviation Authority (SOMCAA) is Somalia's national civil aviationauthority body. After a long period of management by the CivilAviation Caretaker Authority for Somalia (CACAS), SOMCAA isslated to re-assume control of Somalia's airspace by 31 December 2013.

Sixty-two airports across Somalia accommodate aerialtransportation; seven of these have paved runways. Among the latter, fourairports have runways of over 3,047 metres (9,997 ft); two are between2,438 and 3,047 m (7,999 and 9,997 ft) and one is 1,524 to2,437 m (5,000 to 7,995 ft) long.^[1] There are fifty-five airportswith unpaved landing areas. One has a runway of over 3,047 m; four arebetween 2,438 m and 3,047 m in length; twenty are 1,524 m to2,437 m; twenty-four are 914 m to 1,523 m; and six are under 914metres (2,999 ft).^[1] Major airports in the nationinclude the Aden AddeInternational Airport in Mogadishu, the HargeisaInternational Airport in Hargeisa, the Kismayo Airport in Kismayo, the Baidoa Airport in Baidoa, and the BenderQassim International Airport in Bosaso.

Established in 1964, Somali Airlines was the flag carrier of Somalia. It suspendedoperations during the civil war.^[265][266] However, a reconstitutedSomali government later began preparations in 2012 for an expected relaunch ofthe airline,^[267] with the first new SomaliAirlines aircraft scheduled for delivery by the end of December 2013.^[268] According to the SomaliChamber of Commerce and Industry, the void created by the closure ofSomali Airlines has since been filled by various Somali-owned private carriers.Over six of these private airline firms offer commercial flights to bothdomestic and international locations, including Daallo Airlines, Jubba Airways, African ExpressAirways, East Africa 540, Central Air and Hajara.^[232]

Possessing the longest coastline on the continent,^[12] Somalia has severalmajor seaports. Maritime transport facilities arefound in the port cities of Mogadishu, Bosaso, Berbera, Kismayo and Merca.There is also one merchant marine.Established in 2008, it is cargo-based.^[1]

Main article: Demographics ofSomalia

See also: Listof cities in Somalia by population

Somalia lacks reliable population data.^[269][270] The country had an estimatedpopulation of around 17.1 million inhabitants in 2021;^[14][15] the total population accordingto the 1975 census was 3.3 million.^[271] A UnitedNations Population Fund survey conducted in 2013 and 2014estimated the total population to be 12,316,895.^[272]

About 85% of local residents are ethnic Somalis,^[1] who have historically inhabitedthe northern part of the country.^[18] They have traditionally beenorganized into nomadic pastoral clans, loose empires, sultanates andcity-states.^[273] Civil strife in the early 1990s greatlyincreased the size of the Somali diaspora, as many of the best educatedSomalis left the country.^[274]

Non-Somali ethnic minority groups make up the remainder ofSomalia's population, and are largely concentrated in the southern regions.^[18] They include Bravanese, Bantus, Bajuni, Ethiopians (especially Oromos), Yemenis, Indians, Persians, Italians and Britons. The Bantus, the largest ethnicminority group in Somalia, are the descendants of slaves whowere brought in from southeastern Africa by Arab and Somali traders.^[275] In 1940, there were about50,000 Italians livingin Italian Somaliland.^[276] Most Europeans left afterindependence, while a small number of Westerners are still present in Somaliamainly working for internationalorganizations operating in Somalia.

Population per age group

A sizable Somali diaspora exists in various Western countries, such as the United States (in particular in the stateof Minnesota) and in the United Kingdom (particularly in London), Sweden, Canada, Norway, the Netherlands, Germany, Denmark, Finland, Australia, Switzerland, Austria, and Italy,as well on the Arabian peninsula, and several African nations, such as Uganda and South Africa. The Somali diaspora is deeplyinvolved in the politics and development of Somalia. The president ofSomalia, Mohamed Abdullahi Mohamed, was a formerdiaspora Somali and held UScitizenship which he voluntarily renounced in 2019.^[277][278]

Somalia's population is expanding at a growth rate of 1.75% perannum and a birth rate of 40.87 births per 1,000 people.^[1] The total fertility rate ofSomalia is 6.08 children born per woman (2014 estimates), the fourth highest inthe world, according to the CIA World Factbook.^[1] Most local residents are young,with a median age of 17.7 years; about 44% of the population is between theages of 0–14 years, 52.4% is between the ages of 15–64 years, and only 2.3% is65 years of age or older.^[1] The gender ratio is roughly balanced, withproportionally about as many men as women.^[1]

There is little reliable statistical information on urbanization in Somalia. Rough estimateshave been made indicating a rate of urbanization of 4.79% per annum (2005–2010est.), with many towns quickly growing into cities.^[1] Many ethnic minorities havealso moved from rural areas to urban centres since the onset of the civil war,particularly to Mogadishu and Kismayo.^[279] As of 2008, 37.7% of thenation's population live in towns and cities, with the percentage rapidlyincreasing.^[1]

Languages

Main article: Languages of Somalia

Somali and Arabic are the official languages ofSomalia.^[212] The Somali language is themother tongue of the Somali people, thenation's most populous ethnic group.^[1] It is a member of the Cushitic branchof the Afro-Asiatic languagefamily, and its nearest relatives are the Oromo, Afar and Saho languages.^[280] Somali is the best documentedof the Cushitic languages,^[281] with academic studies of itdating from before 1900.

The Kaddare writing script

Somali dialects are dividedinto three main groups: Northern, Benadir and Maay. Northern Somali (or Northern-CentralSomali) forms the basis for Standard Somali. Benadir (also known as CoastalSomali) is spoken on the Benadir coast,from Adale to south of Merca includingMogadishu, as well as in the immediate hinterland. The coastal dialects haveadditional phonemes that do not exist in StandardSomali. Maay is principally spoken by the Digil and Mirifle (Rahanweyn) clans in the southern areas ofSomalia.^[282] Benadiri is the main dialectspoken in the country, in contrast to Northern Somali which is the main dialectspoken in Somaliland.^[283]

A number of writing systems have been used over theyears for transcribing the Somali language. Of these, the Somali alphabet is the most widely used,and has been the official writing script in Somalia since the SupremeRevolutionary Council formally introduced it in October 1972.^[284] The script was developed bythe Somali linguist Shire Jama Ahmed specifically for theSomali language, and uses all letters of the English Latin alphabetexcept p, v and z. Besides Ahmed'sLatin script, other orthographies that have been used for centuries for writingSomali include the long-established Arabic script and Wadaad's writing. Indigenous writing systemsdeveloped in the 20th century include the Osmanya, Borama and Kaddare scripts, which were inventedby Osman Yusuf Kenadid,Sheikh Abdurahman SheikhNuur and Hussein SheikhAhmed Kaddare, respectively.^[285]

In addition to Somali, Arabic is an official national languagein Somalia.^[212] Around 2 million Somalisspeak it^[286] due to centuries-old tieswith the Arab world, thefar-reaching influence of the Arabic media, and religious education.^{[287][288][289]}

English iswidely spoken and taught. It used to be an administrative language in theBritish Somaliland protectorate and due to globalization is now also prominentacross Somalia. English is the medium of instruction atmany universities across Somalia,^[290][291] and is one of the primaryworking languages of major NGOs operatingin Somalia.^{[292][293][294][295]} Italian was an official language inItalian Somaliland and during the trusteeship period, but its use significantlydiminished following independence. It is now most frequently heard among oldergenerations, government officials, and in educated circles.^[287][286]

Other minority languages include Bravanese, a variant of the Bantu Swahili language that is spoken along thecoast by the Bravanese people,as well as Kibajuni, aSwahili dialect that is the mother tongue of the Bajuni minority ethnic group.

Urban areas

Religion

Main article: Religion in Somalia

The Mosque ofIslamic Solidarity in Mogadishu is the largest mosque in theHorn region

According to the Pew Research Center,99.8% of Somalia's population is Muslim.^[299] The majority belong tothe Sunni branch of Islam andthe Shafi'i school of Islamic jurisprudence.^[20] Sufism, the mystical sect of Islam, is also wellestablished, with many local jama'a (zawiya) or congregations of thevarious tariiqa or Sufi orders.^[300] The constitution of Somalialikewise defines Islam as the state religion of the Federal Republic ofSomalia, and Islamic sharia law as thebasic source for national legislation. It also stipulates that no law that isinconsistent with the basic tenets of Shari'a can be enacted.^[212]

Islam entered the region very early on, as a group of persecutedMuslims had sought refuge across the Red Sea in the Horn of Africa at theurging of the Islamic prophet Muhammad.^[301] Islam may thus have beenintroduced into Somalia well before the faith even took root in its place oforigin.^[302]

In addition, the Somali community has produced numerous notableIslamic sheikhs and clerics over the centuries, many of whom have significantlyshaped the course of Muslim learning and practice in the Horn of Africa, theArabian Peninsula, and well beyond. Among these Islamic scholars is the14th-century Somali theologian and jurist Uthman bin AliZayla'i of Zeila, who wrote the singlemost authoritative text on the Hanafi school of Islam, consisting offour volumes known as the Tabayin al-Haqa'iq li Sharh Kanz al-Daqa'iq.

Christianity isa minority religion in Somalia, with adherents representing less than 0.1% ofthe population in 2010 according to the Pew Research Center.^[299] The number of Christians inSomalia is estimated at 1,000 people.^[303] There is one Catholic diocese for the whole country,the Dioceseof Mogadishu, which estimates that there were only about one hundredCatholic practitioners in 2004.^[304]

In 1913, during the early part of the colonial era, there werevirtually no Christians in the Somali territories, with only about 100–200followers coming from the schools and orphanages of the few Catholic missionsin the British Somaliland protectorate.^[305] There were also no knownCatholic missions in Italian Somaliland during the same period.^[306] In the 1970s, during thereign of Somalia's then Marxist government,church-run schools were closed and missionaries sent home. There has beenno archbishop in the country since 1989, andthe cathedral inMogadishu was severely damaged during the civil war. In December 2013, theMinistry of Justice and Religious Affairs also released a directive prohibitingthe celebration of Christian festivities in the country.^[307]

According to the Pew Research Center, less than 0.1% ofSomalia's population in 2010 were adherents of folk religions.^[299] These mainly consisted ofsome non-Somali ethnic minority groups in the southern parts of the country,who practice animism. In the case ofthe Bantu, thesereligious traditions were inherited from their ancestors in Southeast Africa.^[308]

Additionally, according to the Pew Research Center, less than0.1% of Somalia's population in 2010 were adherents of Judaism, Hinduism, Buddhism, or unaffiliated with anyreligion.^[299]

Health

Main articles: Healthcare in Somalia and Child marriage inSomalia

Life expectancy in Somalia, 1950 to 2019

Until the collapse of the federal government in 1991, theorganizational and administrative structure of Somalia's healthcare sector was overseen by theMinistry of Health. Regional medical officials enjoyed some authority, buthealthcare was largely centralized. The socialist government of former Presidentof Somalia Siad Barre hadput an end to private medical practice in 1972.^[309] Much of the national budgetwas devoted to military expenditure, leaving few resources for healthcare,among other services.^[227]

Somalia's public healthcare system was largely destroyed duringthe ensuing civil war. As with other previously nationalized sectors, informalproviders have filled the vacuum and replaced the former government monopolyover healthcare, with access to facilities witnessing a significant increase.^[310] Many new healthcare centres,clinics, hospitals and pharmacies have in the process been established throughhome-grown Somali initiatives.^[310] The cost of medicalconsultations and treatment in these facilities is low, at $5.72 per visit inhealth centres (with a population coverage of 95%), and $1.89–3.97 peroutpatient visit and $7.83–13.95 per bed day in primary through tertiary hospitals.^[311]

Comparing the 2005–2010 period with the half-decade just priorto the outbreak of the conflict (1985–1990), life expectancy actually increased froman average of 47 years for men and women to 48.2 years for men and 51 years forwomen.^[312][313] Similarly, the number ofone-year-olds fully immunized against measles rose from 30% in 1985–1990 to 40%in 2000–2005,^[312][314] and for tuberculosis, it grew nearly 20% from 31% to50% over the same period.^[312][314]

The number of infants with low birth weight fell from 16 per1,000 to 0.3, a 15% drop in total over the same time frame.^[312][315] Between 2005 and 2010 ascompared to the 1985–1990 period, infant mortality per 1,000 births alsofell from 152 to 109.6.^[312][313] Significantly, maternalmortality per 100,000 births fell from 1,600 in the pre-war 1985–1990half-decade to 1,100 in the 2000–2005 period.^[312][316] The number of physicians per100,000 people also rose from 3.4 to 4 over the same time frame,^[312][314] as did the percentage of thepopulation with access to sanitation services, which increased from 18% to 26%.^[312][314]

According to UnitedNations Population Fund data on the midwifery workforce, thereis a total of 429 midwives (including nurse-midwives) in Somalia, with adensity of one midwife per 1,000 live births. Eight midwifery institutionspresently exist in the country, two of which are private. Midwifery educationprograms on average last from 12 to 18 months, and operate on a sequentialbasis. The number of student admissions per total available student places is amaximum 100%, with 180 students enrolled as of 2009. Midwifery is regulated bythe government, and a license is required to practice professionally. A liveregistry is also in place to keep track of licensed midwives. In addition,midwives in the country are officially represented by a local midwivesassociation, with 350 registered members.^[317]

ASomali boy receiving a polio vaccination.

According to a 2005 World Health Organization estimate, about97.9% of Somalia's women and girls underwent Female genitalmutilation,^[318] a pre-marital custom mainlyendemic to the horn of Africa andparts of the Near East.^[319][320] Encouraged by women in thecommunity, it is primarily intended to protect chastity, deter promiscuity, andoffer protection from assault.^[321][322] By 2013, UNICEF inconjunction with the Somali authorities reported that the prevalence rate among1- to 14-year-old girls in the autonomous northern Puntland and Somalilandregions had dropped to 25% following a social and religious awareness campaign.^[323] About 93% of Somalia's malepopulation is also reportedly circumcised.^[324]

Somalia has one of the lowest HIV infectionrates on the continent. This is attributed to the Muslim nature of Somalisociety and adherence of Somalis to Islamic morals.^[325] While the estimated HIVprevalence rate in Somalia in 1987 (the first case report year) was 1% ofadults,^[325] a 2012 report from UNAIDSsays that since 2004, estimates from 0.7% to 1% have been assumed.^[326]

Although healthcare is now largely concentrated in the privatesector, the country's public healthcare system is in the process of beingrebuilt, and is overseen by the Ministry of Health. The Minister of Health isQamar Adan Ali.^[327] The autonomous Puntlandregion maintains its own Ministry of Health,^[328] as does the Somaliland regionin northwestern Somalia.^[329]

Some of the prominent healthcare facilities in the countryare EastBardera Mothers and Children's Hospital, AbudwakMaternity and Children's Hospital, Edna AdanMaternity Hospital and West BarderaMaternity Unit.

Education

Main article: Education in Somalia

Following the outbreak of the civil war in 1991, the task ofrunning schools in Somalia was initially taken up by community educationcommittees established in 94% of the local schools.^[330] Numerous problems had arisenwith regard to access to education in rural areas and along gender lines,quality of educational provisions, responsiveness of school curricula,educational standards and controls, management and planning capacity, and financing.To address these concerns, educational policies are being developed that areaimed at guiding the scholastic process. In the autonomous Puntland region, thelatter includes a gender sensitive national education policy compliant withworld standards, such as those outlined in the Convention on the Rights of theChild (CRC) and the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms ofDiscrimination against Women (CEDAW).^[331] Examples of this and othereducational measures at work are the regional government's enactment oflegislation aimed at securing the educational interests of girls,^[332] promoting the growth ofan Early ChildhoodDevelopment (ECD) program designed to reach parents andcare-givers in their homes as well as in the ECD centers for 0 to 5-year-oldchildren,^[333] and introducing incentivepackages to encourage teachers to work in remote rural areas.^[334]

The Ministry ofEducation is officially responsible for education in Somalia,and oversees the nation's primary, secondary, technical andvocational schools, as well as primary and technical teacher training and non-formal education.About 15% of the government's budget is allocated toward scholasticinstruction.^[335] The autonomous Puntland andSomaliland macro-regions maintain their own Ministries of Education.

In 2006, Puntland was the second territory in Somalia afterSomaliland to introduce free primary schools, with teachers now receiving theirsalaries from the Puntland administration.^[336] From 2005/2006 to 2006/2007,there was a significant increase in the number of schools in Puntland, up 137institutions from just one year prior. During the same period, the number ofclasses in the region increased by 504, with 762 more teachers also offeringtheir services.^[337] Total student enrollmentincreased by 27% over the previous year, with girls lagging only slightlybehind boys in attendance in most regions. The highest class enrollment wasobserved in the northernmost Bari region, and the lowest was observedin the under-populated Ayn region. The distribution of classrooms was almostevenly split between urban and rural areas, with marginally more pupilsattending and instructors teaching classes in urban areas.^[337]

Mogadishu University'smain campus in Mogadishu.

Higher education in Somalia is now largely private. Severaluniversities in the country, including Mogadishu University,have been scored among the 100 best universities in Africa in spite of theharsh environment, which has been hailed as a triumph for grass-roots initiatives.^[234] Other universities alsooffering higher education in the south include Benadir University,the SomaliaNational University, Kismayo University andthe University of Gedo.In Puntland, higher education is provided by the Puntland StateUniversity and East AfricaUniversity. In Somaliland, it is provided by Amoud University, the University ofHargeisa, SomalilandUniversity of Technology and Burao University.

Qu'ranic schools (also known as dugsiquran or mal'aamad quran) remain the basic system oftraditional religious instruction in Somalia. They provide Islamic educationfor children, thereby filling a clear religious and social role in the country.Known as the most stable local, non-formal system of education providing basicreligious and moral instruction, their strength rests on community support andtheir use of locally made and widely available teaching materials. The Qu'ranicsystem, which teaches the greatest number of students relative to othereducational sub-sectors, is often the only system accessible to Somalis innomadic as compared to urban areas. A study from 1993 found, among otherthings, that about 40% of pupils in Qur'anic schools were female. To addressshortcomings in religious instruction, the Somali government on its own partalso subsequently established the Ministry of Endowment and Islamic Affairs,under which Qur'anic education is now regulated.^[338]

Main article: Culture of Somalia

Cuisine

Main article: Somali cuisine

Varioustypes of popular Somali dishes

The cuisine of Somalia, which varies from region to region, is amixture of diverse culinary influences. It is the product of Somalia's richtradition of trade and commerce. Despite the variety, there remains one thingthat unites the various regional cuisines: all food is served halal.There are, therefore no pork dishes, alcohol isnot served, nothing that died on its own is eaten, and no blood isincorporated. Qaddo or lunch is often elaborate.

Varieties of 'bariis' (rice),the most popular probably being basmati, usually act as the main dish. Spicesincluding cumin, cardamom, cloves, cinnamon and garden sage areused to add aromas to these different rice dishes. Somalis serve dinner as lateas 9 pm. During Ramadan,the evening meal is often presented after Tarawih prayers; sometimes up to 11 pm.

'Xalwo' (halva) is a popular confection reserved for special festiveoccasions, such as Eid celebrationsor wedding receptions. It is made from corn starch, sugar, cardamom powder, nutmeg powder and ghee. Peanuts are also sometimes added toenhance texture and flavour.^[339] After meals, homes aretraditionally perfumed using frankincense (lubaan) or incense (cuunsi), which is prepared inside an incense burnerreferred to as a dabqaad.

Music

Main article: Music of Somalia

Somalia has a rich musical heritage centred on traditionalSomali folklore. Most Somali songs are pentatonic. That is, they only use five pitches per octave in contrast to a heptatonic (seven note) scale likethe major scale. At first listen, Somali musicmight be mistaken for the sounds of nearby regions such as Ethiopia, Sudan orthe Arabian Peninsula, but it is ultimately recognizable by its own uniquetunes and styles. Somali songs are usually the product of collaborationbetween lyricists (midho), songwriters (laxan) and singers (codka or "voice").^[340]

Literature

Main article: Literature of Somalia

Somali scholars have for centuries produced many notableexamples of Islamic literature rangingfrom poetry to Hadith. With the adoptionof the Latin alphabet in1972 as the nation's standard orthography, numerous contemporary Somali authorshave also released novels, some of which have received worldwide acclaim. Ofthese modern writers, Nuruddin Farah is the most celebrated.Books such as From a Crooked Rib and Links areconsidered important literary achievements, works that have earned Farah, amongother accolades, the 1998 NeustadtInternational Prize for Literature.^[341] Faarax M.J. Cawl isanother prominent Somali writer who is best known for his Dervish era novel, Ignoranceis the enemy of love.

Sports

Abdi Bile, Somalia's most decorated athleteand holder of the most national records.

Main article: Sports in Somalia

Football isthe most popular sport in Somalia. Important domestic competitions arethe Somalia League and Somalia Cup, with the Somalianational football team playing internationally.

Basketball is alsoplayed in the country. The FIBA AfricaChampionship 1981 was hosted in Mogadishu from 15 to 23December December 1981, during which the nationalbasketball team received the bronze medal.^[342] The squad also takes part inthe basketballevent at the Pan Arab Games.

In 2013, a Somalianational bandy team was formed in Borlänge. It later participated in the Bandy WorldChampionship 2014 in Irkutsk and Shelekhov in Russia.

In the martial arts, Faisal Jeylani Aweys andMohamed Deq Abdulle of the nationaltaekwondo team took home a silver medal and fourth place,respectively, at the 2013 Open World Taekwondo Challenge Cup in Tongeren. The Somali OlympicCommittee has devised a special support program to ensurecontinued success in future tournaments.^[343] Additionally, Mohamed Jamahas won both world and European titles in K-1 and Thai Boxing.^[344]

Architecture

Main article: Somali architecture

The Citadel of Gondershe

Somali architecture is a rich and diverse tradition ofengineering and design involving multiple types of constructions and edifices,such as stone cities, castles, citadels, fortresses, mosques, mausoleums, temples, towers, monuments, cairns, megaliths, menhirs, dolmens, tombs, tumuli, steles, cisterns, aqueducts and lighthouses. Spanning the country's ancient,medieval and early modern periods, it also embraces the fusion ofSomalo-Islamic architecture with contemporary Western designs.

In ancient Somalia, pyramidical structures known in Somalias taalo were a popular burial style, with hundreds ofthese dry stone monuments scattered around thecountry today. Houses were built of dressed stone similar to the onesin ancient Egypt.^[345] There are also examples ofcourtyards and large stone walls enclosing settlements, such as the WargaadeWall.

The adoption of Islam in Somalia's early medieval historybrought Islamic architecturalinfluences from Arabia and Persia. This stimulated a shift inconstruction from dry stone and other related materials to coral stone, sun dried bricks, and the widespread useof limestone in Somali architecture. Many ofthe new architectural designs, such as mosques, were built on the ruins ofolder structures, a practice that would continue over and over again throughoutthe following centuries.^[346]