Fiji (/ˈfiːdʒi/ (listen) FEE-jee, /fiːˈdʒiː/ fee-JEE,^[13]; Fijian: Viti, [ˈβitʃi]; Fiji Hindi: फ़िजी, Fijī),officially the Republic of Fiji,^[14] is an island country in Melanesia, partof Oceania in theSouth PacificOcean. It lies about 1,100 nautical miles (2,000 km; 1,300 mi) northeast of New Zealand. Fijiconsists of an archipelago ofmore than 330 islands—of which about 110 are permanently inhabited—and morethan 500 islets, amounting to atotal land area of about 18,300 square kilometres (7,100 sq mi). Themost outlying island group is Ono-i-Lau. About 87% ofthe total population of 883,483 live on the two major islands, Viti Levu and Vanua Levu. Aboutthree-quarters of Fijians live on Viti Levu's coasts: either in the capitalcity of Suva; or in smallerurban centres such as Nadi—wheretourism is the major local industry; or in Lautoka, wherethe sugar-cane industry isdominant. The interior of Viti Levu is sparsely inhabited because of itsterrain.^[15]

The majority of Fiji's islands wereformed by volcanic activitystarting around 150 million years ago. Some geothermal activity stilloccurs today on the islands of Vanua Levu and Taveuni.^[16] Thegeothermal systems on Viti Levu are non-volcanic in origin and havelow-temperature surface discharges (of between roughly 35 and 60 degrees Celsius(95 and 140 °F)).

Humans have lived in Fiji since thesecond millennium BC—first Austronesians andlater Melanesians,with some Polynesian influences.Europeans first visited Fiji in the 17th century.^[17] In1874, after a briefperiod in which Fiji was an independent kingdom, the Britishestablished the Colonyof Fiji. Fiji operated as a Crown colony until1970, when it gained independence and became known as the Dominion of Fiji. In1987, following aseries of coups d'état, the military government that had taken powerdeclared it a republic. In a 2006coup, Commodore Frank Bainimarama seizedpower. In 2009, the Fijian High Court ruled that the military leadership wasunlawful. At that point, President Ratu Josefa Iloilo, whom themilitary had retained as the nominal head of state, formally abrogatedthe 1997Constitution and re-appointed Bainimarama as interim primeminister. Later in 2009, Ratu Epeli Nailatikau succeededIloilo as president.^[18] On 17 September 2014,after years of delays, a democratic election took place. Bainimarama's FijiFirst partywon 59.2% of the vote, and international observers deemed the election credible.^[19]

Fiji has one of the most developedeconomies in the Pacific^[20] through its abundantforest, mineral, and fish resources. The currency is the Fijian dollar, with themain sources of foreignexchange being the tourist industry, remittances fromFijians working abroad, bottled water exports, and sugar cane.^[4] TheMinistry of Local Government and Urban Development supervises Fiji's localgovernment, which takes the form of city and town councils.^[21]

The name of Fiji's main island, VitiLevu, served as the origin of the name "Fiji", though the commonEnglish pronunciation is based on that of Fiji's island neighbours in Tonga. An official account of theemergence of the name states:

Fijians first impressedthemselves on European consciousness through the writings of the members of theexpeditions of Cook whomet them in Tonga. They were described as formidable warriors and ferociouscannibals, builders of the finest vessels in the Pacific, but not greatsailors. They inspired awe amongst the Tongans, and all their Manufactures,especially bark cloth and clubs, were highly valued and much in demand. Theycalled their home Viti, but the Tongans called it Fisi, and it was by thisforeign pronunciation, Fiji, first promulgated by Captain James Cook, thatthese islands are now known.^[22]

"Feejee", the Anglicisedspelling of the Tongan pronunciation,^[23] occurred in accounts andother writings by missionaries and other travellers visiting Fiji until thelate-19th century.^[24][25]

Early settlement

Pottery art from Fijiantowns shows that Fiji was settled by Austronesianpeoples by at least 3500 to 1000 BC, with Melanesiansfollowing around a thousand years later, although there are still many openquestions about the specific dates and patterns of human migration into Fijiand many other Pacific islands. It is believed that either the Lapita people or theancestors of the Polynesians settled the islands first, but not much is knownof what became of them after the Melanesians arrived; the old culture may havehad some influence on the new one, and archaeological evidence shows that someof the migrants moved on to Samoa, Tonga and even Hawai'i. Archeologicalevidence also shows signs of human settlement on Moturiki Island beginningat least by 600 BC and possibly as far back as 900 BC.

Although some aspects of Fijian cultureare similar to the Melanesian culture of the western Pacific, Fijian culturehas a stronger connection to the older Polynesian cultures. The evidence isclear that there was trade between Fiji and neighbouring archipelagos longbefore Europeans made contact with Fiji. For example: The remains of ancientcanoes made from native Fijian trees have been found in Tonga; the language ofFiji's LauIslands contains Tongan words; and ancient pots that had beenmade in Fiji have been found in Samoa and even as far away as the Marquesas Islands.

In the 10th century, the Tu'iTonga Empire was established in Tonga, and Fiji came within itssphere of influence. The Tongan influence brought Polynesian customs andlanguage into Fiji. That empire began to decline in the 13th century.

Since Fiji spans 1,000 kilometres(620 mi) from east to west, it has been a nation of many languages. Fijihas long had permanent settlements, but its peoples also have a history ofmobility. Over the centuries, unique Fijian cultural practices developed. Fijiansconstructed large, elegant watercraft, with rigged sails called drua and exported some of to Tonga. Fijiansalso developed a distinctive style of village architecture, including of communaland individual bure and vale housing,and an advanced system of ramparts and moats that were usually constructedaround the more important settlements. Pigs were domesticated for food, and avariety of agricultural plantations, such as banana plantations, existed froman early stage. Villages were supplied with water brought in by constructedwooden aqueducts. Fijians lived in societies led by chiefs, elders and notablewarriors. Spiritual leaders, often called bete, were also importantcultural figures, and the production and consumption of yaqona was part of their ceremonial andcommunity rites. Fijians developed a monetary system where the polished teethof the spermwhale, called tambua, became an active currency. A typeof writing existed which can be seen today in various petroglyphs around theislands.^[26] Fijians developed a refined masi cloth textile industry, and used the cloththey produced to make sails and clothes such as the malo andthe liku. As with most other ancient human civilisations, warfareor preparation for warfare was an important part of everyday life inpre-colonial Fiji. The Fijians were noted for their distinctive use of weapons,especially war clubs.^[27][28] Fijians use many different types ofclubs that can be broadly divided into two groups, two handed clubs and smallspecialised throwing clubs called ula.^[29]

With the arrival of Europeans in the 17thcentury, and European colonization in the late 19th century, many elements ofFijian culture were either repressed or modified to ensure European –specifically, British – control. This was especially the case with respect totraditional Fijian spiritual beliefs. Early colonists and missionaries pointedto the practice of cannibalism inFiji as providing a moral imperative justifying colonization.^[30] Europeans labelled many native Fijiancustoms as debased or primitive, enabling many colonists to see Fiji as a"paradise wasted on savage cannibals".^[31] Stories of cannibalism were circulatedduring the 19th century, such as one about Ratu Udre Udre, who was saidto have consumed 872 people and to have made a pile of stones to record hisachievement.^[32] Stories like that made it easier forEuropeans to stereotype and denigrate Fijians as "uncivilised".Authors such as Deryck Scarr^[33] haveperpetuated 19th century claims of "freshly killed corpses piled up foreating" and ceremonial mass human sacrifice on the construction of newhouses and boats.^[34] In fact, during colonial times, Fiji wasknown as the Cannibal Isles. On the other hand, William MacGregor, thelong-term chief medical officer in British colonial Fiji, wrote that tasting ofthe flesh of the enemy was done only on rare occasions, and only "toindicate supreme hatred and not out of relish for a gastronomic treat".^[35]

Bure-kalou or temple, and scene of cannibalism

Modern archaeological research conductedon Fijian sites has shown that Fijians did in fact practice cannibalism, whichhas helped modern scholars to assess the accuracy of some of these colonialEuropean accounts. Studies conducted by scholars including Degusta,^[36] Cochrane,^[37] and Jones^[38] provideevidence of burnt or cut human skeletons, suggesting that cannibalism was practisedin Fiji. In a 2015 study by Jones et al., isotopic analysis of bone collagenprovided evidence that human flesh had been consumed by Fijians, although itwas likely a small, and not necessarily regular, part of their diet.^[38]

However, these archaeological accountsindicate that cannibalistic practices were likely more intermittent and lessubiquitous than European settlers had implied. They also suggest that and thatexocannibalism (cannibalism of members of outsider tribes), and cannibalismpractised as a means of violence or revenge, played significantly smaller rolesin Fijian culture than colonial European accounts suggested. It appears thatthe cannibalism may more often have been nonviolent and ritualistic.^[37][38]

Early interaction withEuropeans

Levuka, 1842

Dutch explorer Abel Tasman was the firstknown European visitor to Fiji, sighting the northern island of Vanua Levu andthe North Taveuni archipelago in 1643 while looking for the Great SouthernContinent.^{[39][circularreference]}

James Cook, the Britishnavigator, visited one of the southern Lau islands in 1774. It was not until1789, however, that the islands were charted and plotted, when William Bligh, the castawaycaptain of HMS Bounty,passed Ovalau andsailed between the main islands of Viti Levu and Vanua Levu en route to Batavia, in what is nowIndonesia. BlighWater, the strait between the two main islands, is named after himand for a time, the Fiji Islands were known as the Bligh Islands.

The first Europeans to land and live among the Fijians were shipwreckedsailors like Charles Savage.

The first Europeans to maintainsubstantial contact with the Fijians were sandalwood merchants,whalers and "beche-de-mer" (seacucumber) traders. The first whaling vessel known tohave visited was the Ann and Hope in 1799, and she wasfollowed by many others in the 19th century.^[40] These ships came for drinking water,food and firewood and, later, for men to help man their ships. Some of theEuropeans who came to Fiji in this period were accepted by the locals and wereallowed to stay as residents. Probably the most famous of these was a Swede bythe name of Kalle Svenson, better known as CharlieSavage. Savage was permitted to take wives and establish himself ina high rank in Bau societyin exchange for helping defeat local adversaries. In 1813, Savage became avictim of this lifestyle and was killed in a botched raid.^[41]

By the 1820s, Levuka was established asthe first European-style town in Fiji, on the island of Ovalau. The market for"beche-de-mer" in China was lucrative, and British and Americanmerchants set up processing stations on various islands. Local Fijians wereutilised to collect, prepare and pack the product which would then be shippedto Asia. A good cargo would result in a half-yearly profit of around $25,000for the dealer.^[42] The Fijian workers were often givenfirearms and ammunition as an exchange for their labour, and by the end of the1820s most of the Fijian chiefs had muskets and many were skilled at usingthem. Some Fijian chiefs soon felt confident enough with their new weapons toforcibly obtain more destructive weaponry from the Europeans. In 1834, men fromViwa and Bau were able to take control of the French ship L'amiableJosephine and use its cannon against their enemies on the Rewa River, although theylater ran it aground.^[43]

Christian missionaries like David Cargillalso arrived in the 1830s from recently converted regions such as Tongaand Tahiti, and by 1840 theEuropean settlement at Levuka had grown to about 40 houses with formerwhaler DavidWhippey being a notable resident. The religious conversion ofthe Fijians was a gradual process which was observed first-hand byCaptain CharlesWilkes of the United States Exploring Expedition. Wilkes wrotethat "all the chiefs seemed to look upon Christianity as a change in whichthey had much to lose and little to gain".^[44] Christianised Fijians, in addition toforsaking their spiritual beliefs, were pressured into cutting their hairshort, adopting the sulu formof dress from Tonga and fundamentally changing their marriage and funeraltraditions. This process of enforced cultural change was called lotu.^[45] Intensification of conflict between thecultures increased, and Wilkes was involved in organising a large punitiveexpedition against the people of Malolo. He ordered an attackwith rockets which acted as makeshift incendiary devices. The village, with theoccupants trapped inside, quickly became an inferno with Wilkes noting that the"shouts of men were intermingled with the cries and shrieks of the womenand children" as they burnt to death. Wilkes demanded the survivors should"sue for mercy" and if not "they must expect to beexterminated". Around 57 to 87 Maloloan people were killed in thisencounter.^[46]

The 1840s was a time of conflict wherevarious Fiji clans attempted to assert dominance over each other. Eventually, awarlord named SeruEpenisa Cakobau of Bau Island was able to become a powerfulinfluence in the region. His father was Ratu Tanoa Visawaqa, the Vunivalu (a chiefly titlemeaning warlord, often translated also as paramount chief) who hadpreviously subdued much of western Fiji. Cakobau, following on from his father,became so dominant that he was able to expel the Europeans from Levuka for fiveyears over a dispute about their giving of weapons to his local enemies. In theearly 1850s, Cakobau went one step further and declared war on all Christians.His plans were thwarted after the missionaries in Fiji received support fromthe already converted Tongans and the presence of a British warship. The TonganPrince EneleMaʻafu, a Christian, had established himself on the island of Lakebain 1848, forcibly converting the local people to the Methodist Church. Cakobau andother chiefs in the west of Fiji regarded Maʻafu as a threat to their power andresisted his attempts to expand Tonga's dominion. Cakobau's influence, however,began to wane, and his heavy imposition of taxes on other Fijian chiefs, whosaw him at best as firstamong equals, caused them to defect from him.^[47]

Around this time the United States alsobecame interested in asserting their power in the region, and they threatenedintervention following a number of incidents involving their consul in the Fijiislands, John Brown Williams. In 1849, Williams had his trading store lootedfollowing an accidental fire, caused by stray cannon fire during a Fourth of July celebration, and in 1853 theEuropean settlement of Levuka was burnt to the ground. Williams blamed Cakobaufor both these incidents, and the U.S. representative wanted Cakobau's capitalat Bau destroyed in retaliation. A naval blockade was instead set up around theisland which put further pressure on Cakobau to give up on his warfare againstthe foreigners and their Christian allies. Finally, on 30 April 1854, Cakobauoffered his soro (supplication) and yielded to these forces.He underwent the lotu and converted to Christianity. Thetraditional Fijian temples in Bau were destroyed, and the sacred nokonoko treeswere cut down. Cakobau and his remaining men were then compelled to join withthe Tongans, backed by the Americans and British, to subjugate the remainingchiefs in the region who still refused to convert. These chiefs were soondefeated with Qaraniqio of the Rewa being poisoned andRatu Mara of Kaba being hanged in 1855. After these wars, most regions of Fiji,except for the interior highland areas, had been forced into giving up much oftheir traditional systems and were now vassals of Western interest. Cakobau wasretained as a largely symbolic representative of a few Fijian peoples and wasallowed to take the ironic and self proclaimed title of "Tui Viti"("King of Fiji"), but the overarching control now lay with foreignpowers.^[48]

The rising price of cotton in thewake of the AmericanCivil War (1861–1865) caused an influx of hundreds of settlersto Fiji in the 1860s from Australia and the United States in order to obtainland and grow cotton. Since there was still a lack of functioning government inFiji, these planters were often able to get the land in violent or fraudulentways such as exchanging weapons or alcohol with Fijians who may or may not havebeen the true owners. Although this made for cheap land acquisition, competingland claims between the planters became problematic with no unified governmentto resolve the disputes. In 1865, the settlers proposed a confederacy of theseven main native kingdoms in Fiji to establish some sort of government. Thiswas initially successful, and Cakobau was elected as the first president of theconfederacy.^[49]

With the demand for land high, the whiteplanters started to push into the hilly interior of Viti Levu. This put theminto direct confrontation with the Kai Colo, which was a general term todescribe the various Fijian clans resident to these inland districts. The KaiColo were still living a mostly traditional lifestyle, they were notChristianised, and they were not under the rule of Cakobau or the confederacy.In 1867, a travelling missionary named ThomasBaker was killed by Kai Colo in the mountains at the headwatersof the SigatokaRiver. The acting British consul, JohnBates Thurston, demanded that Cakobau lead a force of Fijians fromcoastal areas to suppress the Kai Colo. Cakobau eventually led a campaign intothe mountains but suffered a humiliating loss with 61 of his fighters beingkilled.^[50] Settlers also came into conflict withthe local eastern Kai Colo people called the Wainimala. Thurston called inthe AustraliaStation section of the Royal Navy forassistance. The Navy duly sent Commander Rowley Lambert and HMS Challenger toconduct a punitive mission against the Wainimala. An armed force of 87 menshelled and burnt the village of Deoka, and a skirmish ensued which resulted inthe deaths of over 40 Wainimala.^[51]

Kingdomof Fiji (1871–1874)

After the collapse of theconfederacy, EneleMaʻafu established a stable administration in the Lau Islandsand the Tongans. Other foreign powers such as the United States wereconsidering the possibility of annexing Fiji. This situation was not appealingto many settlers, almost all of whom were British subjects from Australia.Britain, however, refused to annex the country, and a compromise was needed.^[52]

In June 1871, GeorgeAustin Woods, an ex-lieutenant of the Royal Navy, managed toinfluence Cakobau and organise a group of like-minded settlers and chiefs intoforming a governing administration. Cakobau was declared the monarch (TuiViti) and the Kingdom of Fiji was established. Most Fijian chiefs agreed toparticipate, and even Ma'afu chose to recognise Cakobau and participate inthe constitutionalmonarchy. However, many of the settlers had come from Australia, where negotiationwith the indigenouspeople almost universally involved forced coercion. As aresult, several aggressive, racially motivated opposition groups, such as theBritish Subjects Mutual Protection Society, sprouted up. One group calledthemselves the KuKlux Klan in a homage to the white supremacist groupin America.^[53] However, when respected individuals suchas CharlesSt Julian, Robert Sherson Swanston and John Bates Thurston wereappointed by Cakobau, a degree of authority was established.^[54]

With the rapid increase in white settlersinto the country, the desire for land acquisition also intensified. Once again,conflict with the Kai Colo in the interior of Viti Levu ensued. In 1871, thekilling of two settlers near the Ba River (Fiji) in thenorthwest of the island prompted a large punitiveexpedition of white farmers, imported slave labourers, andcoastal Fijians to be organised. This group of around 400 armed vigilantes,including veterans of the U.S. Civil War, had a battle with the Kai Colo nearthe village of Cubu, in which both sides had to withdraw. The village wasdestroyed, and the Kai Colo, despite being armed with muskets, received numerouscasualties.^[55] The Kai Colo responded by makingfrequent raids on the settlements of the whites and Christian Fijiansthroughout the districtof Ba.^[56] Likewise, in the east of the island onthe upper reaches of the Rewa River, villages were burnt, and many Kai Colowere shot by the vigilante settler squad called the Rewa Rifles.^[57]

Although the Cakobau government did notapprove of the settlers taking justice into their own hands, it did want theKai Colo subjugated and their land sold. The solution was to form an army.Robert S. Swanston, the minister for Native Affairs in the Kingdom, organisedthe training and arming of suitable Fijian volunteers and prisoners to becomesoldiers in what was invariably called the King's Troops or the NativeRegiment. In a similar system to the NativePolice that was present in the colonies of Australia, two whitesettlers, James Harding and W. Fitzgerald, were appointed as the head officersof this paramilitary brigade.^[58] The formation of this force did not sitwell with many of the white plantation owners as they did not trust an army ofFijians to protect their interests.

The situation intensified further inearly 1873 when the Burns family was killed by a Kai Colo raid in the Ba Riverarea. The Cakobau government deployed 50 King's Troopers to the region underthe command of Major Fitzgerald to restore order. The local whites refusedtheir posting, and deployment of another 50 troops under Captain Harding wassent to emphasise the government's authority. To prove the worth of the NativeRegiment, this augmented force went into the interior and massacred about 170Kai Colo people at Na Korowaiwai. Upon returning to the coast, the force wasmet by the white settlers who still saw the government troops as a threat. Askirmish between the government's troops and the white settlers' brigade wasonly prevented by the intervention of Captain William Cox Chapman of HMS Dido, whodetained the leaders of the locals, forcing the group to disband. The authorityof the King's Troops and the Cakobau government to crush the Kai Colo was nowtotal.^[59]

From March to October 1873, a force ofabout 200 King's Troops under the general administration of Swanston witharound 1,000 coastal Fijian and white volunteer auxiliaries, led a campaignthroughout the highlands of Viti Levu to annihilate the Kai Colo. MajorFitzgerald and Major H.C. Thurston (the brother of John Bates Thurston) led atwo pronged attack throughout the region. The combined forces of the differentclans of the Kai Colo made a stand at the village of Na Culi. The Kai Colo weredefeated with dynamite and fire being used to flush them out from theirdefensive positions amongst the mountain caves. Many Kai Colo were killed, andone of the main leaders of the hill clans, Ratu Dradra, was forced to surrenderwith around 2,000 men, women and children being taken prisoner and sent to thecoast.^[60] In the months after this defeat, theonly main resistance was from the clans around the village of Nibutautau. MajorThurston crushed this resistance in the two months following the battle at NaCuli. Villages were burnt, Kai Colo were killed, and a further large number ofprisoners were taken.^[61] About 1,000 of the prisoners (men, womenand children) were sent to Levuka where some were hanged and the rest were soldinto slavery and forced towork on various plantations throughout the islands.^[62]

Blackbirding andslavery in Fiji

The blackbirding era began inFiji in 1865 when the first New Hebridean and Solomon Islands labourerswere transported there to work on cotton plantations. The AmericanCivil War had cut off the supply of cotton to the internationalmarket when the Union blockaded Confederateports. Cotton cultivation was potentially an extremely profitable business.Thousands of European planters flocked to Fiji to establish plantations butfound the natives unwilling to adapt to their plans. They sought labour fromthe Melanesian islands. On 5 July 1865 Ben Pease received thefirst licence to provide 40 labourers from the New Hebrides to Fiji.^[63]

The British and Queensland governmentstried to regulate this recruiting and transport of labour. Melanesian labourerswere to be recruited for a term of three years, paid three pounds per year,issued basic clothing, and given access to the company store for supplies. MostMelanesians were recruited by deceit, usually being enticed aboard ships withgifts, and then locked up. In 1875, the chief medical officer in Fiji,Sir WilliamMacGregor, listed a mortality rate of 540 out of every 1,000labourers. After the expiry of the three-year contract, the government requiredcaptains to transport the labourers back to their villages, but most ship captainsdropped them off at the first island they sighted off the Fiji waters. TheBritish sent warships to enforce the law (Pacific Islanders' Protection Act of1872), but only a small proportion of the culprits were prosecuted.

A notorious incident of the blackbirdingtrade was the 1871 voyage of the brig Carl, organised by Dr JamesPatrick Murray,^[64] to recruitlabourers to work in the plantations of Fiji. Murray had his men reverse theircollars and carry black books, to appear as church missionaries. When islanderswere enticed to a religious service, Murray and his men would produce guns andforce the islanders onto boats. During the voyage Murray shot about 60islanders. He was never brought to trial for his actions, as he was givenimmunity in return for giving evidence against his crew members.^[65][64] The captain ofthe Carl, Joseph Armstrong, was later sentenced to death.^[64][66]

In addition to the blackbirded labourfrom other Pacific islands, thousands of people indigenous to the Fijianarchipelago were sold into slavery on the plantations. As the white settlerbacked Cakobau government, and later the British colonial government,subjugated areas in Fiji under its power, the resultant prisoners of war wereregularly sold at auction to the planters. This provided a source of revenuefor the government and also dispersed the rebels to different, often isolatedislands where the plantations were located. The land that was occupied by thesepeople before they became slaves was then also sold for additional revenue. Anexample of this is the Lovoni people of Ovalau, who after being defeated in awar with the Cakobau government in 1871, were rounded up and sold to thesettlers at £6 per head. Two thousand Lovoni men, women and children were sold,and their period of slavery lasted five years.^[67] Likewise, after the Kai Colo wars in1873, thousands of people from the hill tribes of Viti Levu were sent to Levukaand sold into slavery.^[68] Warnings from the Royal Navy stationedin the area that buying these people was illegal were largely given withoutenforcement, and the British consul in Fiji, Edward Bernard Marsh, regularlyturned a blind eye to this type of labour trade.^[69]

Colonisation

Mainarticles: Colonyof Fiji and British Western Pacific Territories

Despite achieving military victories overthe Kai Colo, the Cakobau government was faced with problems of legitimacy andeconomic viability. Indigenous Fijians and white settlers refused to pay taxes,and the cotton price had collapsed. With these major issues in mind, John BatesThurston approached the British government, at Cakobau's request, with anotheroffer to cede the islands. The newly elected Tory British government under Benjamin Disraeli encouragedexpansion of the empire and was therefore much more sympathetic to annexingFiji than it had been previously. The murder of Bishop JohnPatteson of the MelanesianMission at Nukapu inthe ReefIslands had provoked public outrage, which was compounded bythe massacre by crew members of more than 150 Fijians on board the brig Carl. TwoBritish commissioners were sent to Fiji to investigate the possibility of anannexation. The question was complicated by maneuverings for power betweenCakobau and his old rival, Ma'afu, with both men vacillating for many months.On 21 March 1874, Cakobau made a final offer, which the British accepted. On 23September, Sir Hercules Robinson, soon to be appointed the BritishGovernor of Fiji, arrived on HMS Dido and received Cakobauwith a royal 21-gun salute. After some vacillation, Cakobau agreed to renouncehis Tui Viti title, retaining the title of Vunivalu,or Protector. The formal cession took place on 10 October 1874, when Cakobau,Ma'afu, and some of the senior chiefs of Fiji signed two copies of the Deed ofCession. Thus the Colony of Fiji was founded; 96 years of British rule followed.^[70]

Measles epidemic of1875

To celebrate the annexation of Fiji,Hercules Robinson, who was Governorof New South Wales at the time, took Cakobau and his two sonsto Sydney. There was a measles outbreak in thatcity and the three Fijians all came down with the disease. On returning toFiji, the colonial administrators decided not to quarantine the ship on whichthe convalescents travelled. This was despite the British having a veryextensive knowledge of the devastating effect of infectious disease on anunexposed population. In 1875–76 the resulting epidemic of measles killed over40,000 Fijians,^[71] about one-third of the Fijianpopulation. Some Fijians allege that this failure of quarantine was adeliberate action to introduce the disease into the country. Historians havefound no such evidence; the disease spread before the new British governor andcolonial medical officers had arrived, and no quarantine rules existed underthe outgoing regime.^[72][73]

Robinson was replaced asGovernor of Fiji in June 1875 by Sir Arthur Hamilton Gordon. Gordon was immediately facedwith an insurgency of the Qalimari and Kai Colo people. In early 1875, colonialadministrator EdgarLeopold Layard had met with thousands of highland clans atNavuso to formalise their subjugation to British rule and Christianity. Layardand his delegation managed to spread the measles epidemic to the highlanders,causing mass deaths in this population. As a result, anger at the Britishcolonists flared throughout the region, and a widespread uprising quickly tookhold. Villages along the Sigatoka River and in the highlands above this arearefused British control, and Gordon was tasked with quashing this rebellion.^[74]

In what Gordon termed the "LittleWar", the suppression of this uprising took the form of two co-ordinatedmilitary campaigns in the western half of Viti Levu. The first was conducted byGordon's second cousin, Arthur John Lewis Gordon, against the Qalimariinsurgents along the Sigatoka River. The second campaign was led by Louis Knollys against theKai Colo in the mountains to the north of the river. Governor Gordon invoked atype of martial law in the area where Arthur John Lewis Gordon and Knollys hadabsolute power to conduct their missions outside of any restrictions oflegislation. The two groups of rebels were kept isolated from each other by aforce led by Walter Carew and George Le Hunte who werestationed at Nasaucoko. Carew also ensured the rebellion did not spread east bysecuring the loyalty of the Wainimala people of the eastern highlands. The warinvolved the use of the soldiers of the old Native Regiment of Cakobausupported by around 1,500 Christian Fijian volunteers from other areas of VitiLevu. The colonial NewZealand Government provided most of the advanced weapons forthe army including 100 Sniderrifles.

The campaign along the Sigatoka River wasconducted under a scorchedearth policy whereby numerous rebel villages were burnt andtheir fields ransacked. After the capture and destruction of the main fortifiedtowns of Koroivatuma, Bukutia and Matanavatu, the Qalimari surrendered enmasse. Those not killed in the fighting were taken prisoner and sent to thecoastal town of Cuvu. This included 827 men, women and children as well asMudu, the leader of the insurgents. The women and children were distributed toplaces like Nadi and Nadroga.Of the men, 15 were sentenced to death at a hastily conducted trial at Sigatoka. Governor Gordon waspresent, but chose to leave the judicial responsibility to his relative, ArthurJohn Lewis Gordon. Four were hanged and ten, including Mudu, were shot with oneprisoner managing to escape. By the end of proceedings the governor noted that"my feet were literally stained with the blood that I had shed".^[75]

The northern campaign against the KaiColo in the highlands was similar but involved removing the rebels from large,well protected caves in the region. Knollys managed to clear the caves"after some considerable time and large expenditure of ammunition". Theoccupants of these caves included whole communities, and as a result many men,women and children were either killed or wounded in these operations. The restwere taken prisoner and sent to the towns on the northern coast. The chiefmedical officer in British Fiji, William MacGregor, also took part both inkilling Kai Colo and tending to their wounded. After the caves were taken, theKai Colo surrendered and their leader, Bisiki, was captured. Various trialswere held, mostly at Nasaucoko under Le Hunte, and 32 men were either hanged orshot including Bisiki, who was killed trying to escape.^[76]

By the end of October 1876, the"Little War" was over, and Gordon had succeeded in vanquishing therebels in the interior of Viti Levu. Remaining insurgents were sent into exilewith hard labour for up to 10 years. Some non-combatants were allowed to returnto rebuild their villages, but many areas in the highlands were ordered byGordon to remain depopulated and in ruins. Gordon also constructed a militaryfortress, Fort Canarvon, at the headwaters of the Sigatoka River where a largecontingent of soldiers were based to maintain British control. He renamed theNative Regiment, the Armed Native Constabulary to lessen its appearance ofbeing a military force.^[76]

To further consolidate social controlthroughout the colony, Governor Gordon introduced a system of appointed chiefsand village constables in the various districts to both enact his orders andreport any disobedience from the populace. Gordon adopted the chieflytitles Roko and Buli to describe thesedeputies and established a GreatCouncil of Chiefs which was directly subject to his authorityas Supreme Chief. This body remained in existence until being suspended by themilitary-backed interim government in 2007 and only abolished in 2012. Gordonalso extinguished the ability of Fijians to own, buy or sell land asindividuals, the control being transferred to colonial authorities.^[77]

Indian indenturesystem in Fiji

Mainarticles: Indianindenture system, Indian indenture ships to Fiji, and Repatriation of indentured Indians from Fiji

Gordon decided in 1878 to importindentured labourers from India to work on the sugarcane fields that had takenthe place of the cotton plantations. The 463 Indians arrived on 14 May 1879 –the first of some 61,000 that were to come before the scheme ended in 1916. Theplan involved bringing the Indian workers to Fiji on a five-year contract,after which they could return to India at their own expense; if they chose torenew their contract for a second five-year term, they would be given theoption of returning to India at the government's expense, or remaining in Fiji.The great majority chose to stay. The Queensland Act, which regulatedindentured labour in Queensland, was made law in Fiji also.

Between 1879 and 1916, tens of thousandsof Indians moved to Fiji to work as indentured labourers, especially onsugarcane plantations. A total of 42 ships made 87 voyages, carrying Indianindentured labourers to Fiji. Initially the ships brought labourers from Calcutta, but from 1903 allships except two also brought labourers from Madras and Bombay. A total of 60,965passengers left India but only 60,553 (including births at sea) arrived inFiji. A total of 45,439 boarded ships in Calcutta and 15,114 in Madras. Sailingships took, on average, 73 days for the trip while steamers took 30 days. Theshipping companies associated with the labour trade were Nourse Line and British-India Steam Navigation Company.

Repatriation of indentured Indians fromFiji began on 3 May 1892, when the BritishPeer brought 464 repatriated Indians to Calcutta. Variousships made similar journeys to Calcutta and Madras, concluding with Sirsa's1951 voyage. In 1955 and 1956, three ships brought Indian labourers from Fijito Sydney, from where the labourers flew to Bombay. Indentured Indianswishing to return to India were given two options. One was travel at their ownexpense and the other free of charge but subject to certain conditions. Toobtain free passage back to India, labourers had to have been above age twelveupon arrival, completed at least five years of service and lived in Fiji for atotal of ten consecutive years. A child born to these labourers in Fiji couldaccompany his or her parents or guardian back to India if he or she was undertwelve. Because of the high cost of returning at their own expense, mostindentured immigrants returning to India left Fiji around ten to twelve yearsafter their arrival. Indeed, just over twelve years passed between the voyageof the first ship carrying indentured Indians to Fiji (the Leonidas, in 1879) and thefirst ship to take Indians back (the British Peer, in 1892). Giventhe steady influx of ships carrying indentured Indians to Fiji up until 1916,repatriated Indians generally boarded these same ships on their return voyage.The total number of repatriates under the Fiji indenture system is recorded as39,261, while the number of arrivals is said to have been 60,553. Because thereturn figure includes children born in Fiji, many of the indentured Indiansnever returned to India. Direct return voyages by ship ceased after 1951.Instead, arrangements were made for flights from Sydney to Bombay, the first ofwhich departed in July 1955. Labourers still travelled to Sydney by ship.

Tuka rebellions

With almost all aspects of indigenousFijian social life being controlled by the British colonial authorities, anumber of charismatic individuals preaching dissent and return to pre-colonialculture were able to forge a following amongst the disenfranchised. Thesemovements were called Tuka, which roughly translates as "those who standup". The first Tuka movement was led by Ndoongumoy, better known asNavosavakandua, which means "he who speaks only once". He told hisfollowers that if they returned to traditional ways and worshipped traditionaldeities such as Degei and Rokola, their current condition would be transformed,with the whites and their puppet Fijian chiefs being subservient to them.Navosavakandua was previously exiled from the Viti Levu highlands in 1878 fordisturbing the peace, and the British quickly arrested him and his followersafter this open display of rebellion. He was again exiled, this time to Rotuma where he died soonafter his 10-year sentence ended.^[78]

Other Tuka organisations, however, soonappeared. The British colonial administration ruthlessly suppressed of both theleaders and followers with figureheads such as Sailose being banished to anasylum for 12 years. In 1891, entire populations of villages who weresympathetic to the Tuka ideology were deported as punishment.^[79] Three years later in the highlands ofVanua Levu, where locals had re-engaged in traditional religion, GovernorThurston ordered in the Armed Native Constabulary to destroy the towns and thereligious relics. Leaders were jailed and villagers exiled or forced toamalgamate into government-run communities.^[80] Later, in 1914, Apolosi Nawai came to theforefront of Fijian Tuka resistance by founding Viti Kabani, a co-operativecompany that would legally monopolise the agricultural sector and boycottEuropean planters. The British and their proxy Council of Chiefs were not ableto prevent the Viti Kabani's rise, and again the colonists were forced to sendin the Armed Native Constabulary. Apolosi and his followers were arrested in1915, and the company collapsed in 1917. Over the next 30 years, Apolosi wasre-arrested, jailed and exiled, with the British viewing him as a threat rightup to his death in 1946.^[81]

World War I and II

Fiji was only peripherally involved inWorld War I. One memorable incident occurred in September 1917 when Count Felix von Luckner arrivedat WakayaIsland, off the eastern coast of Viti Levu, after his raider, SMS Seeadler,had runaground in the Cook Islands followingthe shelling of Papeete inthe Frenchcolony of Tahiti. On 21September, the district police inspector took a number of Fijians to Wakaya,and von Luckner, not realising that they were unarmed, unwittingly surrendered.

Citing unwillingness to exploit theFijian people, the colonial authorities did not permit Fijians to enlist. OneFijian of chiefly rank, a great-grandson of Cakobau, joined the FrenchForeign Legion and received France's highest militarydecoration, the Croix de Guerre. After going on to complete a law degreeat OxfordUniversity, this same chief returned to Fiji in 1921 as both a warhero and the country's first-ever university graduate. In the years thatfollowed, RatuSir Lala Sukuna, as he was later known, established himself as themost powerful chief in Fiji and forged embryonic institutions for what wouldlater become the modern Fijian nation.

By the time of World War II, the UnitedKingdom had reversed its policy of not enlisting natives, and many thousands ofFijians volunteered for the FijiInfantry Regiment, which was under the command of Ratu Sir Edward Cakobau,another great-grandson of Cakobau. The regiment was attached to New Zealand andAustralian army units during the war. Because of its central location, Fiji wasselected as a training base for the Allies.An airstrip was built at Nadi (laterto become an international airport), and gun emplacements studded the coast.Fijians gained a reputation for bravery in the SolomonIslands campaign, with one war correspondent describing their ambushtactics as "death with velvet gloves". Corporal SefanaiaSukanaivalu, of Yucata, was posthumously awardedthe VictoriaCross, as a result of his bravery in the Battleof Bougainville.

A constitutional conference washeld in London in July 1965 todiscuss constitutional changes with a view to introducing responsiblegovernment. Indo-Fijians, led by A. D. Patel, demanded theimmediate introduction of full self-government, with a fully electedlegislature, to be elected by universal suffrage on a common voters' roll.These demands were vigorously rejected by the ethnic Fijian delegation, whostill feared loss of control over natively owned land and resources should anIndo-Fijian dominated government come to power. The British made it clear,however, that they were determined to bring Fiji to self-government andeventual independence. Realizing that they had no choice, Fiji's chiefs decidedto negotiate for the best deal they could get.

A series of compromises led to theestablishment of a cabinet system of government in 1967, with Ratu Kamisese Mara as thefirst ChiefMinister. Ongoing negotiations between Mara and Sidiq Koya, who had taken overthe leadership of the mainly Indo-Fijian NationalFederation Party on Patel's death in 1969, led to a secondconstitutional conference in London, in April 1970, at which Fiji's LegislativeCouncil agreed on a compromise electoral formula and a timetable forindependence as a fully sovereign and independent nation within the Commonwealth.The Legislative Council would be replaced with a bicameral Parliament,with a Senate dominatedby Fijian chiefs and a popularly elected House of Representatives. In the 52-member House, NativeFijians and Indo-Fijians would each be allocated 22 seats, of which 12 wouldrepresent Communalconstituencies comprising voters registered on strictlyethnic roles, and another 10 representing Nationalconstituencies to which members were allocated by ethnicitybut elected by universalsuffrage. A further 8 seats were reserved for "General electors" – Europeans, Chinese, Banaban Islanders, and otherminorities; 3 of these were "communal" and 5 "national".With this compromise, it was agreed that Fiji would became independent.

The British flag, the Union Jack, was lowered forthe last time at sunset on 9 October 1970. The Fijian flag was after dawn onthe morning of 10 October 1970; the country had officially become independentat midnight, in the capital Suva, on 10 October.

Independence

1987 coups d'état

The British granted Fiji independence in1970. Democratic rule was interrupted by two militarycoups in 1987^[82] precipitatedby a growing perception that the government was dominated by the Indo-Fijian (Indian)community. The second 1987 coup saw both the Fijian monarchy and the GovernorGeneral replaced by a non-executive president and the name ofthe country changed from Dominion of Fiji to Republicof Fiji and then in 1997 to Republic of the Fiji Islands.The two coups and the accompanying civil unrest contributed to heavyIndo-Fijian emigration; the resulting population loss resulted in economicdifficulties and ensured that Melanesians became the majority.^[83]

In 1990, the new constitutioninstitutionalised ethnic Fijian domination of the political system. The Group Against Racial Discrimination (GARD) wasformed to oppose the unilaterally imposed constitution and to restore the 1970constitution. In 1992 Sitiveni Rabuka, theLieutenant Colonel who had carried out the 1987 coup, became Prime Ministerfollowing elections held under the new constitution. Three years later, Rabukaestablished the Constitutional Review Commission, which in 1997 wrote a newconstitution which was supported by most leaders of the indigenous Fijian andIndo-Fijian communities. Fiji was re-admitted to the Commonwealthof Nations.

2000 coup d'état

In 2000, acoup was instigated by George Speight, whicheffectively toppled the government of Mahendra Chaudhry, who in 1997had become the country's first Indo-Fijian Prime Minister following theadoption of the new constitution. Commodore Frank Bainimarama assumedexecutive power after the resignation, possibly forced, of President Ratu SirKamisese Mara. Later in 2000, Fiji was rocked by two mutinies when rebel soldiers went on a rampageat Suva's Queen Elizabeth Barracks. The HighCourt ordered the reinstatement of the constitution, and inSeptember 2001, to restore democracy, a general election was held which was wonby interim Prime Minister Laisenia Qarase's Soqosoqo Duavata ni Lewenivanua party.^[84]

In 2005, the Qarase government amid muchcontroversy proposed a Reconciliation and Unity Commission with power torecommend compensation for victims of the 2000 coup and amnesty for itsperpetrators. However, the military, especially the nation's top militarycommander, Frank Bainimarama, strongly opposed this bill. Bainimarama agreedwith detractors who said that to grant amnesty to supporters of the presentgovernment who had played a role in the violent coup was a sham. His attack onthe legislation, which continued unremittingly throughout May and into June andJuly, further strained his already tense relationship with the government.

2006 coup d'état

In late November and early December 2006,Bainimarama was instrumental in the 2006Fijian coup d'état. Bainimarama handed down a list of demands toQarase after a bill was put forward to parliament, part of which would haveoffered pardons to participants in the 2000 coup attempt. He gave Qarase anultimatum date of 4 December to accede to these demands or to resign from hispost. Qarase adamantly refused either to concede or resign, and on 5 DecemberPresident Ratu JosefaIloilo signed a legal order dissolving the parliament aftermeeting with Bainimarama.

Citing corruption in the government,Commodore Bainimarama, Commander of the Republic of Fiji Military Forces,staged a military takeover on 5 December 2006, against the prime minister thathe had installed after a 2000 coup. There had also been a military coup in1987. The commodore took over the powers of the presidency and dissolved theparliament, paving the way for the military to continue the takeover. The coupwas the culmination of weeks of speculation following conflict between theelected prime minister, Laisenia Qarase, and Commodore Bainimarama. Bainimaramahad repeatedly issued demands and deadlines to the prime minister. A particularissue was previously pending legislation to pardon those involved in the 2000coup. Bainimarama named Jona Senilagakali ascaretaker prime minister. The next week Bainimarama said he would ask the GreatCouncil of Chiefs to restore executive powers to the president, Ratu JosefaIloilo.^[85]

On 4 January 2007, the military announcedthat it was restoring executive power to president Iloilo,^[86] who made a broadcast endorsing theactions of the military.^[87] The next day, Iloilo named Bainimaramaas the interim prime minister,^[88] indicating that the military was stilleffectively in control. In the wake of the takeover, reports emerged of allegedintimidation of some of those critical of the interim regime.

2009 transfer of power

Mainarticle: 2009 Fijian constitutional crisis

In April 2009, the FijiCourt of Appeal overturned the High Court decision thatCommander Bainimarama's takeover of Qarase's government was lawful and declaredthe interim government to be illegal. Bainimarama agreed to step down asinterim prime minister immediately, along with his government, and PresidentIloilo was to appoint a new prime minister. President Iloilo abrogated theconstitution, removed all office holders under the constitution including alljudges and the governor of the Central Bank. In his own words, he"appoint[ed] [him]self as the Head of the State of Fiji under a new legalorder".^[89] He then reappointed Bainimarama underhis "New Order" as interim prime minister and imposed a "PublicEmergency Regulation" limiting internal travel and allowing presscensorship.

On 2 May 2009, Fiji became the firstnation ever to have been suspended from participation in the PacificIslands Forum, for its failure to hold democratic elections by thedate promised.^[90][91] Nevertheless,it remains a member of the Forum.

On 1 September 2009, Fiji was suspendedfrom the Commonwealthof Nations. The action was taken because Bainimarama failed to holdelections by 2010 as the Commonwealth of Nations had demanded after the 2006coup. Bainimarama stated a need for more time to end a voting system thatheavily favoured ethnic Fijians at the expense of the multi-ethnic minorities.Critics claimed that he had suspended the constitution and was responsiblefor humanrights violations by arresting and detaining opponents.^[92][93]

In his 2010 New Year's address,Bainimarama announced the lifting of the Public Emergency Regulations (PER).However, the PER was not rescinded until January 2012, and the Suva PhilosophyClub was the first organisation to reorganise and convene public meetings.^[94] The PER had been put in place in April2009 when the former constitution was abrogated. The PER had allowedrestrictions on speech, public gatherings, and censorship of news media and hadgiven security forces added powers. He also announced a nationwide consultationprocess leading to a new constitution under which the 2014 elections were to beheld.

On 14 March 2014, the Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group voted tochange Fiji's full suspension from the Commonwealthof Nations to a suspension from the councils of theCommonwealth, allowing them to participate in a number of Commonwealthactivities, including the 2014Commonwealth Games.^{[95][96][non-primarysource needed]} The suspension was lifted inSeptember 2014.^[97]

Fiji lies approximately 5,100 km(3,200 mi) southwest of Hawaii and roughly 3,150 km (1,960 mi)from Sydney, Australia.^[98][99] Fiji is the hub of the SouthwestPacific, midway between Vanuatu and Tonga. The archipelago is located between 176° 53′ eastand 178° 12′ west. The archipelago is roughly 498,000 square miles(1,290,000 km²) and less than 2 percent is dry land. The 180°meridian runs through Taveuni,but the InternationalDate Line is bent to give uniform time (UTC+12) to all of theFiji group. With the exception of Rotuma, the Fiji group liesbetween 15° 42′ and 20° 02′ south. Rotuma is located 220 nautical miles(410 km; 250 mi) north of the group, 360 nautical miles (670 km;410 mi) from Suva, 12° 30′ south of theequator.

Fiji covers a total area of some 194,000square kilometres (75,000 sq mi) of which around 10% is land. Fijiconsists of 332^[4] islands (ofwhich 106 are inhabited) and 522 smaller islets. The two most important islandsare Viti Levu and Vanua Levu, which account for about three-quarters of thetotal land area of the country. The islands are mountainous, with peaks up to1,324 metres (4,341 ft), and covered with thick tropical forests.

The highest point is Mount Tomanivi on VitiLevu. Viti Levu hosts the capital city of Suva and is home to nearlythree-quarters of the population. Other important towns include Nadi (the location of the international airport),^[100] and Lautoka, Fiji's second largestcity with large sugar cane mills and a seaport.

The main towns on Vanua Levu are Labasa and Savusavu. Other islands andisland groups include Taveuni and Kadavu (the third andfourth largest islands, respectively), the Mamanuca Group (just offNadi) and YasawaGroup, which are popular tourist destinations, the LomaivitiGroup, off Suva, and the remote Lau Group. Rotuma has specialadministrative status in Fiji. Ceva-i-Ra, an uninhabitedreef, is located about 250 nautical miles (460 km; 290 mi) southwestof the main archipelago.

Fiji contains two ecoregions: Fijitropical moist forests and Fijitropical dry forests.^[101] It had a2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of8.35/10, ranking it 24th globally out of 172 countries.^[102]

Climate

The climate in Fiji is tropicalmarine and warm year round with minimal extremes. The warmseason is from November to April, and the cooler season lasts from May toOctober. Temperatures in the cool season average 22 °C (72 °F).Rainfall is variable, with the warm season experiencing heavier rainfall,especially inland. For the larger islands, rainfall is heavier on the southeastportions of the islands than on the northwest portions, with consequences foragriculture in those areas. Winds are moderate, though cyclones occur aboutonce annually (10–12 times per decade).^{[103][104][105]}

Climate change

Thissection is an excerpt from Climatechange in Fiji.[edit]

Climatechange in Fiji is an exceptionally pressing issue for thecountry - as an island nation, Fiji is particularly vulnerable to rising sealevels, coastalerosion and extreme weather.^[106] Thesechanges, along with temperature rise, will displace Fijian communities and willprove disruptive to the national economy - tourism, agriculture and fisheries,the largest contributors to the nation's GDP, will be severely impacted byclimate change causing increases in poverty and food insecurity.^[106] As aparty to both the KyotoProtocol and the ParisClimate Agreement, Fiji hopes to achieve net-zero emissions by 2050which, along with national policies, will help to mitigate the impacts ofclimate change.^[107]

Mainarticle: Politicsof Fiji

Politics in Fiji normally take place inthe framework of a parliamentary representativedemocratic republic wherein the Prime Minister of Fiji isthe headof government and the President the Headof State, and of a multi-party system. Executive power isexercised by the government, legislative power isvested in both the government and the Parliamentof Fiji, and the judiciary is independentof the executive and the legislature.

A generalelection took place on 17 September 2014. Bainimarama's FijiFirst party won with59.2% of the vote, and the election was deemed credible by a group ofinternational observers from Australia, India and Indonesia.^[19]

Armed forces and law enforcement

The military consists of the Republic of Fiji Military Forces with a totalmanpower of 3,500 active soldiers and 6,000 reservists, and includes a Navyunit of 300 personnel. The land force comprises the FijiInfantry Regiment (regular and territorial force organised intosix light infantry battalions), Fiji Engineer Regiment, Logistic Support Unitand Force Training Group. Relative to its size, Fiji has fairly large armedforces and has been a majorcontributor to UNpeacekeeping missions in various parts of the world. Inaddition, a significant number of former military personnel have served in thelucrative security sector in Iraq following the 2003 U.S.-led invasion.^[108]

The law enforcement branch is composed ofthe FijiPolice Force^[109] and Fiji Corrections Service.^[110]

Administrativedivisions

Fiji was divided into three confederaciesor governments during the reign of SeruEpenisa Cakobau, though these are not considered politicaldivisions, they are still considered important in the social divisions of theindigenous Fijians:

Endowed with forest, mineral, and fishresources, Fiji is one of the most developed of the Pacific island economies,though still with a large subsistencesector. Some progress was experienced by this sector when Marion M. Ganey introducedcredit unions to the islands in the 1950s. Natural resources include timber,fish, gold, copper, offshore oil, and hydropower. Fiji experienced a period ofrapid growth in the 1960s and 1970s but stagnated in the 1980s. The coups of1987 caused further contraction.^[111]

Economic liberalisation in the yearsfollowing the coups created a boom in the garment industry and a steady growthrate despite growing uncertainty regarding land tenure in the sugar industry.The expiration of leases for sugar cane farmers (along with reduced farm andfactory efficiency) has led to a decline in sugar production despite subsidiesfor sugar provided by the EU. Fiji's gold mining industry is based in Vatukoula.

Urbanisation and expansion in the servicesector have contributed to recent GDP growth. Sugar exports and a rapidlygrowing tourist industry – with tourists numbering 430,800 in 2003^[112] and increasing in the subsequentyears – are the major sources of foreign exchange. Fiji is highlydependent on tourism for revenue. Sugar processing makes up one-third ofindustrial activity. Long-term problems include low investment and uncertainproperty rights.

The SouthPacific Stock Exchange (SPSE) is the only licensed securitiesexchange in Fiji and is based in Suva. Its vision is to become a regionalexchange.^[113]

Tourism

Fiji has a significant amount of tourismwith the popular regions being Nadi, the Coral Coast, Denarau Island, and Mamanuca Islands. The biggestsources of international visitors by country are Australia, New Zealand and theUnited States.^[114] Fiji has asignificant number of soft coral reefs, and scuba diving is a commontourist activity.^[115] Fiji's mainattractions to tourists are primarily white sandy beaches and aestheticallypleasing islands with all-year-round tropical weather. In general, Fiji is amid-range priced holiday/vacation destination with most of the accommodationsin this range. It also has a variety of world class five-star resorts andhotels. More budget resorts arebeing opened in remote areas, which will provide more tourism opportunities.^[115] CNN named Fiji's Laucala Island Resort as one ofthe fifteen world's most beautiful island hotels.^[116]

Official statistics show that in 2012,75% of visitors stated that they came for a holiday/vacation.^[117] Honeymoons are very popular as areromantic getaways in general. There are also family friendly resorts withfacilities for young children including kids' clubs and nanny options.^[118] Fiji hasseveral popular tourism destinations. The Botanical Gardens of Thurstenin Suva, Sigatoka Sand Dunes, andColo-I-Suva Forest Park are three options on the mainland (Viti Levu).^[119] A major attraction on the outer islandsis scuba diving.^[120]

According to the Fiji Bureau of Statistics,most visitors arriving to Fiji on a short-term basis are from the followingcountries or regions of residence:^{[121][114][122]} Fiji has also served as a location forvarious Hollywood movies starting from the MrRobinson Crusoe in 1932 to TheBlue Lagoon (1980) starring Brooke Shields and Returnto the Blue Lagoon (1991) with Milla Jovovich. Other popularmovies shot in Fiji include Cast Away (2000)and Anacondas: The Hunt for the Blood Orchid (2004).^[123]

Transport

.

The NadiInternational Airport is located 9 kilometres (5.6 mi)north of central Nadi and is the largest Fijian hub.^[124] Nausori International Airport is about 23kilometres (14 mi) northeast of downtown Suva and serves mostly domestictraffic with flights from Australia and New Zealand. The main airport in thesecond largest island of Vanua Levu is Labasa Airport^[125] located at Waiqele, southwest of LabasaTown. The largest aircraft handled by Labasa Airport is the ATR 72. Airports Fiji Limited(AFL) is responsible for the operation of 15 public airports in the FijiIslands. These include two international airports: Nadi international Airport,Fiji's main international gateway, and Nausori Airport, Fiji's domestic hub,and 13 outer island airports. Fiji's main airline is Fiji Airways.^[126]

Fiji's larger islands have extensive busroutes that are affordable and consistent in service.^[115] There are busstops, and in rural areas buses are often simply hailed as they approach.^[115] Buses are theprincipal form of public transport^[127] and passengermovement between the towns on the main islands. Buses also serve oninter-island ferries. Bus fares and routes are regulated by the Land TransportAuthority (LTA). Bus and taxi drivers hold Public Service Licenses issued bythe LTA. Taxis are licensed by the LTA and operate widely all over the country.Apart from urban, town-based taxis, there are others that are licensed to serverural or semi-rural areas.

Inter-island ferries provide servicesbetween Fiji's principal islands, and large vessels operate roll-on-roll-offservices such as Patterson Brothers Shipping Company LTD, transportingvehicles and large amounts of cargo between the main island of Viti Levu andVanua Levu, and other smaller islands.^[128]

Fiji is the only developing PacificIsland country with recent data for gross domestic expenditure on research anddevelopment (GERD), with the exception of Papua New Guinea. The nationalBureau of Statistics cites a GERD/GDP ratio of 0.15% in 2012. Private-sectorresearch and development (R&D) is negligible.^[129] Governmentinvestment in research and development tends to favour agriculture. In 2007,agriculture and primary production accounted for just under half of governmentexpenditure on R&D, according to the Fijian National Bureau of Statistics.This share had risen to almost 60% by 2012. However, scientists publish much morein the field of geosciences and health than in agriculture.^[129] The rise ingovernment spending on agricultural research has come to the detriment ofresearch in education, which dropped to 35% of total research spending between2007 and 2012. Government expenditure on health research has remained fairlyconstant, at about 5% of total government research spending, according to theFijian National Bureau of Statistics.^[129]

The Fijian Ministry of Health is seekingto develop endogenous research capacity through the Fiji Journal ofPublic Health, which it launched in 2012. A new set of guidelines are nowin place to help build endogenous capacity in health research through trainingand access to new technology.^[129]

Fiji is also planning to diversify itsenergy sector through the use of science and technology. In2015, the Secretariat of the pacific community observed that,'while Fiji, Papua New Guinea and Samoa are leading the way with large-scalehydropower projects, there is enormous potential to expand the deployment ofother renewable energy options such as solar, wind, geothermal and ocean-basedenergy sources'.^[130]

In 2014, the Centre of Renewable Energybecame operational at the Universityof Fiji, with the assistance of the Renewable Energy in PacificIsland Countries Developing Skills and Capacity programme (EPIC) funded bythe EuropeanUnion.^[129] From 2013 to2017, the European Union funded the EPIC programme, which developed twomaster's programmes in renewable energy management, one at the University ofPapua New Guinea and the other at the University of Fiji, both accredited in2016.^[131] In Fiji, 45students have enrolled for the master's degree since the launch of theprogramme and a further 21 students have undertaken a related diploma programmeintroduced in 2019.^[131]

In 2020, the Regional Pacific NationallyDetermined Contributions Hub Office in Fiji was launched to support climatechange mitigation and adaptation. Pacific authors on the frontlines of climatechange remain underrepresented in the scientific literature on the impact ofdisasters and on climateresilience strategies.^[131]

Demographics

Mainarticle: Demographicsof Fiji

The 2017 census found that the populationof Fiji was 884,887, compared to the population of 837,271 in the 2007 census.^[7] The populationdensity at the time of the 2007 census was 45.8 inhabitants per square kilometre. The life expectancy in Fijiwas 72.1 years. Since the 1930s the population of Fiji has increased at a rateof 1.1% per year. The median age of the population was 29.9, and the genderratio was 1.03 males per 1 female.

Ethnic groups

The population of Fiji is mostly made upof native Fijians, who are Melanesians (54.3%),although many also have Polynesian ancestry;and Indo-Fijians (38.1%),descendants of Indian contract labourers brought to the islands by the Britishcolonial powers in the 19th century. The percentage of the population ofIndo-Fijian descent has declined significantly over the last two decadesthrough migration for various reasons.^[132] Indo-Fijianssuffered reprisals for a period after the coup of 2000.^[133][134] Relationships between ethnic Fijiansand Indo-Fijians in the political arena have often been strained, and thetension between the two communities has dominated politics in the islands forthe past generation. The level of political tension varies among differentregions of the country.^[135]

About 1.2% of the population is Rotuman – natives ofRotuma Island, whose culture has more in common with countries such as Tonga orSamoa than with the rest of Fiji. There are also small but economicallysignificant groups of Europeans, Chinese, and other Pacific island minorities.The membership of other ethnic groups is about 4.5%.^[136] 3,000 people or 0.3% of the peopleliving in Fiji are from Australia.^[137]

The concept of family and community is ofgreat importance to Fijian culture. Within the indigenous communities manymembers of the extended family will adopt particular titles and roles of directguardians. Kinship is determined through a child's lineage to a particularspiritual leader, so that a clan is based on traditional customary ties asopposed to actual biological links. These clans, based on the spiritual leader,are known as a matangali. Within the matangali are a number of smaller collectives,known as the mbito. The descent is patrilineal, and all the status is derivedfrom the father's side.^[138]

Demonym

Constitutionally, citizens of Fiji werepreviously referred to as "Fiji Islanders" though the term FijiNationals was used for official purposes. However, the currentconstitution refers to all Fijian citizens as "Fijians".^[139] In August 2008, shortly before theproposed People's Charter for Change, Peace and Progress wasdue to be released to the public, it was announced that it recommended a changein the name of Fiji's citizens. If the proposal were adopted, all citizens ofFiji, whatever their ethnicity, would be called "Fijians". Theproposal would change the English name of indigenous Fijians from"Fijians" to itaukei, the Fijian language endonym forindigenous Fijians.^[140] Deposed Prime Minister Laisenia Qarase reactedby stating that the name "Fijian" belonged exclusively to indigenousFijians, and that he would oppose any change in legislation enablingnon-indigenous Fijians to use it.^[141] The Methodist Church, to which a large majority ofindigenous Fijians belong, also reacted strongly to the proposal, stating thatallowing any Fiji citizen to call themselves "Fijian" would be"daylight robbery" inflicted on the indigenous population.^[142]

In an address to the nation during theconstitutional crisis of April 2009, military leader and interim Prime MinisterVoreqe Bainimarama, who has been at the forefront of the attempt to change thedefinition of "Fijian", stated:

I know weall have our different ethnicities, our different cultures and we should, wemust, celebrate our diversity and richness. However, at the same time we areall Fijians. We are all equal citizens. We must all be loyal to Fiji; we mustbe patriotic; we must put Fiji first.^[143]

In May 2010, Attorney-General AiyazSayed-Khaiyum reiterated that the term "Fijian"should apply to all Fiji nationals, but the statement was again met withprotest. A spokesperson for the Viti Landowners and Resource Owners Associationclaimed that even fourth-generation descendants of migrants did not fullyunderstand "what it takes to be a Fijian", and added that the termrefers to a legal standing, since legislation affords specific rights to "Fijians"(meaning, in legislation, indigenous Fijians).^[144]

Languages

Mainarticle: Languagesof Fiji

Fiji has three official languages underthe 1997constitution (and not revoked by the 2013Constitution): English, Fijian (iTaukei)and Fiji Hindi. Fijian is an Austronesian languageof the Malayo-Polynesianfamily spoken in Fiji. It has 350,000 native speakers, andanother 200,000 speak it as a second language.

Geography

Government and politics

Economy

Science and technology

Society