CEYLON / Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka (UK: /sri ˈlæŋkə, ʃriː -/, US: /- ˈlɑːŋkə/ (listen); Sinhala: ශ්‍රී ලංකා, romanized: Śrī Laṅkā; Tamil: இலங்கை, romanized: Ilaṅkai), formerly known as Ceylon,and officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, isan island country in South Asia. It is situated on the Indian Ocean, southwest of the Bay of Bengal, and southeast of the Arabian Sea; while being separated fromthe Indian subcontinent bythe Gulf of Mannar andthe Palk Strait. SriJayawardenepura Kotte is its legislative capital, and Colombo is its largest city and financial centre.

Sri Lanka's documented history spans 3,000 years, with evidenceof prehistoric human settlements dating back at least 125,000 years.^[12] It has a rich culturalheritage, and the first known Buddhist writingsof Sri Lanka, the Pāli Canon, date backto the Fourth Buddhist council in 29 BCE.^[13][14] Its geographic location anddeep harbours made it of great strategic importance from the time of theancient Silk Road through to the modern Maritime Silk Road.^[15][16][17] Its location as a majortrading hub made it known to both the Far East as well as to Europe from as farback as the Anuradhapura period.The country's trade in luxury goods and spices attracted traders of manynations, creating Sri Lanka's diverse population. During a period of greatpolitical crisis, the Portuguese, whose arrival in Sri Lanka waslargely accidental, sought to control the island's maritime regions and itslucrative external trade. The Portuguese possessions were later takenover by the Dutch. The Dutch possessions were then taken bythe British, wholater extended their control over the whole island, colonising it from 1815 to 1948. Anational movement for political independence arose in the early 20th century,and in 1948, Ceylon became a republic and adopted its current name in1972. Sri Lanka's recent history has been marred by a 26-year civil war,which ended decisively when the Sri Lanka ArmedForces defeated the LiberationTigers of Tamil Eelam in 2009.^[18]

Sri Lanka is a multinational state,home to diverse cultures, languages, and ethnicities. The Sinhalese formthe majority of the nation's population; and the large minority of Tamils have also played an influentialrole in the island's history, while Moors, Burghers, Malays, Chinese,and the indigenous Vedda are alsoestablished groups.^[19] It has had a long history ofinternational engagement, as a founding member of the SAARC, and a member of the United Nations, the Commonwealth ofNations, the G77, and the Non-Aligned Movement.Sri Lanka is the sole South Asian country rated high on the Human DevelopmentIndex, with the second highest per capitaincome in the region.

The pre-history of Sri Lanka goes back 125,000 years andpossibly even as far back as 500,000 years.^[34] The era spans the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, and early Iron Ages. Among the Paleolithic human settlements discoveredin Sri Lanka, Pahiyangala (namedafter the Chinese traveller monk Faxian), which dates back to 37,000 BP,^[35] Batadombalena (28,500 BP)^[36] and Belilena (12,000 BP) are the mostimportant. In these caves, archaeologists have found the remains of anatomically modern humans which they have named Balangoda Man, and other evidence^[37] suggesting that they may haveengaged in agriculture and kept domestic dogs fordriving game.^[38]

The earliest inhabitants of Sri Lanka were probably ancestors ofthe Vedda people,^[39] an indigenous people numberingapproximately 2,500 living in modern-day Sri Lanka.

During the protohistoric period (1000–500 BCE) Sri Lanka wasculturally united with southern India,^[40] and shared the same megalithicburials, pottery,iron technology, farming techniques and megalithicgraffiti.^[41][42] This cultural complex spreadfrom southern India along with Dravidian clans such as the Velir,prior to the migration of Prakrit speakers.^[43][44][41]

One of the first written references to the island is found inthe Indian epic Ramayana,which provides details of a kingdom named Lanka thatwas created by the divine sculptor Vishwakarma for Kubera, the Lord of Wealth.^[45] It is said that Kubera wasoverthrown by his demon stepbrother Ravana.^[46]

Sri Lanka is a pearl-shaped Island nation in South Asia, lyingon the Indian Plate, amajor tectonic plate thatwas formerly part of the Indo-Australian Plate.^[143] It is in the Indian Oceansouthwest of the Bay of Bengal,between latitudes 5° and 10° N,and longitudes 79° and 82° E.^[144] Sri Lanka is separated fromthe mainland portion of the Indian subcontinent bythe Gulf of Mannar and Palk Strait. According to Hindu mythology, a land bridge existed between the Indianmainland and Sri Lanka. It now amounts to only a chain of limestone shoalsremaining above sea level.^[145] Legends claim that it waspassable on foot up to 1480 CE, until cyclones deepened the channel.^[146][147] Portions are still as shallowas 1 metre (3 ft), hindering navigation.^[148] The island consists mostly offlat to rolling coastal plains, with mountains rising only in the south-centralpart. The highest point is Pidurutalagala, reaching 2,524 metres(8,281 ft) above sea level.

Sri Lanka has 103 rivers. The longest of these is the MahaweliRiver, extending 335 kilometres (208 mi).^[149] These waterways give rise to51 natural waterfalls of 10 metres (33 ft) or more. The highest is Bambarakanda Falls,with a height of 263 metres (863 ft).^[150] Sri Lanka's coastline is1,585 km (985 mi) long.^[151] Sri Lanka claims an exclusive economiczone extending 200 nautical miles, which is approximately 6.7times Sri Lanka's land area. The coastline and adjacent waters support highlyproductive marine ecosystems such as fringing coral reefs and shallow beds of coastaland estuarine seagrasses.^[152]

Sri Lanka has 45 estuaries and 40 lagoons.^[151] Sri Lanka's mangrove ecosystem spans over 7,000 hectares and played a vital role inbuffering the force of the waves in the 2004 IndianOcean tsunami.^[153] The island is rich inminerals such as ilmenite, feldspar, graphite, silica, kaolin, mica and thorium.^[154][155] Existence of petroleum and gas in the Gulf of Mannarhas also been confirmed, and the extraction of recoverable quantities isunderway.^[156]

According to the International Monetary Fund, Sri Lanka's GDP interms of purchasing powerparity is the second highest in the South Asian region in termsof per capita income.In the 19th and 20th centuries, Sri Lanka became a plantation economy famousfor its production and export of cinnamon, rubber, and Ceylon tea,which remains a trademark national export.^[235] The developmentof modern ports under British rule raised the strategicimportance of the island as a centre of trade.^[236] From 1948 to 1977, socialismstrongly influenced the government's economic policies. Colonial plantationswere dismantled, industries were nationalised, and a welfare state established. In 1977,the free market economy was introduced to thecountry incorporating privatisation, deregulation, and the promotion of privateenterprise.^[129]

While the production and export of tea, rubber, coffee, sugar,and other commodities remain important, industrialisation has increased theimportance of food processing, textiles, telecommunications, and finance. Thecountry's main economic sectors are tourism, tea export, clothing, riceproduction, and other agricultural products. In addition to these economicsectors, overseas employment, especially in the Middle East, contributessubstantially in foreign exchange.^[237]

As of 2010, the service sector makes up 60% of GDP, theindustrial sector 28%, and the agriculture sector 12%.^[237] The private sector accountsfor 85% of the economy.^[238] China, India and the UnitedStates are Sri Lanka's largest trading partners.^[239] Economic disparities existbetween the provinces with the Western Province contributing 45.1% of the GDPand the Southern Province and the Central Province contributing 10.7% and 10%,respectively.^[240] With the end of the war, theNorthern Province reported a record 22.9% GDP growth in 2010.^[241]

The per capita income of Sri Lanka doubled from 2005 to 2011.^[243] During the same period,poverty dropped from 15.2% to 7.6%, unemployment rate dropped from 7.2% to4.9%, market capitalisation ofthe Colombo StockExchange quadrupled, and the budget deficit doubled.^[237] Over 90% of the households inSri Lanka are electrified; 87% of the population have access to safe drinkingwater; and 39% have access to pipe-borne water.^[237] Income inequality has alsodropped in recent years, indicated by a Gini coefficient of 0.36 in 2010.^[244]

The 2011 GlobalCompetitiveness Report, published by the World Economic Forum,described Sri Lanka's economy as transitioning from the factor-driven stage tothe efficiency-driven stage and that it ranked 52nd in global competitiveness.^[245] Also, out of the 142countries surveyed, Sri Lanka ranked 45th in health and primary education, 32ndin business sophistication, 42nd in innovation, and 41st in goods marketefficiency. In 2016, Sri Lanka ranked 5th in the World Giving Index,registering high levels of contentment and charitable behaviour in its society.^[246] In 2010, The New York Times placedSri Lanka at the top of its list of 31 places to visit.^[247] S&P Dow JonesIndices classifies Sri Lanka as a frontier market as of 2018.^[248] SriLanka ranks well above other South Asian countries in the Human DevelopmentIndex (HDI) with an index of 0.750.

By 2016, the country's debt soared as it was developing itsinfrastructure to the point of near bankruptcy which required a bailout fromthe InternationalMonetary Fund (IMF)^[249] The IMF had agreed to providea US$1.5 billion bailout loan in April 2016 after Sri Lanka provided a set ofcriteria intended to improve its economy. By the fourth quarter of 2016, thedebt was estimated to be $64.9 billion. Additional debt had been incurred inthe past by state-owned organisations and this was said to be at least $9.5billion. Since early 2015, domestic debt increased by 12% and external debt by25%.^[250] In November 2016, the IMFreported that the initial disbursement was larger than US$150 millionoriginally planned, a full US$162.6 million (SDR 119.894 million). The agency'sevaluation for the first tranche was cautiously optimistic about the future.Under the program Sri Lankan government implemented a new Inland Revenue Actand an automatic fuel pricing formula which were noted by the IMF in its fourthreview. In 2018 China agreed to bail out Sri Lanka with a loan of $1.25 billionto deal with foreign debt repayment spikes in 2019 to 2021.^{[251][252][253]}

Sri Lanka has roughly 21,670,000 people and an annual populationgrowth rate of 1.14%. The birth rate is 17.6 births per1,000 people, and the death rate is 6.2 deaths per1,000 people.^[237] Population density is highestin western Sri Lanka, especially in and around the capital. Sinhalese constitute the largest ethnicgroup in the country, with 74.8% of the total population.^[254] Sri Lankan Tamils are the second majorethnic group in the island, with a percentage of 11.2%. Moors comprise 9.2%. There are also smallethnic groups such as the Burghers (of mixed European descent)and Malays fromSoutheast Asia. Moreover, there is a small population of Vedda people whoare believed to be the original indigenous group to inhabit the island.^[255]

The culture of Sri Lanka isinfluenced primarily by Buddhism and Hinduism.^[314] Sri Lanka is the home to twomain traditional cultures: the Sinhalese (centred in Kandy and Anuradhapura)and the Tamil (centred in Jaffna). Tamils co-existed with the Sinhalese peoplesince then, and the early mixing rendered the two ethnic groups almostphysically indistinct.^[315] Ancient Sri Lanka is markedfor its genius in hydraulicengineering and architecture.The British colonial culture has also influenced the locals. The rich culturaltraditions shared by all Sri Lankan cultures is the basis of the country's longlife expectancy, advanced health standards and high literacy rate.^[316]

Food and festivals

Dishes include rice and curry, pittu, kiribath, wholemeal roti, string hoppers, wattalapam (a rich pudding ofMalay origin made with coconut milk,jaggery, cashews, eggs, and spices including cinnamon and nutmeg), kottu,and appam.^[317] Jackfruit may sometimes replace rice.Traditionally food is served on a plantain leaf or lotusleaf. Middle Eastern influences and practices are found intraditional Moor dishes, while Dutch and Portuguese influences are found withthe island's Burgher community preserving their culture through traditionaldishes such as lamprais (ricecooked in stock and baked in a banana leaf), breudher (Dutch holiday biscuit), andbolo fiado (Portuguese-style layer cake).

In April, Sri Lankans celebrate the Buddhist and Hindu newyear festivals.^[318] Esala Perahera is a symbolic Buddhistfestival consisting of dances and decorated elephants held in Kandy in July andAugust.^[319] Fire dances, whip dances,Kandian dances and various other cultural dances are integral parts of thefestival. Christians celebrate Christmas on 25 December to celebrate thebirth of Jesus Christ and Easter to celebratethe resurrection of Jesus. Tamils celebrate Thai Pongal and Maha Shivaratri, and Muslims celebrate Hajj and Ramadan.

Sport

While the national sport is volleyball, by far the most popular sport inthe country is cricket.^[334] Rugby union also enjoys extensivepopularity,^[335] as do association football, netball and tennis. Aquatic sports such as boating,surfing, swimming, kitesurfing^[336] and scuba diving attract many Sri Lankans andforeign tourists. There are two styles of martial arts native to SriLanka: Cheena di and Angampora.^[337]

The Sri Lankanational cricket team achieved considerable success beginningin the 1990s, rising from underdog statusto winning the 1996 Cricket WorldCup.^[338] They also won the 2014 ICC WorldTwenty20 played in Bangladesh, beating India in the final. Inaddition, Sri Lanka became the runners-up of the Cricket World Cup in 2007^[339] and 2011,^[340] and of the ICC World Twenty20 in 2009 and 2012.^[341] Former Sri Lankan off-spinner Muttiah Muralitharan hasbeen rated as the greatest testmatch bowler everby WisdenCricketers' Almanack,^[342] and four Sri Lankancricketers ranked 2nd (Sangakkara),4th (Jayasuriya),5th (Jayawardene)and 11th (Dilshan)highest ODI run scorers of all time, which is the second best by a team. SriLanka has won the Asia Cup in 1986,^[343] 1997,^[344] 2004,^[345] 2008^[346] and 2014.^[347] Sri Lanka once held highestteam score in all three formats of cricket.^[348] The country co-hosted theCricket World Cup in 1996 and 2011, andhosted the 2012 ICC WorldTwenty20.

Sri Lankans have won two medals at Olympic Games: one silver, by Duncan White at 1948 London Olympics formen's 400 metres hurdles;^[349] and one silver by Susanthika Jayasinghe at 2000 Sydney Olympics forwomen's 200 metres.^[350] In 1973, Muhammad Lafir won the World Billiards Championship, the highest featby a Sri Lankan in a Cue sport.^[351] Sri Lanka has also won theCarrom World Championship titles twice in 2012, 2016^[352] and 2018, men's team becomingchampions and women's team won second place.