DENOMINATION: 1d

Dominica

Dominica (/ˌdɒmɪˈniːkə/^[9][10][11] or /dəˈmɪnɪkə/ (listen);^[12] Kalinago: Wai‘tu kubuli; French: Dominique; Dominican Creole French: Dominik),officially the Commonwealth of Dominica, is an island country inthe Caribbean.^[13] Thecapital, Roseau,is located on the western side of the island. It is geographically situated aspart of the Windward Islands chain in the Lesser Antilles archipelagoin the Caribbean Sea. Dominica's closest neighboursare two constituent territories of the European Union and Eurozone,the overseas departments of the French Republic, Guadeloupe tothe northwest and Martinique to the south-southeast. Dominica comprises aland area of 750 km² (290 sq mi), and thehighest point is Morne Diablotins, at 1,447 m(4,747 ft) in elevation. The population was 71,293 at the 2011 census.^[6]

The island was settled by the Arawak arrivingfrom South America in the fifth century. The Kalinago displacedthe Arawak by the 15th century. Columbus is said to have passed the islandon Sunday, 3 November 1493. It was later colonised by Europeans, predominantlyby the French from the 1690s to 1763. The French imported enslaved people fromWest Africa to Dominica to work on coffee plantations. Great Britain took possession in 1763after the Seven Years' War, and it gradually establishedEnglish as its official language. The island gained independence as a republicin 1978.

Dominica has been nicknamed the "Nature Island of theCaribbean" for its natural environment.^[14] Itis the youngest island in the Lesser Antilles, and in fact it is still beingformed by geothermal-volcanic activity,as evidenced by the world's second-largest hot spring,called Boiling Lake. The island has lushmountainous rainforests, and it is the home of many rare plants, animals,and bird species. There are xeric areas in some of the western coastal regions, butheavy rainfall occurs inland. The Sisserou parrot,also known as the Imperial amazon and found only on Dominica, is the island'snational bird and featured on the national flag,making it one of the only two sovereign nations whose official flag featuresthe color purple.^[15][16] Thecountry is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, the United Nations,the Organization of American States, the Organisation internationale de laFrancophonie, the Organisation of Eastern CaribbeanStates and the Non-Aligned Movement.

Dominica's name is locally pronounced with emphasis on the thirdsyllable,^[9][10] following the Spanishpronunciation of its name^[17] given to it by ChristopherColumbus.

Mainarticle: History of Dominica

Geologic history[edit]

Dominica first emerged from the sea during the Oligocene era approximately 26 millionyears ago, making it one of the last Caribbean islands to be formed by volcanic activity.

Pre-colonial period and early European contact[edit]

Dominica's precolonial indigenous inhabitants were the Island Carib people, who are thought tohave driven out the previous Arawak population.^[18] The Caribs called theisland Wai‘tu kubuli, which means "Tall is her body."^[19]

Christopher Columbus,sailing for Spain, named the island as Dominica, after the Latin term dies Dominica for Sunday, the day on which the Spanish first sawit in November 1493.^[18] Some Spanish coloniserssettled here. But, as European explorers and settlers entered the region,indigenous refugees from surrounding islands settled Dominica and pushed outthe Spanish settlers. The Spanish instead settled other areas that were easierto control.

French colony[edit]

Mainarticle: French West Indies

Spain had little success in colonising Dominica. In 1632, theFrench Compagniedes Îles de l'Amérique claimed it and other "PetitesAntilles" for France, but no physical occupation took place.^[18] Between 1642 and 1650, Frenchmissionary Raymond Breton becamethe first regular European visitor to the island.

In 1660, the French and English agreed that Dominica and St. Vincent shouldnot be settled, but instead left to the Carib as neutral territory.^[18] But its natural resourcesattracted expeditions of English and French foresters, who began harvestingtimber.^[20] In 1690, the Frenchestablished their first permanent settlements. French woodcutters from Martinique and Guadeloupe began to set up timber campsto supply the French islands with wood, and they gradually became permanentsettlers. They brought the first enslaved Africans from West Africa to Dominique,as they called it in French.

In 1715, a revolt of "poor white" smallholders in thenorth of Martinique, known as La Gaoulé,^[21] caused settlers to migrate tosouthern Dominique, where they set up smallholdings. Meanwhile, French families andothers from Guadeloupe settled in the north. In 1727, the first Frenchcommander, M. LeGrand, took charge of the island with a basic French government.Dominique formally became a colony of France, andthe island was divided into districts or "quarters".^[22] The French had alreadydeveloped plantation agriculture on Martinique and Guadeloupe, where theycultivated sugarcane withenslaved African workers. In Dominique they gradually developed coffeeplantations. Because of the trans-Atlantic slave trade, the general populationcame to consist primarily of black-African slaves.

In 1761, during the Seven Years' War in Europe, a Britishexpedition against Dominica led by Andrew Rollo conqueredthe island, along with several other Caribbean islands. In 1763, France hadlost the war and ceded the island to Great Britain under the Treaty of Paris.^[18] The same year, the Britishestablished a legislative assembly,with only European colonists represented. French remained the officiallanguage, but Antillean Creole,which had developed from it, was spoken by most of the population.

In 1778 the French, with the active co-operation of thepopulation, began the re-capture ofDominica.^[18] This was ended by the Treaty of Paris(1783), which returned the island to British control. But the islandpopulation, especially the class of free people of color, resisted Britishrestrictions. The British retained control through French invasions in 1795 and1805,^[18][20] the first taking place duringthe period of the Haitian Revolution,which gained the independence of Haiti (formerly Saint-Domingue, France'srichest Caribbean colony).

British colony[edit]

Mainarticles: British West Indies, British LeewardIslands, and British WindwardIslands

Great Britain established a small colony in 1805. It usedDominica as part of the Trans-Atlantic SlaveTrade, by which slaves were imported and sold as labour in theislands as part of a trade that included producing and shipping sugar andcoffee as commodity crops to Europe. The best documented slave plantation onthe island is Hillsborough Estate, which had 71 male and 68 female slaves.The Greg familywere notable: Thomas Hodgson, a brother-in-law, owned a slave ship, and ThomasGreg and his son John Greg were part-owners of sugar plantations on Dominica. In January1814, 20 slaves absconded from Hillsborough. They were recorded as recapturedand punished with 100 lashes applied to the males and 50 for the females. Theslaves reportedly said that one of their people had died in the plantationhospital, and they believed he had been poisoned.^[23]

In 1831, reflecting a liberalisation of official British racialattitudes, the Brown Privilege Bill^[24] conferred political and socialrights on free blacks (mostly free people of colour,who generally were of mixed race, withAfrican and European ancestry). With the SlaveryAbolition Act of 1833, Britain ended the institution of slaverythroughout its empire,except in India.^[25]

With freedom came enfranchisement. In 1835, the first three menof African descent were elected to the legislative assembly of Dominica. Manyslaves from the neighbouring French colonial islands of Guadeloupe andMartinique fled to Dominica. In 1838, Dominica became the first colony ofthe British West Indies tohave an elected legislature controlled by an ethnic African majority. Most ofthese legislators had been free people of colour and smallholders or merchantsbefore the abolition of slavery. Their economic and social views were differentfrom the interests of the small, wealthy English planter class. Reacting to a perceivedthreat to their power, the planters lobbied for more direct British rule.^[20]

In 1865, after much agitation and tension, the colonial officereplaced the elective assembly with one made up of one-half members who wereelected and one-half who were appointed. Planters, who were allied withcolonial administrators, outmanoeuvred the elected legislators on manyoccasions. In 1871, Dominica became part of the British LeewardIslands. The political power of the elected assembly progressivelyeroded. Crown colony governmentwas re-established in 1896.

Early 20th century[edit]

See also: West IndiesFederation

In World War I, manyDominicans, mainly the sons of small farmers, volunteered to fight in Europefor the British Empire. After the war, an upsurge of political consciousnessthroughout the Caribbean led to the formation of the Representative Government Association.Marshaling public frustration with the lack of a voice in governing Dominica,this group won one-third of the popularly elected seats of the legislativeassembly in 1924, and one-half in 1936. In 1940, administration of Dominica wastransferred from the British LeewardIslands to the British WindwardIslands.^[20] During World War II, some Dominicans volunteered inBritish and Caribbean forces. Thousands of Free French refugees from Martinique andGuadeloupe escaped to Dominica from the Vichy-controlled French islands, stayingin Roseau and other villages.

Until 1958, Dominica was governed as part of the British WindwardIslands. Caribbean islands sought independence from 1958 to 1962,and Dominica became a province of the short-lived West IndiesFederation in 1958.^[18][20] After the federation dissolvedin 1962, Dominica became an associated state of the United Kingdom in 1967, andformally took responsibility for its internal affairs.^[18] On 3 November 1978, theCommonwealth of Dominica was granted independence as a republic, led by Prime Minister Patrick John.^[18][20][26]

Post-independence[edit]

In mid-1979, political discontent with Founding Prime MinisterPatrick John's administration climaxed in a civilian coup and ended in thepassage of a Motion of No Confidence in the House of Assembly, Dominica'slegislature, against John, collapsing the John administration. A new, so-called"Interim Government" was formed under Dominica's second PrimeMinister Oliver Seraphin;^[18] Seraphin's main task was toprepare the country for fresh general elections constitutionally due in 1980,hence the unofficial title "Interim" Prime Minister. Seraphinorganized and led a splinter of the Dominica Labour Party called the DemocraticLabour Party into the 1980 general election and lost mainly because his nearlythirteen month-long premiership was dominated by the fallout from CategoryFive Hurricane David,which caused 56 deaths and untold damage across the island.^[18][27] Hurricane Allen the following year causedfurther damage.^[18] After the 1980election, Seraphin's government was replaced by one led by the Dominica FreedomParty (DFP) under Prime Minister Eugenia Charles; she was the Caribbean's firstfemale Prime Minister.^[18][28]

In 1981, Charles's government was threatened with two attemptedcoups. The first was led by Frederick Newton, commander of the Military of Dominica,who organised an attack on the police headquarters in Roseau which resulted inthe death of a police officer.^[29] Newton and five other soldierswere found guilty in the attack and sentenced to death in 1983; the sentencesof the five accomplices were later commuted to life in prison, but Newton wasexecuted in 1986.^[29] A second occurred later in theyear when the country was threatened with a takeover by mercenaries^[30] in Operation Red Dog, led by MikePerdue and Wolfgang Droege. They tried to overthrowCharles as Prime Minister and reinstall ex-Prime Minister John in exchange forcontrol over the country's development. The FBI wastipped off, and the ship hired to transport the mercenaries never left dock.The mercenaries lacked formal military experience or training, and most of thecrew had been misled into joining by the ringleader Mike Perdue. White supremacist Don Black wasalso jailed for his part in the attempted coup, which violated US neutrality laws.^[31]

The Charles government supported the 1983 American Invasion of Grenada,earning Dominica praise from the Reagan administration and an increase infinancial aid.^[32]

By the middle of the 1980s, the economy had begun to recover,^[18] before weakening again due toa decrease in banana prices. Eugenia Charles wonthe 1985 generalelection, becoming only the first incumbent Dominica Prime Minister to bepopularly re-elected. The continuing downturn in the economy and the tight gripby Eugenia Charles on Dominica politics gave rise to a self-titled "ThirdForce" political formation in 1988, which disrupted the traditionaltwo-party arrangement of governing DFP and opposition DLP. "ThirdForce" soon formalized as United Workers Party and selected as its leaderEdison James, the former General Manager of the Dominica Banana MarketingCompany. This was a strategic selection given James's prestige among bananafarmers and his originating from the East or Atlantic Coast that had begun tofeel alienated by the West or Caribbean Sea Coast elites in Roseau, Dominica'scapital.^[20] Eugenia Charles again wonthe 1990 generalelection, the first incumbent Dominica Prime Minister to win three consecutivegeneral elections. However, Eugenia Charles's DFP had been pushed to within oneseat of losing its majority in Parliament by the emergence of the UWP. It was,therefore, no great surprise when Eugenia Charles gave up political leadershipof the Dominica Freedom Party in 1993 and did not contest the 1995 generalelection in any capacity. No longer benefiting from the veteran charismaticleadership of Prime Minister Eugenia Charles, the Dominica Freedom Party lostthe 1995election to the UnitedWorkers' Party (UWP), whose leader Edison James became Prime Minister.^[18] James, former General Managerof the Dominica Banana Marketing Company attempted to diversify the Dominicaneconomy away from over-reliance on bananas. The crop was largely destroyedby Hurricane Luis in1995.^[18] Further James was unable torestore banana to its former selling price and prestige. Moreover, the Jamesadministration became embroiled in Opposition charges of official corruption.

In the 31 January2000 general election, the UWP were defeated by a coalition of theDLP, led by left-leaning Roosevelt B. "Rosie" Douglas andthe Dominica Freedom Party led by former trade union leader, Charles Savarin. Douglas became PrimeMinister. One UWP member of the House of Assembly crossed the floor, joiningthe DLP-DFP coalition government. However, Douglas died on 1 October 2000 afteronly a few months.^[18][33][34] Prime Minister Douglas wasreplaced by PierreCharles, who also died in office on 6 January 2004.^[18] Roosevelt Skerrit, also of the DLP, replacedPierre Charles as Prime Minister, becoming the world's youngest head ofgovernment at thirty-one.^[18] Under Skerrit's leadership,the DLP won electionsin May 2005 that gave the party 12 seats in the 21-seatParliament, to the UWP's 8 seats. An independent candidate affiliated with theDLP won a seat as well. Later, the independent candidate joined the government.^[20] With his 2005 election win,Skerrit became only the second incumbent Prime Minister of seven to bepopularly re-elected.

In the 2009election, the DLP won 18 of 21 seats. The UWP claimed campaignimproprieties and embarked on a wide range of protest actions, includingboycott of Parliament. UWP's boycott lasted at least three unauthorizedabsences from Parliament for two of their three Elected Representatives inParliament in violation of Parliamentary procedure, leading to their two seatsbeing declared vacant and by-elections being called to fill them; by-electionswere conducted for those two vacant seats in July 2010, and the UWP again wonboth seats.^[35] The DLP under Skerrit went onto win the 2014Dominican general election.^[36]

On 17 September 2012 Eliud Thaddeus Williams was sworn in asPresident (a largely ceremonial role), replacing Dr. Nicholas Liverpool whowas reportedly removed from office due to ill health. On 30 September 2013former Trade Union leader and former Dominica Freedom Party leader CharlesSavarin was elected president having only days before resigned as a Minister ofGovernment.

Tropical Storm Erika devastatedthe island in August 2015, killing 30 and causing severe environmental andeconomic damage^[18] Dominica was again struck on18 September 2017, suffering a direct landfall from Category 5 Hurricane Maria.^[18][37] Early estimates of damagesuggested 90% of the buildings on the island had been destroyed, withinfrastructure left in ruins.^[38][39] The UK, France and theNetherlands set up shipping and air lifts to take aid to the island; the scaleof destruction having left most people homeless.

Dominica won its first two Commonwealth Games medals in silverand bronze in the 2018 CommonwealthGames on the Gold Coast.

In December 2019, incumbent Prime Minister Roosevelt Skerrit wonhis fourth consecutive general election eighteen seats to three, becoming thefirst Dominica Prime Minister ever to do so.^[40]

Dominica is an island nation in the Caribbean Sea, the northernmost of the Windward Islands (though it is sometimesconsidered the southernmost of the Leeward Islands). The size of the country isabout 289.5 square miles (750 km²) and it is about 29 miles(47 km) long and 16 miles (26 km) wide.^[18][41]

Known as "The Nature Island of the Caribbean" due toits lush scenery and varied flora and fauna, Dominica is largely coveredby rainforest and is home to the world'ssecond-largest hot spring, Boiling Lake.^[41][42][43] Within its borders lie twoecoregions: Windward Islands moist forests and Windward Islands xeric scrub.^[44] The most mountainous of theLesser Antilles, its volcanic peaks are cones of lava craters, the largest ofthese being (north-to-south) Morne aux Diables, Morne Diablotins (the highest on theisland at 1,447 m),^[41] Morne Trois Pitons and MorneAnglais. MorneTrois Pitons National Park is a tropical forest blended withvolcanic features;^[45] it was recognised as a World Heritage Site on4 April 1995, a distinction it shares with four other Caribbean islands.^[46] The Calibishie area in the country'snortheast has sandy beaches.^[47] Some plants and animalsthought to be extinct on surrounding islands can still be found in Dominica'sforests.^[48] The island has several protected areas, including CabritsNational Park, as well as 365 rivers. For a few years the governmentsought to encourage the island as an ecotourism destination, although thehurricane of 2017 has since changed these plans.^[41] The country had a 2018 ForestLandscape Integrity Index mean score of 1.06/10, ranking it166th globally out of 172 countries.^[49]

There are two primary population centres: the capital Roseau (with 14,725 inhabitants in 2011)and Portsmouth (with4,167 inhabitants in 2011). The main centres tend to be located around thecoast, with the mountainous interior sparsely populated.^[41]

Dominica is especially vulnerable to hurricanes as the island is located inwhat is referred to as the hurricane region.^[41] In 1979, Hurricane David struck the island as aCategory 4 hurricane, causing widespread and extreme damage. On 17 August2007, Hurricane Dean, aCategory 1 hurricane at the time, hit the island. A mother and herseven-year-old son died when a landslide caused by the heavy rainscrushed their house.^[50] In another incident two peoplewere injured when a tree fell on their house.^[51] Prime Minister Roosevelt Skerrit estimated that 100 to125 homes were damaged, and that the agricultural sector was extensivelydamaged, in particular the banana crop.^[52] In August 2015, Tropical Storm Erika causedextensive flooding and landslides across the island. Multiple communities wereevacuated and upwards of 30 people were killed.^[53] According to a Rapid Damageand Impact Assessment prepared for Dominica by the World Bank, the total damageand losses from the storm were US$484.82 million or 90% of Dominica's yearlyGDP.^[54] Category 5 Hurricane Maria struck the island in 2017and caused losses of approximately US$930 million or 226% of GDP.^[39]

Fauna[edit]

The Sisserou parrot (Amazonaimperialis) is Dominica's national bird and is endemic to its mountain forests.^[18] A related species, the Jacoor red-necked parrot (A.arausiaca), is also a Dominican endemic.^[18] Both birds are rare andprotected, though some forest is still threatened by logging in addition to thelong-standing threat of hurricanes.

Dominica has recorded at least four species of snakes and 11species of lizards.

Dominica is home to 195 species of birds, because of theisolated location of Dominica this is a lesser number compared to Trinidad which is located closer tomainland South-America with472 bird species.

The Caribbean Sea offshore of the island of Dominica is home tomany cetaceans. Most notably a group of sperm whales live in this areayear-round. Other cetaceans commonly seen in the area include spinner dolphins, pantropicalspotted dolphins and bottlenose dolphins.Less commonly seen animals include killer whales, false killer whales, pygmy sperm whales, dwarf sperm whales, Risso's dolphins, common dolphins, Atlantic spotteddolphins, humpback whales and Bryde's whales. This makes Dominica adestination for tourists interested in whale-watching.

Territorial disputes[edit]

The Commonwealth of Dominica is engaged in a long-runningdispute with Venezuela overVenezuela's territorial claims to the sea surrounding Isla de Aves (literally Bird Island, butin fact called 'Bird Rock' by Dominican authorities),^[41][55] a tiny islet located 140 miles(225 km) west of the island of Dominica.

Mainarticle: Politics of Dominica

See also: Foreignrelations of Dominica

Dominica is a parliamentarydemocracy within the Commonwealth ofNations.^[13] The capital is Roseau. The Commonwealth of Dominica is one ofthe Caribbean's few republics. The presidentis the head of state,while executive power rests with the cabinet, headedby the prime minister.^[13] The unicameral parliament consists of the30-member House ofAssembly, which consists of 21 directly elected members and ninesenators, who may either be appointed by the president or elected by the othermembers of the House of Assembly.^[13]

Unlike other former British colonies in the region, Dominica wasnever a Commonwealth realm,instead becoming a republic on independence. Dominica is a full andparticipating member of the Caribbean Community(CARICOM) and the Organisationof Eastern Caribbean States (OECS).^[18]

Dominica is also a member of the InternationalCriminal Court, with a BilateralImmunity Agreement of protection with the US military, ascovered under Article 98. In January 2008, Dominica joinedthe BolivarianAlternative for the Americas.^[18]

Human rights[edit]

Both male and female same-sex sexualactivity is illegal in Dominica.^[56][57]

Mainarticle: Economy of Dominica

Dominica's currency is the East Caribbean Dollar.In 2008, Dominica had one of the lowest per capita gross domesticproduct (GDP) rates of Eastern Caribbean states.^[58][59] The country nearly had afinancial crisis in 2003 and 2004, but Dominica's economy grew by 3.5% in 2005and 4.0% in 2006, following a decade of poor performance. Growth in 2006 wasattributed to gains in tourism, construction, offshore and other services, andsome sub-sectors of the banana industry. Around this time the InternationalMonetary Fund (IMF) praised the Government of Dominica for itssuccessful macroeconomic reforms, but also pointed out remaining challenges,including the need for further reductions in public debt, increased financialsector regulation, and market diversification.^[20]

Agriculture and especially bananas once dominated Dominica'seconomy,^[41] and nearly one-third of thelabour force worked in agriculture in the early 2000s. This sector, however, ishighly vulnerable to weather conditions and to external events affectingcommodity prices. In 2007, Hurricane Dean caused significant damageto the agricultural sector as well as the country's infrastructure, especiallyroads.^{[citationneeded]} In response to reduced European Union (EU) trade preferences for bananas from theformer European colonies after the 2009 WTO decision,^{[60][61][62][63]} the government has diversifiedthe agricultural sector by promoting the production of coffee, patchouli, aloe vera, cut flowers, and exotic fruits suchas mango, guava and papaya,^{[citationneeded]} while the economy has becomeincreasingly dependent on tourism.^[41]

The expected increase of Dominica's Citizenship byInvestment (CBI) fees has been suspended with no implementationdate in sight, as announced by Prime Minister Roosevelt Skerrit, in the 2016budget speech.^[64]

International trade[edit]

Dominica is a beneficiary of the Caribbean BasinInitiative (CBI) that grants duty-free entry into the UnitedStates for many goods. Dominica also belongs to the predominantlyEnglish-speaking Caribbean Community (CARICOM),the CARICOMSingle Market and Economy (CSME), and the Organisationof Eastern Caribbean States (OECS).^[20]

Financial services industry[edit]

The Commonwealth of Dominica is becoming in recent years^[when?] amajor international financial centre. The largest sectors are "offshore banking, payment processing companies,and general corporate activities". Regulation and supervision of the financial services industryis the responsibility of the Financial Service Unit of the Commonwealth of Dominica (FSU)under the supervision of the Ministry of Finance. There are a number of serviceproviders. These include global financial institutions including Scotiabank, Royal Bank of Canada, CathedralInvestment Bank, FirstCaribbean International Bank, and The Interoceanic Bank of theCaribbean.

Starting in the mid-late 1990s, offshorefinancial centres, such as the Commonwealth of Dominica, came underincreasing pressure from the OECD for their allegedlyharmful tax regimes, where the OECD wished to prevent low-tax regimes fromhaving an advantage in the global marketplace. The OECD threatened to place theCommonwealth of Dominica and other financial centres on a "blacklist" and impose sanctions against them. However, the Commonwealth ofDominica successfully avoided being placed on the OECD black list by committingto regulatory reform to improve transparency and begin information exchangewith OECD member countries about their citizens.

Dominica supposedly offers tax-free status to companiesrelocating from abroad. It is not known how many companies benefit from thetax-free status because of the strict confidentiality the government enforces,although it is known many Internet businessesand hedge funds utilise Dominica for thisreason. However, on 12 July 2012 Dominica signed an agreement with Poland toexchange tax information.^[65]

Economic immigrants[edit]

Mainarticle: Dominicacitizenship by investment programme

The Commonwealth of Dominica offers an official and legallymandated economic citizenship tothose seeking a valid second citizenship. The nationality law of Dominicaauthorises the government to waive the normal requirement of seven years oflegal residence to acquire citizenship in exchange for an investment into theircountry's economy. The required contribution for a main applicant starts atUS$100,000 through the Economic Diversification Fund.^[66] Alternatively, since 2014,applicants can make a US$200,000 minimum investment in pre-approved real estatefrom island exclusive resorts or global brands like Marriott, Kempinski orHilton.^[67] According to officials,the citizenship byinvestment (CBI) programme was an economic and fiscal"lifeline" in the aftermath of Tropical Storm Erika in 2015 andHurricane Maria in 2017, and its new investment option had become the mainsource of Foreign DirectInvestment into Dominica by early 2016.^[68] Dominican citizens can travelwithout a visa, or obtain a visa upon entry, to nearly 140 countries andterritories, including the United Kingdom and the Schengen Zone.^[69] Applying for Dominicacitizenship requires interacting with official Government Approved EconomicCitizenship Agents as the first step in the application process.^[70] This program is currentlyvalued at 16% of the government's total revenue.^[71]

The government's management of the economic citizenshipprogramme and an initial perceived lack of transparency in the use of therevenues generated are a frequent topic of heated domestic politicalcontroversy. Referring to the opposition, Prime Minister Skerrit in 2016 statedthat "If they can discredit the Citizenship by Investment Program and makeDominica an unattractive place to obtain citizenship, then revenues would falland the government would not be able to rebuild the country. Or, the governmentwould then have to increase taxes on the people; making itself unpopular intheir sight."^[72] Since then, the Government ofDominica has improved transparency of CBI funds. According to Prime MinisterSkerrit's 2018-2019 Budget Address,^[73] the island's CBI Programme hashelped develop a National Health Insurance pilot that provides Dominicanchildren in critical medical conditions with overseas treatment. Because manyresidents were displaced by Hurricane Maria's impact on the small Caribbeanisland, the government pledged to build 5,000 hurricane-proof homes, of whichthe first batch of 125 houses were scheduled for occupancy in February 2019.^[74] The CBI Programme has alsosignificantly helped to develop and create jobs in the island's ecotourismsector.^[75] Furthermore, the Skerritadministration set aside EC$5m every month for the construction of a newairport.^[76][77]

The Financial Times'Professional Wealth Management publication ranked Dominica as the world's bestcitizenship by investment programme in its annual CBI Index.^[78][79] According to the report,investors choose Dominica's citizenship because it has the most affordableinvestment threshold, the application process is straightforward andstreamlined,^[80] while the security checks eachapplicant is subjected to remain very strict.^[81]

Tourism[edit]

Dominica is mostly volcanic and has few beaches;therefore, tourism hasdeveloped more slowly than on neighbouring islands. Nevertheless, Dominica'smountains, rainforests, freshwater lakes, hot springs, waterfalls, and divingspots make it an attractive ecotourism destination. Cruise shipstopovers have increased following the development of modern docking andwaterfront facilities in Roseau, the capital.^[20] Out of 22 Caribbean islandstracked, Dominica had the fewest visitors in 2008 (55,800 or 0.3% of thetotal). This was about half as many as visited Haiti.^[82] The volcanic nature of theisland has attracted scuba divers.

Air[edit]

There are two airports on the island. The primary airport, Douglas-CharlesAirport (DOM), now has direct flights from Miami on AmericanEagle. It is on the northeast coast and is about a 45-minute drive fromPortsmouth (1 hour from Roseau). The second is Canefield Airport (DCF), about 15 minutesfrom Roseau on the southwest coast. Douglas-Charles Airport is suitable forlimited use of commercial jets because of runway length. Douglas-Charlescurrently has regular service by Air Sunshine, Winair and Seaborne Airlines using twin turbopropaircraft like the ATR and Saab 340, as well as Conviasa and Amerijet, which, using Boeing 727 Freighters, is the only airlinewith jet service to the republic. A runway extension and service upgradeproject began at Douglas-Charles Airport around 2006 and was finished in 2010.In March 2013, airline American Eagle halted flights to the island citing highlabour costs.^[83]

Roads[edit]

Dominica's road network runs primarily along the coastline andalong river valleys. Major roads are two-lane highways which connect thecapital, Roseau, with Portsmouth (Edward Oliver LeblancHighway) and the Douglas Charles Airport (Dr. Nicholas LiverpoolHighway). It takes about 45 minutes to drive from Portsmouth to Roseau. Privateminibuses form the major public transport system. These major roads werereconstructed from the early 2010s to 2015 with assistance from the People'sRepublic of China and the European Union.^[84][85]

Due to Tropical Storm Erikaof 2015 several road surfaces and bridges were damaged byflooding and landslides, including on the just completed E.O. LeBlanc Highway(Roseau to Portsmouth) and Dr. Nicholas LiverpoolHighway (Pont Cassé to Douglas Charles Airport). To alleviatethis, the government announced that it intended to install emergency bridges inRoseau Valley near the Trafalgar Falls to Wotten Waven and in Emshall.^[86] Hurricane Maria of 2017 alsodamaged the road network.

Green energy[edit]

Dominica's electricity sector includes power fromhydroelectricity, solar energy, and geothermal energy.^[87] Following on from thedevastation caused by Hurricane Maria in September 2017, the Dominicangovernment claimed it would invest in geothermal energy. In early March 2018Dominica signed an InternationalSolar Alliance Framework Agreement, in an attempt to exploitsolar energy to power the country with a source of renewable energy.^[88]

The vast majority of Dominicans are of African descent. There isa growing mixed population along with a small European origin minority(descendants of French and British colonists along with some people of Irishdescent from indentured servants) and there are small numbers of Lebanese,Syrians and East Asians. Dominica is also the only Eastern Caribbean islandthat still has a population of pre-Columbian native Kalinago (previously called Caribs), whowere exterminated or driven from neighbouring islands. As of 2014 thereare more than 3,000 Kalinago remaining. They live in eight villages on the eastcoast of Dominica. This special Carib Territory (now Kalinago Territory)was granted by the British Crown in 1903.^[89]

The population growth rate of Dominica is very low, dueprimarily to emigration to other countries. In the early 21st century, emigrantnumbers for the most popular countries are as follows: the United States(8,560), the United Kingdom (6,739), Canada (605), and France (394).

Dominica had a relatively large number of centenarians. In March 2007 there were 22centenarians out of the island's 70,000 inhabitants —three times the averageincidence of centenarianism in developed countries. The reasons for this wereonce the subject of a study that formerly had been undertaken at RossUniversity School of Medicine.^[90]

Dominica was partially integrated into the federal colony ofthe Leeward Islands in1832. Later, in 1871, it became a full part of the Federation of the LeewardIslands. From the start it was a peculiar relationship for previously Dominicahad played no part in the political or cultural traditions of the other moreAnglophone islands of the federation. Now, as a Leeward Island, this muchlarger territory, with thousands of acres of forested unclaimed land, was opento the people of Montserrat and Antigua. At the beginning of the 20th century,the Rose's Company, which produced Rose's lime juice,saw demand for its product outgrow its ability to supply the product fromMontserrat. Their response to the situation was to buy land on Dominica andencourage Montserrat farm labourers to relocate. As a result, there came to betwo linguistic communities in Dominica, Wesley and Marigot.

In 1902, on 8 May, the Mount Pelée volcano on Martinique erupteddestroying the city of Saint-Pierre.Refugees from Martinique arrived in boats to the southern villages of Dominicaand some remained permanently on the island.

Languages[edit]

English is the official language of Dominica and is universallyspoken and understood. In addition, Dominican Creole, an Antillean Creole based on French, is widely spoken. This is due toFrench migration to the island starting in 1690, a majority French Creole-speakingpopulation that resided on the island,^[91] and its location between thetwo French-speaking departments of Martinique and Guadeloupe. Since 1979, Dominica has been amember of La Francophonie.Dominican Creole is particularly used among the older generation, which alsospeaks a patois language. Because of a decline inthe use of Creole by the younger generation, initiatives have been set up in aneffort to increase usage and promote this unique part of the nation's historyand culture.

Along with Creole, a dialect known as Kokoy (or Cockoy) isspoken.^[92] It is a type of pidginEnglish which is a mix of Leeward Island English Creole and Dominican Creole,^[93] and is mainly spoken in thenorth-eastern villages of Marigot and Wesley, by the descendants of immigrantsfrom Montserrat and Antigua. Over time there has been muchintermarrying, but there are still traces of difference in origin.^[94] As a result of this mixture oflanguages and heritage, Dominica is a member of both the French-speakingFrancophonie and the English-speaking Commonwealth ofNations.

Island Carib,also known as Igneri (Iñeri, Igñeri, Inyeri), was an Arawakan language historically spoken bythe Island Caribs ofthe Lesser Antilles inthe Caribbean. The Island Caribs lived throughoutthe southern Lesser Antilles such as Dominica, St Vincent and Trinidad,supposedly having conquered them from their previous inhabitants, the Igneri. Island Carib became extinct about1920, but an offshoot survives as Garifuna, primarily in Central America.

Religion[edit]

61.4% of the population is Roman Catholic,^[95] though in recent years anumber of Protestant churcheshave been established.^{[citationneeded]} About 10–12% of the population belongsto one of the Seventh-Day (Saturday)denominations, which includes Yahweh Congregation, Church of God(Seventh-Day), and the Seventh-dayAdventist Church.^[96]

According to the Associationof Religion Data Archives, in 2010 the World Christian Databasereported that the largest non-Christian religious groups included: spiritualism followed by 2.6% of the population; Baháʼí followedby 1.7%; Agnosticism followedby 0.5%; Buddhism, Hinduism, and Islam,each followed by 0.1%; and Chinese folk religion, Neoreligions, and Atheism each followed by non-negligibleproportions (i.e., <0.1%) of the population.^[97] The nation's first mosque was built near Ross University.^{[citationneeded]}

Education[edit]

School in Dominica is mandatory up to secondary school. Afterpre-school, students attend primary school for six or seven years, and areadmitted into secondary school on the basis of a Common Entrance Exam. Afterfive years the students take the General Certificate of Education (GCE), widelyreplaced by the current Caribbean Secondary Education Certificate administeredby the Caribbean Examination Council (a 15-member confederation of theCaribbean community (CARICOM). The more advanced version of this examination,CAPE, can be taken upon completion of two years of community college. Theisland has its own Dominica StateCollege, formerly named Clifton Dupigny Community College. SomeDominicans attend universities in Cuba on scholarships offered by itsgovernment; others go to the University ofthe West Indies or to universities in the United Kingdom, theUnited States, or other countries.

Archbold Tropical Research and Education Center, a biologicalfield station owned by Clemson University,is located at Springfield Estate between Canefield and Pont Cassé.^[98][99] In 2006 All Saints UniversitySchool of Medicine opened in temporary facilities in Loubière,^[100] it was later located in Roseau, Dominica. A marine biology institute in Mahaut, the Institute for Tropical MarineEcology, closed in 2009.

RossUniversity School of Medicine was located at Portsmouth.Ross had been operating in Dominica since the 1980s.^[101] There used to be a thousandmedical students arriving annually from the United States and Canada whostudied at Ross University, but the campus was permanently relocated to Barbados at the beginning of the 2019Spring semester due to extensive hurricane damage suffered at the Dominicancampus.^[102][103]

The Dominica Library and Information Service serves an integralrole in the education of the citizens of the country. The creation of a publiclibrary in Dominica did not come easily though the impetus was a noble one thatwould help "the coloured people... [improve] their lot as they moved alongthe path to complete freedom...” (Boromé, 203). The Dominican library began asa reading room that would evolve into a free and public library that wasn'tfully free: patrons were required to pay a subscription fee. Survivingreligious and political discord, the great depression, and two world wars, thelibrary finally came under the care of the government where funds were setaside for its upkeep. Ironically, the early stages of the library's historywere dedicated to remove the "uncouth", and "barbarouspatois", which today is being preserved. However, it did achieve its goalof "diminishing the island’s very high percentage of illiteracy" (pg.225).^[104] However, the historicallibrary was demolished in the wake on hurricane Maria in 2018, and slated to berebuilt with a more modern outlook.

Dominica is home to a wide range of people. Although it washistorically occupied by several native tribes, the Arawaks (Tainos) and Carib (Kalinago)tribes occupied it at the time European settlers reached the island. "Massacre"is a name of a river dedicated to the mass murder ofthe native villagers by English settlers on St. Kitts -thesurvivors were forced into exile on Dominica.^[105] Both the French and Britishtried to claim the island and imported slaves from Africa for labour. Theremaining Caribs now live on a 3,700-acre (15 km²) territory onthe east coast of the island. They elect their own chief. This mix of cultureshas produced the current culture.^{[originalresearch?]}

Music and dance are important facets of Dominica's culture. Theannual independence celebrations display a variety of traditional song anddance. Since 1997, there have also been weeks of Creole festivals, such as"Creole in the Park" and the "World CreoleMusic Festival".

Dominica gained prominence on the international music stage whenin 1973, GordonHenderson founded the group Exile One and an original musical genre,which he coined "Cadence-lypso".This paved the way for modern Creole music. Other musical genres include "Jing ping" and "Cadence". Jing ping features theaccordion and is native to the island. Dominica's music is a mélange ofHaitian, Afro-Cuban, African and European traditions. Popular artists over theyears include Chubby and the Midnight Groovers, Bells Combo, the Gaylords(Dominican band), WCK,and Triple Kay.

The 11th annual World Creole Music Festival was held in 2007,part of the island's celebration of independence from Great Britain on 3 November.A year-long reunion celebration began in January 2008, marking 30 years ofindependence.

Dominica is often seen as a society that is migrating from collectivism tothat of individualism. The economy is a developing one that previously dependedon agriculture. Signs of collectivism are evident in the small towns andvillages which are spread across the island.^{[clarificationneeded]}

The novelist Jean Rhys was born and raised inDominica. The island is obliquely depicted in her best-known book, Wide Sargasso Sea. Rhys's friend, thepolitical activist and writer Phyllis Shand Allfrey,set her 1954 novel, The Orchid House,in Dominica.

Much of the Walt Disney film Piratesof the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest (the second in theseries, released in 2006), was shot on location on Dominica (though in the filmit was known as "Pelegosto", a fictional island), along with someshooting for the third film in the series, AtWorld's End (2007).

Cuisine[edit]

Mainarticle: Dominica cuisine

Dominica's cuisine is similar to that of other Caribbeanislands, particularly Jamaica, Saint Lucia and Trinidad and Tobago. Likeother CommonwealthCaribbean islands, Dominicans have developed a distinct twistto their cuisine. Breakfast is an important daily meal, typically includingsaltfish, dried and salted codfish, and"bakes" (fried dough). Saltfish and bakes are combined for a fastfood snack that can be eaten throughout the day; vendors on Dominica's streetssell these snacks to passersby, together with fried chicken, fish and fruit andyogurt "smoothies". Other breakfast meals include cornmeal porridge, which is made with fine cornmealor polenta, milk or condensed milk, and sugar to sweeten.Traditional British-influenced dishes, such as eggs and toast, are also popular,as are fried fish and plantains.

Common vegetables include plantains, tannias (aroot vegetable), sweet potatoes, potatoes, rice and peas. Meat and poultry typicallyeaten include chicken, beef and fish. These are often prepared in stews withonions, carrots, garlic, ginger and herbs. The vegetables and meat are brownedto create a rich dark sauce. Popular meals include rice and peas, brown stew chicken,stew beef, fried and stewed fish, and many different types of hearty fishbroths and soups. These are filled with dumplings, carrots and groundprovisions.

Sports[edit]

Cricket is a popular sport on the island,and Dominica competes in test cricket as part of the West Indiescricket team. In West Indies domestic first-class cricket, Dominicaparticipates as part of the WindwardIslands cricket team, although they are often considered a part ofthe Leeward Islands geographically.This is due to being part of the British WindwardIslands colony from 1940 until independence; its cricketfederation remains a part of the Windward Islands Cricket Board of Control.

On 24 October 2007, the 8,000-seat Windsor cricketstadium was completed with a donation of EC$33 million(US$17 million, €12 million)from the governmentof the People's Republic of China.

Netball, basketball, rugby, tennis and association football aregaining popularity as well.

International footballer Julian Wade, Dominica's all-time top goalscorer (as of 2021), currently plays for Brechin City F.C. in Scotland.^[106]

During the 2014 Winter Olympics,a husband and wife team of Gary di Silvestri and Angela Morrone di Silvestrispent US$175,000 to register as Dominican citizensand enter the 15 km men's and 10 km women's cross-country skiing events,respectively. Angela did not start her race, and Gary pulled out severalhundred meters into his race. To date, they are Dominica's only Winter Olympicathletes.^[107]

Athlete Jérôme Romain wonthe bronze medal at the 1995World Championships in Athletics triple jump competition. He also qualified forthe finals at the 1996 Olympic Games; even though he had to pullout due to injury, his 12th position is the best performance of a Dominicanever at the Olympics.^[108]

Sprinter Olympian Chris Lloyd won the bronze medal atthe 2007 Pan AmericanGames over 400m.^[109]

Triple Jump Olympian Thea LaFond became the first athlete toever win a medal at the 2018 CommonwealthGames.^[110]

Dominica has two major newspapers, The Sun and The Chronicle.There are two national television stations and a few radio stations, includingStations include: ZBC-AM 590, the first private local radio station is calledRadio En Ba Mango 93.5/96.9FM in the Village of Berricoa Grand Bay and is ownedby Urban Dangleben, ZGBC-AM 740, ZGBC-FM 90.7 (Portsmouth), ZGBC-FM 102.1(Roseau) and ZGBC-FM 106.1 (Marigot), Q95 FM,^[111] the DominicaBroadcasting Corporation, and Kairi FM.^[112] Before 2004, there were twotelecommunication companies Cable andWireless and Marpin TV^[113] founded by Dominican, RonaldBernard Maroni Abraham. In 2005, Digicel and a UK-based company Orange started to offer service to theisland. There are a number of mobile networks operating on the island; LIME andDigicel compete for most of Dominica's wireless customers. Orange shut down in2010 and is no longer operating on the island of Dominica.

Historical newspapers include The Dominican, The DominicaGuardian Archived 29 January 2021 at the Wayback Machine, and the DominicaColonist, available for free in the DigitalLibrary of the Caribbean.

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