Jamaica

Jamaica (/dʒəˈmeɪkə/ (listen); JamaicanPatois: Jumieka, [dʒʌˈmʲeːka]) is an island country situated in the Caribbean Sea. Spanning 10,990 square kilometres(4,240 sq mi) in area, it is the third largest island — after Cuba and Hispaniola — of the Greater Antilles and the Caribbean.^[11] Jamaica lies about 145 km (90 mi) southof Cuba, and 191 km (119 mi) west of Hispaniola (the islandcontaining the countries of Haiti andthe Dominican Republic); the British Overseas Territory of the Cayman Islands lies some 215 km (134 mi) to thenorth-west.^[11]

Originally inhabited by theindigenous Taíno peoples,the island came under Spanish rule following the arrival of Christopher Columbus in 1494. Many of the indigenous people either werekilled or died of diseases, after which the Spanish brought large numbers ofAfrican slaves to Jamaica as labourers.^[11] The island remained a possession of Spain until1655, when England (later GreatBritain) conquered it, renamingit Jamaica. It became an important part of the colonial British West Indies. Under Britain's colonial rule, Jamaica became a leadingsugar exporter, with a plantation economy dependent on continued importation ofAfrican slaves and their descendants. The British fully emancipated all slavesin 1838, and many freedmen chose to have subsistencefarms rather than to work on plantations.Beginning in the 1840s, the British began using Chinese and Indian indentured labour to work on plantations. The island achievedindependence from the United Kingdom on 6 August 1962.^[11]

With 2.8 million people,^[12][13] Jamaica is the third-most populous Anglophone country in the Americas (after the United States and Canada), and the fourth-most populous country in theCaribbean. Kingston isthe country's capital and largest city. The majority of Jamaicans are of Sub-Saharan African ancestry, with significant European, East Asian (primarily Chinese), Indian, Lebanese, and mixed-race minorities.^[11] Due to a high rate of emigration for work since the1960s, there is a large Jamaican diaspora, particularly in Canada, the United Kingdom, and theUnited States. The country has a global influence that belies its small size;it was the birthplace of the Rastafari religion, reggae music (and associated genres such as dub, ska and dancehall), and it is internationally prominent in sports, mostnotably cricket, sprinting and athletics.^{[14][15][16][17]} Jamaica has sometimes been considered the world'sleast populous culturalsuperpower.^{[18][19][20][21]}

Jamaica is an upper-middle income country^[17] with an economy heavily dependent on tourism; ithas an average of 4.3 million tourists a year.^[22] The country performs favourably in measuresof press freedom, democratic governance and sustainable well-being. Jamaica is a parliamentary constitutionalmonarchy with power vestedin the bicameral Parliament of Jamaica, consisting of an appointed Senate and a directlyelected House of Representatives.^[11] Andrew Holness has served as PrimeMinister of Jamaica sinceMarch 2016. As a Commonwealth realm, with Charles III as its king, the appointed representative of the Crown is the Governor-Generalof Jamaica, an office heldby PatrickAllen since 2009.

The indigenous people, the Taíno, called the island Xaymaca intheir language,^[a] meaning the "Land of Wood and Water" orthe "Land of Springs".^[23] Yamaye has been suggested as an earlyTaino name for the island as recorded by Christopher Columbus.^[24]

Colloquially, Jamaicans refer to their homeisland as the "Rock". Slang names such as "Jamrock","Jamdown" ("Jamdung" in Jamaican Patois), or briefly "Ja", have derived from this.^[25][26]

Main article: Historyof Jamaica

Prehistory

Main article: Pre-Columbian Jamaica

Humans have inhabited Jamaica from as earlyas 4000–1000 BC. Little is known of these early peoples.^[27] Another group, known as the "Redwarepeople" after their pottery, arrived circa 600 AD,^[28] followed by the Taíno circa 800 AD, who most likelycame from South America.^[28][29] They practised an agrarian and fishing economy, andat their height are thought to have numbered some 60,000 people, grouped intoaround 200 villages headed by caciques (chiefs).^[28] The south coast of Jamaica was the most populated,especially around the area now known as Old Harbour.^[27]

Though often thought to have become extinctfollowing contact with Europeans, the Taíno in fact still inhabited Jamaicawhen the English took control of the island in 1655.^[27] Some fled into interior regions, merging withAfrican Maroon communities.^[30][31][32] The Jamaican National Heritage Trust is attempting to locate and document any remainingevidence of the Taíno.^[33]

Spanishrule (1509–1655)

Main article: Colonyof Santiago

Christopher Columbus was the first Europeanto see Jamaica, claiming the island for Spain after landing there in 1494 onhis second voyage to the Americas.^[28] His probable landing point was Dry Harbour,called DiscoveryBay,^[34] and St. Ann's Bay was named "Saint Gloria" by Columbus, asthe first sighting of the land. He later returned in 1503; however, he wasshipwrecked and he and his crew were forced to live on Jamaica for a year whilewaiting to be rescued.^[35]

One and a half kilometres west of St. Ann'sBay is the site of the first Spanish settlement on the island, Sevilla, which was established in 1509 by Juan de Esquivel but abandoned around 1524 because it was deemedunhealthy.^[36] The capital was moved to Spanish Town, then called St. Jago de la Vega, around1534 (at present-day St. Catherine).^[28][37] Meanwhile, the Taínos began dying in large numbers,both from introduced diseases and from enslavement by the Spanish.^[28] As a result, the Spanish began importing slavesfrom Africa to the island.^[38]

Many slaves managed to escape, formingautonomous communities in remote and easily defended areas in the interior ofJamaica, mixing with the remaining Taino; these communities became knownas Maroons.^[28] Many Jewsfled the Spanish Inquisition tolive on the island.^[39] They lived as conversos and were often persecuted by the Spanish rulers,and some turned to piracy against the Spanish Empire's shipping.^[40]

By the early 17th century it is estimatedthat no more than 2,500–3,000 people lived on Jamaica.^{[28][41][page needed]}

EarlyBritish period

Main article: Colony of Jamaica

Henry Morgan was a famous Caribbean pirate, privateer, plantation owner and slaveholder; he had first come to theWest Indies as an indentured servant, like most of the early English colonists.^[42]

The English began taking an interest in theisland and, following a failed attempt to conquer SantoDomingo on Hispaniola, AdmiralWilliam Penn and General Robert Venables led an invasion of Jamaica in 1655.^[43] Battles at Ocho Rios in 1657 and the Rio Nuevo in 1658 resulted in Spanish defeats; in 1660 the Marooncommunity under the leadership of Juan de Bolas switched sides from the Spanish, and begansupporting the English. With their help, the Spanish defeat was secured.^[44] In 1661 English civil government was formed andRoundhead soldiers turned their attention to governance and agriculturalresponsiblities.^[45]

When the English captured Jamaica, mostSpanish colonists fled, with the exception of Spanish Jews, who chose to remainon the island. Spanish slave holders freed their slaves before leaving Jamaica.^[44] Many slaves dispersed into the mountains, joiningthe already established maroon communities.^[46] During the centuries of slavery, Jamaican Maroons established free communities in the mountainousinterior of Jamaica, where they maintained their freedom and independence forgenerations, under the leadership of Maroon leaders such as Juan de Serras.^[47]

Meanwhile, the Spanish made severalattempts to re-capture the island, prompting the British to support piratesattacking Spanish ships in the Caribbean; as a result piracy became rampant onJamaica, with the city of Port Royal becoming notorious for its lawlessness. Spain laterrecognised English possession of the island with the Treaty ofMadrid (1670).^[48] After that, the English authorities sought to reinin the worst excesses of the pirates.^[28]

In 1660, the population of Jamaica wasabout 4,500 white and 1,500 black.^[49] By the early 1670s, as the English developed sugarcane plantations worked by large numbers of slaves, black Africans formed amajority of the population.^[50] The Irish inJamaica also formed alarge part of the island's early population, making up two-thirds of the whitepopulation on the island in the late 17th century, twice that of the Englishpopulation. They were brought in as indentured labourers and soldiers after theconquest of 1655. The majority of Irish were transported by force as politicalprisoners of war from Ireland as a result of the ongoing Wars of theThree Kingdoms.^[51] Migration of large numbers of Irish to the islandcontinued into the 18th century.^[52]

A limited form of local government wasintroduced with the creation of the House ofAssembly of Jamaica in1664; however, it represented only a tiny number of rich plantation owners.^[53] In 1692, the colony was rocked by an earthquake that resulted in several thousand deaths and thealmost complete destruction of Port Royal.^[54]

18th–19thcenturies

During the 1700s the economy boomed, basedlargely on sugar and other crops for export such as coffee, cotton and indigo. Allthese crops were worked by black slaves, who lived short and often brutal liveswith no rights, being the property of a small planter-class.^[28] In the 18th century, slaves ran away and joined theMaroons in increasing numbers, and resulted in The First Maroon War (1728 – 1739/40), which ended in stalemate. TheBritish government sued for peace, and signed treaties with the Leeward Maroonsled by Cudjoe and Accompong in 1739, and the WindwardMaroons led by Quao and Queen Nanny in 1740.^[55]

A large slave rebellion, known as Tacky's War, broke out in 1760 but wasdefeated by the British and their Maroon allies.^[56] After the second conflict in 1795–96, many Maroons from the Maroon townof Cudjoe'sTown (Trelawny Town) wereexpelled to Nova Scotia and, later, Sierra Leone.^[28]

By the beginning of the 19th century,Jamaica's dependence on slave labour and a plantation economy had resulted inblack people outnumbering white people by a ratio of almost 20 to 1. Although the Britishhad outlawed the importation of slaves, some were still smuggled in fromSpanish colonies and directly from Africa.^{[citationneeded]} While planning the abolition of slavery, theBritish Parliament passed laws to improve conditions for slaves. They bannedthe use of whips in the field and flogging of women; informed planters thatslaves were to be allowed religious instruction, and required a free day duringeach week when slaves could sell their produce,^[57] prohibiting Sunday markets to enable slaves toattend church.^{[citationneeded]} The House of Assembly in Jamaica resented andresisted the new laws. Members, with membership then restricted toEuropean-descended Jamaicans, claimed that the slaves were content and objectedto Parliament's interference in island affairs. Slave owners feared possiblerevolts if conditions were lightened.

The British abolished the slavetrade in 1807, but not the institutionitself.^[58] In 1831 a huge slave rebellion, known as the Baptist War, broke out, led by the Baptist preacher Samuel Sharpe. The rebellion resulted in hundreds of deaths and thedestruction of many plantations, and led to ferocious reprisals by theplantocracy class.^[59] As a result of rebellions such as these, as well asthe efforts of abolitionists, Britain outlawed slavery in its empire in 1834,with full emancipation from chattel slavery declared in 1838.^[28] The population in 1834 was 371,070, of whom 15,000were white, 5,000 free black; 40,000 "coloured" or free people of colour (mixed race); and 311,070 were slaves.^[49] The resulting labour shortage prompted the Britishto begin to "import" indentured servants to supplement the labour pool, as many freedmenresisted working on the plantations.^[28] Workers recruited from India began arriving in1845, Chinese workers in 1854.^[60] Many South Asian and Chinese descendants continueto reside in Jamaica today.^[61][62]

Over the next 20 years, several epidemicsof cholera, scarlet fever, and smallpox hitthe island, killing almost 60,000 people (about 10 per day).^{[citationneeded]} Nevertheless, in 1871 the census recorded apopulation of 506,154 people, 246,573 of which were males, and 259,581 females.Their races were recorded as 13,101 white, 100,346 coloured (mixed black andwhite), and 392,707 black.^[63] This period was marked by an economic slump, withmany Jamaicans living in poverty. Dissatisfaction with this, and continuedracial discrimination and marginalisation of the black majority, led to theoutbreak of the Morant Bay rebellion in 1865 led by Paul Bogle, which was put down by Governor John Eyre with such brutality that he was recalled from hisposition.^[28] His successor, John Peter Grant, enacted a series of social, financial and politicalreforms whilst aiming to uphold firm British rule over the island, which becamea Crown Colony in 1866.^[28] In 1872 the capital was transferred from SpanishTown to Kingston.^[28]

Early20th century

In 1907 Jamaica was struck by anearthquake—this, and thesubsequent fire, caused immense destruction in Kingston and the deaths of800–1,000 people.^[64][28]

Unemployment and poverty remained a problemfor many Jamaicans. Various movements seeking political change arose as aresult, most notably the Universal Negro Improvement Association and AfricanCommunities League foundedby Marcus Garvey in 1917. As well as seeking greater politicalrights and an improvement for the condition of workers, Garvey was also aprominent Pan-Africanist and proponent of the Back-to-Africamovement.^[65] He was also one of the chief inspirations behindRastafari, a religion founded in Jamaica in the 1930s that combinedChristianity with an Afrocentric theology focused on the figure of Haile Selassie, Emperor of Ethiopia. Despite occasional persecution, Rastafari grew tobecome an established faith on the island, later spreading abroad.

The Great Depression of the 1930s hit Jamaica hard. As part of the British West Indian labour unrest of 1934–39, Jamaica saw numerous strikes, culminating in a strikein 1938 that turned into a full-blown riot.^[66][28][67] As a result, the British governmentinstituted a commission to look into the causes of the disturbances; theirreport recommended political and economic reforms in Britain's Caribbeancolonies.^[28][68] A new House of Representatives was established in1944, elected by universal adult suffrage.^[28] During this period Jamaica's two-party systememerged, with the creation of the Jamaican Labour Party (JLP) under Alexander Bustamante and the People'sNational Party (PNP)under Norman Manley.^[28]

Jamaica slowly gained increasing autonomyfrom the United Kingdom. In 1958 it became a province in the Federationof the West Indies, afederation of several of Britain's Caribbeancolonies.^[28] Membership of the Federation proved to be divisive,however, and a referendum on the issue saw a slight majority voting to leave.^[28] After leaving the Federation, Jamaica attainedfull independence on 6 August 1962.^[28] The new state retained, however, its membership inthe Commonwealthof Nations (with the Britishmonarch as head of state) and adopted a Westminster-styleparliamentary system.Bustamante, at the age of 78, became the country's first prime minister.^[69][70]

Post-independenceera

Main article: Independence of Jamaica

Strong economic growth, averagingapproximately 6% per annum, marked the first ten years of independence underconservative JLP governments; these were led by successive Prime MinistersAlexander Bustamante, Donald Sangster (who died of natural causes within two months oftaking office) and Hugh Shearer.^[28] The growth was fuelled by high levels of privateinvestment in bauxite/alumina, tourism, themanufacturing industry and, to a lesser extent, the agricultural sector. Inthe 1967Jamaican general election, the JLPwere victorious again, winning 33 out of 53 seats, with the PNP taking 20seats.^[71]

In terms of foreign policy Jamaica became amember of the Non-Aligned Movement, seeking to retain strong ties with Britain and theUnited States whilst also developing links with Communist states such as Cuba.^[28]

The optimism of the first decade wasaccompanied by a growing sense of inequality among many Afro-Jamaicans, and aconcern that the benefits of growth were not being shared by the urban poor,many of whom ended up living in crime-ridden shanty towns in Kingston.^[28] This, combined with the effects of a slowdown inthe global economy in 1970,^{[citationneeded]} led to the voters electing thePNP under Michael Manley in 1972. The PNP won 37 seats to the JLP's 16.^[71]

Manley's government enacted various socialreforms, such as a higher minimum wage, land reform, legislation for women's equality, greaterhousing construction and an increase in educational provision.^[72][28] Internationally he improved ties with the Communistbloc and vigorously opposed the apartheid regime in South Africa.^[28]

In 1976, the PNP won another landslide,winning 47 seats to the JLP's 13. The turnout was a very high 85 percent.^[73] However, the economy faltered in this period due toa combination of internal and external factors (such as the oil shocks).^[28] The rivalry between the JLP and PNP became intense,and politicaland gang-related violence grewsignificantly in this period.^[28]

By 1980, Jamaica's gross national producthad declined to some 25% below its 1972 level.^{[citationneeded]} Seeking change, Jamaicans voted the JLP back in in 1980 under Edward Seaga, the JLP winning 51 seats to the PNP's nine seats.^[71][28] Firmly anti-Communist, Seaga cut ties with Cuba andsent troops to support the US invasionof Grenada in 1983.^[28] The economic deterioration, however, continued intothe mid-1980s, exacerbated by a number of factors. The largest andthird-largest alumina producers, Alpart and Alcoa,closed; and there was a significant reduction in production by thesecond-largest producer, Alcan.^{[citationneeded]} Reynolds Jamaica Mines, Ltd. left the Jamaicanindustry. There was also a decline in tourism, which was important to theeconomy.^{[citationneeded]} Owing to rising foreign and local debt, accompaniedby large fiscal deficits, the government sought InternationalMonetary Fund (IMF)financing, which was dependent on implementing various austerity measures.^[28] These resulted in strikes in 1985 and a decline insupport for the Seaga government, exacerbated by criticism of the government'sresponse to the devastation caused by Hurricane Gilbert in 1988.^[28][74] Having now de-emphasised socialism and adopting amore centrist position, Michael Manley and the PNP were re-electedin 1989, winning 45 seats tothe JLP's 15.^[75][28]

The PNP went on to win a string ofelections, under Prime Ministers Michael Manley (1989–1992), P. J. Patterson (1992–2005) and Portia Simpson-Miller (2005–2007). In the 1993Jamaican general election, Pattersonled the PNP to victory, winning 52 seats to the JLP's eight seats. Pattersonalso won the 1997Jamaican general election, by anotherlandslide margin of 50 seats to the JLP's 10 seats.^[73] Patterson's third consecutive victory came inthe 2002Jamaican general election, when thePNP retained power, but with a reduced seat majority of 34 seats to 26.Patterson stepped down on 26 February 2006, and was replaced by Portia Simpson-Miller, Jamaica's first female Prime Minister. The turnoutslowly declined during this period of time, from 67.4% in 1993 to 59.1% in2002.^[75]

During this period various economic reformswere introduced, such as deregulating the finance sector and floating theJamaican dollar, as well as greater investment in infrastructure, whilst alsoretaining a strong social safety net.^[28] Political violence, so prevalent in the previoustwo decades, declined significantly.^[28][76]

In 2007 the PNP was defeated by the JLP by a narrow marginof 32 seats to 28, with a turnout of 61.46%.^[77] This election ended 18 years of PNP rule, and Bruce Golding became the new prime minister.^[78] Golding's tenure (2007–2010) was dominated by theeffects of the global recession, as well as the fallout from an attempt by Jamaican police and military to arrest druglord Christopher Coke in 2010 which erupted in violence, resulting inover 70 deaths.^[28][79] As a result of this incident Golding resigned andwas replaced by Andrew Holness in 2011.

Independence, however widely celebrated inJamaica, has been questioned in the early 21st century. In 2011, a surveyshowed that approximately 60% of Jamaicans believe that the country would havebeen better off had it remained a British colony, with only 17% believing itwould have been worse off, citing as problems years of social and fiscalmismanagement in the country.^[80][81] Holness and the JLP were defeated in the 2011Jamaican general election, which sawPortia Simpson-Miller and the PNP return to power. The number of seats had beenincreased to 63, and the PNP swept to power with a landslide 42 seats to theJLP's 21. The voter turnout was 53.17%.^[82]

Holness's JLP won the 2016 general election narrowly, defeatingSimpson-Miller's PNP, on 25 February. The PNP won 31 seats to the JLP's 32. Asa result, Simpson-Miller became Opposition Leader for a second time. The voterturnout dipped below 50% for the first time, registering just 48.37%.^[83]

In the 2020 generalelection, Andrew Holness madehistory for the JLP by accomplishing a second consecutive win for the JamaicaLabour Party, winning 49 seats to 14 won by the PNP, led this time by PeterPhillips. The last time aconsecutive win occurred for the JLP was in 1980. However, the turnout at thiselection was just 37%, probably affected by the coronavirus pandemic.^[84]

Main article: Politics of Jamaica

Further information: Foreign relations of Jamaica and Republicanism in Jamaica

Jamaica is a parliamentary democracy and constitutionalmonarchy.^[11][85] The head of state is the King of Jamaica (currently King Charles III),^[86] represented locally by the Governor-Generalof Jamaica.^[87][11][85] The governor-general is nominated by the PrimeMinister of Jamaica and the entire Cabinet and then formally appointed by themonarch. All the members of the Cabinet are appointed by the governor-generalon the advice of the prime minister. The monarch and the governor-general servelargely ceremonial roles, apart from their reserve powers for use in certain constitutional crisissituations. The position of the monarch has been a matter of continuingdebate in Jamaica for many years; currentlyboth major political parties are committed to transitioning to a republic witha president.^[88][89]

Jamaica's current constitution was drafted in 1962 by a bipartisan joint committeeof the Jamaican legislature. It came into force with the Jamaica IndependenceAct, 1962, which was passed by the Parliamentof the United Kingdom, which gaveJamaica independence.^[85]

The Parliament of Jamaica is bicameral, consisting of the House of Representatives (LowerHouse) and the Senate (Upper House). Members of the House (known as Members ofParliament or MPs) are directly elected, and the member of theHouse of Representatives who, in the governor-general's best judgement, is bestable to command the confidence of a majority of the members of that House, is appointedby the governor-general to be the prime minister. Senators are nominatedjointly by the prime minister and the parliamentary Leader ofthe Opposition andare then appointed by the governor-general.^[85]

The Judiciary of Jamaica operates on a common law system derived from English law and Commonwealthof Nations precedents.^[85] The court of final appeal is the JudicialCommittee of the Privy Council,though during the 2000s Parliament attempted to replace it with the CaribbeanCourt of Justice.^{[citationneeded]}

Politicalparties and elections

Jamaica has traditionally had a two-party system, with power often alternating between the People'sNational Party (PNP)and Jamaica Labour Party (JLP).^[85] The party with current administrative andlegislative power is the Jamaica Labour Party, after its 2020 victory. Thereare also several minor parties who have yet to gain a seat in parliament; thelargest of these is the NationalDemocratic Movement (NDM).

Military

Main article: Jamaica Defence Force

The Jamaica Defence Force (JDF) is thesmall but professional military force of Jamaica.^[11] The JDF is based on the British military model withsimilar organisation, training, weapons and traditions. Once chosen, officercandidates are sent to one of several British or Canadian basic officer coursesdepending on the arm of service. Enlisted soldiers are given basic training atUp Park Camp or JDF Training Depot, Newcastle, both in St. Andrew. As with theBritish model, NCOs are given several levels of professional training as theyrise up the ranks. Additional military schools are available for specialitytraining in Canada, the United States and the United Kingdom.^{[citationneeded]}

The JDF is directly descended fromthe British Army's West India Regiment, which was formed during the colonial era.^[90] The West India Regiment was used extensivelythroughout the British Empire in policing the empire from 1795 to 1926. Otherunits in the JDF heritage include the early colonial Jamaica Militia, theKingston Infantry Volunteers of WWI and reorganised into the Jamaican InfantryVolunteers in World War II. The West Indies Regiment was reformed in 1958 aspart of the West IndiesFederation, after dissolution ofthe Federation the JDF was established.^[91]

The Jamaica Defence Force (JDF) comprisesan infantry Regiment and Reserve Corps, an Air Wing, a Coast Guard fleetand a supporting Engineering Unit.^[92] The infantry regiment contains the 1st, 2nd and 3rd(National Reserve) battalions. The JDF Air Wing is divided into three flightunits, a training unit, a support unit and the JDF Air Wing (National Reserve).The Coast Guard is divided between seagoing crews and support crews who conductmaritime safety and maritime law enforcement as well as defence-relatedoperations.^[93]

The role of the support battalion is toprovide support to boost numbers in combat and issue competency training inorder to allow for the readiness of the force.^[94] The 1st Engineer Regiment was formed due to anincreased demand for military engineers and their role is to provideengineering services whenever and wherever they are needed.^[95] The Headquarters JDF contains the JDF Commander,Command Staff as well as Intelligence, Judge Advocate office, Administrativeand Procurement sections.^[96]

In recent years the JDF has been called onto assist the nation's police, the JamaicaConstabulary Force (JCF),in fighting drug smuggling and a rising crime rate which includes one of thehighest murder rates in the world. JDF units actively conduct armed patrolswith the JCF in high-crime areas and known gang neighbourhoods. There has beenvocal controversy as well as support of this JDF role. In early 2005, anOpposition leader, Edward Seaga, called for the merger of the JDF and JCF. Thishas not garnered support in either organisation nor among the majority ofcitizens.^{[citationneeded]} In 2017, Jamaica signed the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.^[97]

Administrativedivisions

Main article: Parishes of Jamaica

Jamaica is divided into 14 parishes, which are grouped into three historic counties that have no administrative relevance.^[85]

In the context of local government the parishes are designated "LocalAuthorities". These local authorities are further styled as"Municipal Corporations", which are either city municipalities ortown municipalities.^[98] Any new city municipality must have a population ofat least 50,000, and a town municipality a number set by the Minister of LocalGovernment.^[98] There are currently no town municipalities.

The local governments of the parishes ofKingston and St. Andrews are consolidated as the city municipality of Kingston& St. Andrew Municipal Corporation. The newest city municipality created isthe Municipality of Portmore in 2003. While it is geographically located withinthe parish of St. Catherine, it is governed independently.

Jamaica is the third largest island in theCaribbean.^[99] It lies between latitudes 17° and 19°N, and longitudes 76° and 79°W. Mountains dominate the interior: the Don Figuerero,Santa Cruz, and May Day mountains in the west, the Dry Harbour Mountains in the centre, and the John Crow Mountains and BlueMountains in the east, thelatter containing Blue Mountain Peak, Jamaica's tallest mountain at 2,256 m.^[11][85] They are surrounded by a narrow coastal plain.^[100][11] Jamaica has two cities, the first being Kingston, thecapital city and centre of business, located on the south coast and the secondbeing Montego Bay, one of the best known cities in the Caribbean fortourism, located on the north coast. Kingston Harbour is the seventh-largest natural harbour in theworld,^[101] which contributed to the city being designated asthe capital in 1872. Other towns of note include Portmore, Spanish Town, Savanna la Mar, Mandeville and the resort towns of Ocho Ríos, Port Antonio and Negril.^[102]

Tourist attractions include Dunn's River Falls in St. Ann, YS Falls in St. Elizabeth, the BlueLagoon in Portland, adormant volcano's crater,^[103] and Port Royal, site of a major earthquake in 1692 that helped form theisland's Palisadoes tombolo.^[104]

Among the variety of terrestrial, aquaticand marine ecosystems are dry and wet limestone forests, rainforest, riparianwoodland, wetlands, caves, rivers, seagrass beds and coral reefs. Theauthorities have recognised the tremendous significance and potential of theenvironment and have designated some of the more "fertile" areas as"protected". Among the island's protected areas are the Cockpit Country, Hellshire Hills, and Litchfield forest reserves. In 1992, Jamaica'sfirst marine park, covering nearly 15 square kilometres (5.8 sq mi),was established in Montego Bay. PortlandBight Protected Area wasdesignated in 1999.^[105] The following year Blue and John Crow Mountains National Park was created, covering roughly 300 square miles(780 km²) of a wilderness area which supports thousands of treeand fern species and rare animals.

There are several small islands offJamaica's coast, most notably those in Portland Bight such as Pigeon Island, Salt Island, Dolphin Island, Long Island, Great Goat Island and Little Goat Island, and also Lime Cay located further east. Much further out – some50–80 km off the south coast – lie the very small Morant Cays and Pedro Cays.

Climate

The climate in Jamaica is tropical, withhot and humid weather, although higher inland regions are more temperate.^[106][85] Some regions on the south coast, such as theLiguanea Plain and the Pedro Plains, are relatively dry rain-shadow areas.^[107]

Jamaica lies in the hurricane belt of the Atlantic Ocean and because of this, the island sometimes sufferssignificant storm damage.^[108][85] Hurricanes Charlie and Gilbert hitJamaica directly in 1951 and 1988, respectively, causing major damage and manydeaths. In the 2000s (decade), hurricanes Ivan, Dean, and Gustav also brought severe weather to the island.

Floraand fauna

Jamaica's climate is tropical, supportingdiverse ecosystems with a wealth of plants and animals. Its plant life haschanged considerably over the centuries; when the Spanish arrived in 1494,except for small agricultural clearings, the country was deeply forested. TheEuropean settlers cut down the great timber trees for building and ships'supplies, and cleared the plains, savannas, and mountain slopes for intenseagricultural cultivation.^[85] Many new plants were introduced includingsugarcane, bananas, and citrus trees.^[85]

Jamaica is home to about 3,000 speciesof native flowering plants (of which over 1,000 are endemic and200 are species of orchid),thousands of species of non-flowering flora, and about 20 botanical gardens, some of which are several hundred years old.^[109][110] Areas of heavy rainfall also contain stands ofbamboo, ferns, ebony, mahogany, and rosewood. Cactus and similar dry-areaplants are found along the south and southwest coastal area. Parts of the westand southwest consist of large grasslands, with scattered stands of trees.Jamaica is home to three terrestrial ecoregions, the Jamaicanmoist forests, Jamaican dry forests, and GreaterAntilles mangroves. It had a2019 ForestLandscape Integrity Index meanscore of 5.01/10, ranking it 110th globally out of 172 countries.^[111]

Jamaica's fauna, typical of the Caribbean,includes highly diversified wildlife with many endemic species. As with otheroceanic islands, land mammals are mostly several species of bats ofwhich at least three endemic species are found only in Cockpit Country, one ofwhich is at-risk. Other species of bat include the fig-eating and hairy-tailed bats. The only non-bat native mammal extant in Jamaica isthe Jamaican hutia, locally known as the coney.^[85] Introduced mammals such as wild boar and the small Asian mongoose are also common. Jamaica is also home to about 50species of reptiles,^[112] the largest of which is the American crocodile; however, it is only present within the Black River anda few other areas. Lizards such as anoles, iguanas andsnakes such as racers and the Jamaican boa (the largest snake on the island), are common inareas such as the Cockpit Country. None of Jamaica's eight species of nativesnakes is venomous.^[113]

Jamaica is home to about 289 species ofbirds of which 27 are endemic including the endangered black-Billed parrots and the Jamaican blackbird, both of which are only found in Cockpit Country. It isalso the indigenous home to four species of hummingbirds (three of which are found nowhere else in theworld): the black-billedstreamertail, the Jamaican mango, the Vervain hummingbird, and red-billedstreamertails. Thered-billed streamertail, known locally as the "doctor bird", isJamaica's National Symbol.^[114][85] Other notable species include the Jamaican tody and the Greater flamingo,^[115]

One species of freshwater turtle is nativeto Jamaica, the Jamaican slider. It is found only on Jamaica and on a few islandsin the Bahamas. In addition, many types of frogs are common on theisland, especially treefrogs.

Jamaican waters contain considerableresources of fresh and saltwater fish.^[116] The chief varieties of saltwater fish are kingfish, jack, mackerel, whiting, bonito,and tuna.Fish that occasionally enter freshwater and estuarine environmentsinclude snook, jewfish, mangrove snapper, and mullets. Fish that spend the majority of their lives inJamaica's fresh waters include many species of livebearers, killifish, freshwater gobies, the mountain mullet, and the American eel. Tilapia havebeen introduced from Africa for aquaculture, and are very common. Also visiblein the waters surrounding Jamaica are dolphins, parrotfish, and the endangered manatee.^[117]

Insects and other invertebrates areabundant, including the world's largest centipede, the Amazoniangiant centipede. Jamaica isthe home to about 150 species of butterflies and moths, including 35 indigenousspecies and 22 subspecies. It is also the native home to the Jamaican swallowtail, the western hemisphere's largest butterfly.^[118]

Aquaticlife

Coral reef ecosystems are important becausethey provide people with a source of livelihood, food, recreation, andmedicinal compounds and protect the land on which they live.^[119] Jamaica relies on the ocean and its ecosystem forits development. However, the marine life in Jamaica is also being affected.There could be many factors that contribute to marine life not having the besthealth. Jamaica's geological origin, topographical features and seasonal highrainfall make it susceptible to a range of natural hazards that can affect thecoastal and oceanic environments. These include storm surge, slope failures(landslides), earthquakes, floods and hurricanes.^[120] Coral reefs in the Negril Marine Park (NMP),Jamaica, have been increasingly impacted by nutrient pollution and macroalgal blooms following decades ofintensive development as a major tourist destination.^[121]

Another one of those factors could includetourism: being that Jamaica is a very touristy place, the island draws numerouspeople traveling here from all over the world. The Jamaican tourism industryaccounts for 32% of total employment and 36% of the country's GDP and islargely based on the sun, sea and sand, the last two of these attributes beingdependent on healthy coral reef ecosystems.^[119] Because of Jamaica's tourism, they have developed astudy to see if the tourist would be willing to help financially to managetheir marine ecosystem because Jamaica alone is unable to. The ocean connectsall the countries all over the world, however, everyone and everything isaffecting the flow and life in the ocean. Jamaica is a very touristy placespecifically because of their beaches. If their oceans are not functioning attheir best then the well-being of Jamaica and the people who live there will startto deteriorate. According to the OECD, oceans contribute $1.5 trillion annuallyin value-added to the overall economy.^[122] A developing country on an island will get themajority of their revenue from their ocean.

Pollution

Pollution comes from run-off, sewagesystems, and garbage. However, this typically all ends up in the ocean after thereis rain or floods. Everything that ends up in the water changes the quality andbalance of the ocean. Poor coastal water quality has adversely affectedfisheries, tourism and mariculture, as well as undermining biologicalsustainability of the living resources of ocean and coastal habitats.^[120] Jamaica imports and exports many goods throughtheir waters. Some of the imports that go into Jamaica include petroleum andpetroleum products. Issues include accidents at sea; risk of spills throughlocal and international transport of petroleum and petroleum products.^[120] Oil spills can disrupt the marine life withchemicals that are not normally found in the ocean. Other forms of pollutionalso occur in Jamaica. Solid waste disposal mechanisms in Jamaica are currentlyinadequate.^[120] The solid waste gets into the water throughrainfall forces. Solid waste is also harmful to wildlife, particularly birds,fish and turtles that feed at the surface of the water and mistake floatingdebris for food.^[120] For example, plastic can be caught around birds'and turtles' necks, making it difficult to eat and breath as they begin togrow, causing the plastic to get tighter around their necks. Pieces of plastic,metal, and glass can be mistaken for the food fish eat. Each Jamaican generates1 kg (2 lbs) of waste per day; only 70% of this is collected byNational Solid Waste Management Authority (NSWMA)—the remaining 30% is eitherburnt or disposed of in gullies/waterways.^[123]

Environmentalpolicies

There are policies that are being put intoplace to help preserve the ocean and the life below water. The goal ofintegrated coastal zone management (ICZM) is to improve the quality of life ofhuman communities who depend on coastal resources while maintaining thebiological diversity and productivity of coastal ecosystems.^[120] Developing an underdeveloped country can impact theoceans ecosystem because of all the construction that would be done to developthe country. Over-building, driven by powerful market forces as well as povertyamong some sectors of the population, and destructive exploitation contributeto the decline of ocean and coastal resources.^[120] Developing practices that will contribute to thelives of the people but also to the life of the ocean and its ecosystem. Someof these practices include: Develop sustainable fisheries practices, ensuresustainable mariculture techniques and practices, sustainable management ofshipping, and promote sustainable tourism practices.^[120]

Further information: Demographics of Jamaica and Jamaican people

Ethnicorigins

Jamaica's diverse ethnic roots arereflected in the national motto "Out ofMany One People". Most ofthe population of 2,812,000 (July 2018 est.)^[11] are of African or partially African descent, withmany being able to trace their origins to the West African countries of Ghana and Nigeria.^[85][124] Other major ancestral areas are Europe,^[125] South Asia, and East Asia.^[126] It is uncommon for Jamaicans to identify themselvesby race as is prominent in other countries such as the United States, with mostJamaicans seeing Jamaican nationality as an identity in and of itself,identifying as simply being "Jamaican" regardless of ethnicity.^[127][128] A study found that the average admixture on theisland was 78.3% Sub-Saharan African, 16.0% European, and5.7% East Asian.^[129] Another study in 2020 showed that Jamaicans ofAfrican descent represent 76.3% of the population, followed by 15.1%Afro-European, 3.4% East Indian and Afro-East Indian, 3.2% Caucasian, 1.2%Chinese and 0.8% other.^[130]

The Jamaican Maroons of Accompong and other settlements are thedescendants of African slaves who fled the plantations for the interior wherethey set up their own autonomous communities.^{[131][132][133]} Many Maroons continue to have their own traditionsand speak their own language, known locally as Kromanti.^[134]

Asians form the second-largest group andinclude Indo-Jamaicans and Chinese Jamaicans.^[135] Most are descended from indentured workers broughtby the British colonial government to fill labour shortages following theabolition of slavery in 1838. Prominent Indian Jamaicans include jockey Shaun Bridgmohan, who was the first Jamaican in the Kentucky Derby, NBC Nightly News journalist Lester Holt, and Miss Jamaica World and Miss Universe winner Yendi Phillips. The southwestern parish of Westmoreland is famous for its large population ofIndo-Jamaicans.^[136] Along with their Indian counterparts, Chinese Jamaicans have also played an integral part in Jamaica'scommunity and history. Prominent descendants of this group include Canadianbillionaire investor Michael Lee-Chin, supermodels Naomi Campbell and Tyson Beckford, and VP Records founder Vincent"Randy" Chin.

There are about 20,000 Jamaicans whohave Lebanese and Syrian ancestry.^[137] Most were Christian immigrants who fled the Ottoman occupationof Lebanon in the early 19th century. Eventually their descendants became verysuccessful politicians and businessmen. Notable Jamaicans from this group includeformer Jamaican Prime Minister Edward Seaga, Jamaican politician and formerMiss World Lisa Hanna, Jamaican politicians Edward Zacca and Shahine Robinson, and hotelier Abraham Elias Issa.

The first wave of English immigrantsarrived to the island 1655 after conquering the Spanish, and they havehistorically been the dominant group. Prominent descendants from this groupinclude former American Governorof New York David Paterson, Sandals Hotels owner Gordon ButchStewart, United States Presidential Advisor and "mother" of the Pell Grant Lois Rice, and former United States National Security Advisor and Ambassador to the United Nations Susan Rice. The first Irish immigrants came to Jamaica in the 1600sas war prisoners and later, indentured labour. Their descendants include twoof Jamaica'sNational Heroes: PrimeMinisters Michael Manley and Alexander Bustamante. Along with the English andthe Irish,the Scots areanother group that has made a significant impact on the island. According tothe Scotland Heraldnewspaper, Jamaica has morepeople using the Campbell surnames than the population of Scotland itself,and it also has the highest percentage of Scottish surnames outside ofScotland. Scottish surnames account to about 60% of the surnames in theJamaican phone books.^{[citationneeded]} The first Jamaican inhabitants from Scotland wereexiled "rebels". Later, they would be followed by ambitiousbusinessmen who spent time between their great country estates in Scotland andthe island. As a result, many of the slave owning plantations on the islandwere owned by Scottish men, and thus a large number of mixed-race Jamaicans canclaim Scottish ancestry. High immigration from Scotland continued until wellafter independence.^{[citationneeded]} Today, notable Scottish-Jamaicans include thebusinessman John Pringle, former American Secretary of State Colin Powell, and American actress Kerry Washington.^[138]

There is also a significant Portuguese Jamaican population that is predominantly ofSephardic Jewish heritage.^{[139][140][141][142]} The first Jews arrived as explorers from Spain inthe 15th century after being forced to convert to Christianity or face death. Asmall number of them became slave owners and even famous pirates.^[143] Judaism eventually became very influential inJamaica and can be seen today with many Jewish cemeteries around the country.During the Holocaust Jamaica became a refuge for Jews fleeing persecution inEurope.^[144] Famous Jewish descendants include the dancehallartist Sean Paul, former record producer and founder of IslandRecords Chris Blackwell, and Jacob De Cordova who was the founder of the DailyGleaner newspaper.^{[145][146][147]}

In recent years immigration has increased,coming mainly from China, Haiti,Cuba, Colombia,and Latin America; 20,000 Latin Americans reside in Jamaica.^[148] In 2016, the Prime Minister Andrew Holnesssuggested making Spanish Jamaica's second official language.^[149] About 7,000 Americans also reside in Jamaica.^{[citationneeded]} Notable American with connection to the islandinclude fashion icon Ralph Lauren, philanthropist Daisy Soros, Blackstone's Schwarzman family, the family of the late Lieutenant Governor ofDelaware John W. Rollins, fashion designer Vanessa Noel, investor Guy Stuart, Edward and Patricia Falkenberg,and iHeart Media CEO Bob Pittman, all of whom hold annual charity events to support theisland.^[150]

Languages

Main articles: Jamaican Patois and Jamaican English

Jamaica is regarded as a bilingual country, with two major languages in use by thepopulation.^[151][135] The official language is English,which is "used in all domains of public life", including thegovernment, the legal system, the media, and education. However, the primaryspoken language is an English-basedcreole called Jamaican Patois (or Patwa). The two exist in a dialect continuum,with speakers using a different register of speech depending on context andwhom they are speaking to. "Pure" Patois, though sometimes seen asmerely a particularly aberrant dialect of English, is essentially mutuallyunintelligible with standard English and is best thought of as a separatelanguage.^[85] A 2007 survey by the Jamaican Language Unit foundthat 17.1 percent of the population were monolingual in Jamaican Standard English (JSE), 36.5 percentwere monolingual in Patois, and 46.4 percent were bilingual, although earliersurveys had pointed to a greater degree of bilinguality (up to 90 percent).^[152] The Jamaican education system has only recentlybegun to offer formal instruction in Patois, while retaining JSE as the"official language of instruction".^[153]

Additionally, some Jamaicans use one ormore of JamaicanSign Language (JSL), AmericanSign Language (ASL)or the declining indigenous JamaicanCountry Sign Language (KonchriSain).^[154] Both JSL and ASL are rapidly replacing Konchri Sainfor a variety of reasons.^[154]

Emigration

Main article: Jamaican diaspora

Many Jamaicans have emigrated to other countries, especially to the UnitedKingdom, the United States, and Canada. In the case of the United States, about20,000 Jamaicans per year are granted permanent residence.^[155] There has also been emigration of Jamaicans toother Caribbeans countries such as Cuba,^[156] Puerto Rico, Guyana,and The Bahamas. It was estimated in 2004 that up to 2.5 millionJamaicans and Jamaican descendants live abroad.^[157]

Jamaicans in the United Kingdom number an estimated 800,000 making them by far thecountry's largest African-Caribbeangroup. Large-scale migration from Jamaica to theUK occurred primarily in the 1950s and 1960s when the country was still underBritish rule. Jamaican communities exist in most large UK cities.^[158] Concentrations of expatriate Jamaicans are quite considerable in numerous citiesin the United States, including New York City, Buffalo, the Miami metro area, Atlanta, Chicago, Orlando, Tampa, Washington, D.C., Philadelphia, Hartford, Providence and Los Angeles.^[159] In Canada, the Jamaican population is centredin Toronto,^[160] with smaller communities in cities such as Hamilton, Montreal, Winnipeg, Vancouver and Ottawa.^[161] Jamaican Canadians comprise about 30% of theentire Black Canadian population.^[162][163]

A notable though much smaller group ofemigrants are Jamaicans in Ethiopia. These are mostly Rastafarians, in whose theologicalworldview Africa is the promised land, or "Zion", or morespecifically Ethiopia, due to reverence in which former Ethiopian Emperor Haile Selassie is held.^[164] Most live in the small town of Shashamane about 150 miles (240 km)south of the capital Addis Ababa.^[165]

Crime

Main article: Crime in Jamaica

See also: Prisonsin Jamaica and LGBT rights in Jamaica

When Jamaica gained independence in 1962,the murder rate was 3.9 per 100,000 inhabitants, one of the lowest in theworld.^[166] By 2009, the rate was 62 per 100,000 inhabitants,one of the highest in the world.^[167] Gang violence became a serious problem, withorganised crime being centred around Jamaican posses or "Yardies". Jamaica has had one of the highest murder ratesin the world for many years, according to UN estimates.^[168][169] Some areas of Jamaica, particularly poor areasin Kingston, Montego Bay and elsewhere experience high levels of crime andviolence.^[170]

However, there were 1,683 reported murdersin 2009 and 1,447 in 2010.^[171] After 2011 the murder rate continued to fall,following the downward trend in 2010, after a strategic programme was launched.^[172] In 2012, the Ministry of National Security reporteda 30 percent decrease in murders.^[173] Nevertheless, in 2017 murders rose by 22% over theprevious year.^[174]

Many Jamaicans are hostile towards LGBT and intersex people,^{[175][176][177]} and mob attacks against gay people have beenreported.^{[178][179][180]} Numerous high-profile dancehall and ragga artistshave produced songs featuring explicitly homophobic lyrics.^[181] Male homosexuality is illegal and punishable by imprisonment.^[182][183]

Majorcities

Main article: Religion in Jamaica

Christianity is the largest religion practised in Jamaica.^[85][11] About 70% are Protestants; Roman Catholics are just 2% of the population.^[11] According to the 2001 census, the country's largestProtestant denominations are the Church ofGod (24%), Seventh-dayAdventist Church (11%), Pentecostal (10%), Baptist (7%), Anglican (4%), United Church (2%), Methodist (2%), Moravian (1%)and Plymouth Brethren (1%).^[16] Bedwardism is a form of Christianity native to the island,sometimes viewed as a separate faith.^[184][185] The Christian faith gained acceptance as BritishChristian abolitionists and Baptist missionaries joined educated former slavesin the struggle against slavery.^[186]

The Rastafari movement has 29,026adherents, according to the 2011 census, with 25,325 Rastafarian males and3,701 Rastafarian females.^[16] The faith originated in Jamaica in the 1930s andthough rooted in Christianity it is heavily Afrocentric in its focus, reveringfigures such as the Jamaican black nationalist Marcus Garvey and Haile Selassie, the former Emperor of Ethiopia.^[187][85] Rastafari has since spread across the globe,especially to areas with large black or African diasporas.^[188][189]

Various faiths and traditional religiouspractices derived from Africa are practised on the island, notably Kumina, Convince, Myal and Obeah.^{[190][191][192]}

Other religions in Jamaica include Jehovah's Witnesses (2% population), the Bahá'í faith, which counts perhaps 8,000 adherents^[193] and 21 LocalSpiritual Assemblies,^[194] Mormonism,^[195] Buddhism,and Hinduism.^[196][197] The Hindu Diwali festival is celebrated yearly among the Indo-Jamaican community.^[198][199]

There is also a small population of about200 Jews, whodescribe themselves as Liberal-Conservative.^[200] The first Jews in Jamaica trace their roots back toearly 15th-century Spain and Portugal.^[201] Kahal KadoshShaare Shalom, also knownas the United Congregation of Israelites, is a historic synagogue located inthe city of Kingston.Originally built in 1912, it is the official and only Jewish place of worshipleft on the island. The once abundant Jewish population has voluntarilyconverted to Christianity over time.^{[citationneeded]} Shaare Shalom is one of the few synagogues in theworld that contains sand covered floors and is a popular tourist destination.^[202][203]

Other small groups include Muslims, whoclaim 5,000 adherents.^[16] The Muslim holidays of Ashura (knownlocally as Hussay or Hosay) and Eid havebeen celebrated throughout the island for hundreds of years. In the past, everyplantation in each parish celebrated Hosay. Today it has been called an Indiancarnival and is perhaps most well known in Clarendon where it is celebratedeach August. People of all religions attend the event, showing mutual respect.^[204][199]

Main article: Cultureof Jamaica

Music

Main article: Music of Jamaica

Though a small nation, Jamaican culture hasa strong global presence. The musical genres reggae, ska, mento, rocksteady, dub, and, morerecently, dancehall and ragga alloriginated in the island's vibrant, popular urban recording industry.^[205] These have themselves gone on to influence numerousother genres, such as punk rock (through reggae and ska), dub poetry, New Wave, two-tone, lovers rock, reggaeton, jungle, drum and bass, dubstep, grime and American rap music. Some rappers, such as The Notorious B.I.G., Busta Rhymes, and Heavy D, areof Jamaican descent.

Bob Marley is probably the best known Jamaican musician; withhis band the Wailers he had a string of hits in 1960s–70s, popularisingreggae internationally and going on to sell millions of records.^[206][207] Many other internationally known artists were bornin Jamaica, including Toots Hibbert, Millie Small, Lee"Scratch" Perry, Gregory Isaacs, Half Pint, Protoje, Peter Tosh, Bunny Wailer, Big Youth, Jimmy Cliff, Dennis Brown, Desmond Dekker, Beres Hammond, Beenie Man, Shaggy, Grace Jones, Shabba Ranks, Super Cat, Buju Banton, Sean Paul, I Wayne, Bounty Killer and many others. Bands that came from Jamaicainclude Black Uhuru, Third World Band, Inner Circle, Chalice Reggae Band, Culture, Fab Five and Morgan Heritage.

Literature

Main article: Jamaican literature

The journalist and author H. G. de Lisser used his native country as the setting for his manynovels.^[208] Born in Falmouth, Jamaica, de Lisser worked as a reporter for the Jamaica Times at a young age and in 1920 began publishing themagazine Planters' Punch. The White Witch of Rosehall is one ofhis better-known novels. He was named Honorary President of the Jamaican PressAssociation; he worked throughout his professional career to promote theJamaican sugar industry.

Roger Mais, a journalist, poet, and playwright wrote many shortstories, plays, and novels, including The Hills Were Joyful Together (1953), BrotherMan (1954), and Black Lightning (1955).^[209]

Ian Fleming, who had a home in Jamaica where he spent considerabletime, repeatedly used the island as a setting in his James Bond novels, including Live and LetDie, Doctor No, "For YourEyes Only", TheMan with the Golden Gun,and Octopussyand The Living Daylights.^[210]

Marlon James (1970), novelist has published three novels: JohnCrow's Devil (2005), The Book ofNight Women (2009)and ABrief History of Seven Killings (2014), winner of the 2015 Man Booker Prize.^[211]

Film

See also: List of Jamaican films

Jamaica has a history in the film industrydating from the early 1960s. A look at delinquent youth in Jamaica is presentedin the 1970s musical crime film The HarderThey Come,starring Jimmy Cliff as a frustrated (and psychopathic) reggae musician who descends into a murderous crimespree.^[212] Other notable Jamaican films include Countryman, Rockers, Dancehall Queen, One Love, Shottas, Out the Gate, Third World Cop and Kingston Paradise. Jamaica is also often used as a filming location, suchas the James Bond film Dr. No (1962), Papillon (1973) starring Steve McQueen, Cocktail (1988) starring Tom Cruise, and the 1993 Disney comedy Cool Runnings, which is loosely based on the true story of Jamaica'sfirst bobsled team trying to make it in the Winter Olympics.

Cuisine

Main article: Jamaican cuisine

The island is famous for its Jamaican jerk spice, curries and rice and peas which is integral to Jamaican cuisine. Jamaica isalso home to Red Stripe beer and JamaicanBlue Mountain Coffee.

Nationalsymbols

(From the JamaicaInformation Service)^[213]

·       Nationalbird: red-billedstreamertail (also calleddoctor bird) (a hummingbird, Trochilus polytmus)

·       Nationalflower – lignum vitae (Guiacum officinale)

·       Nationaltree: blue mahoe (Hibiscus talipariti elatum)

·       Nationalfruit: ackee (Blighiasapida)

·       Nationalmotto: "Out of Many, One People."

Sport

Main article: Sport in Jamaica

Sport is an integral part of national lifein Jamaica and the island's athletes tend to perform to a standard well abovewhat might ordinarily be expected of such a small country.^[14] While the most popular local sport is cricket, onthe international stage Jamaicans have tended to do particularly well at track andfield athletics.^[14][214]

The country was one of the venues of 2007 CricketWorld Cup and the West Indiescricket team is one of 12 ICC full member teams that participate ininternational Test cricket.^[215] The Jamaicanational cricket team competesregionally, and also provides players for the West Indies team. Sabina Park is the only Test venue in the island, but the GreenfieldStadium is also used forcricket.^[216][217]

Since independence Jamaica has consistentlyproduced world class athletes in track and field.^[14] Over the past six decades Jamaica has produceddozens of world class sprinters including Olympic and World Champion Usain Bolt, world record holder in the 100m for men at 9.58s, and200m for men at 19.19s. Other noteworthy Jamaican sprinters include Arthur Wint, the first Jamaican Olympic gold medalist; Donald Quarrie, Elaine Thompson double Olympic champion from Rio 2016 in the 100mand 200m, Olympic Champion and former 200m world record holder; Roy Anthony Bridge, part of the International Olympic Committee; Merlene Ottey; DelloreenEnnis-London; Shelly-Ann Fraser-Pryce, the former World and two time Olympic 100mChampion; Kerron Stewart; Aleen Bailey; Juliet Cuthbert; three-time Olympic gold medalist; VeronicaCampbell-Brown; Sherone Simpson; BrigitteFoster-Hylton; Yohan Blake; Herb McKenley; George Rhoden, Olympic gold medalist; Deon Hemmings, Olympic gold medalist; as well as Asafa Powell, former 100m world record holder and two-time 100mOlympic finalist and gold medal winner in the men's 2008 Olympic 4 × 100 m. American Olympic winner Sanya Richards-Ross was also born in Jamaica.

Association football and horse-racing are other popular sports in Jamaica. The nationalfootball team qualifiedfor the 1998 FIFA World Cup. Horse racing was Jamaica's first sport. Today, horseracing provides jobs for about 20,000 people including horse breeders,groomers, and trainers. Also, several Jamaicans are known internationally fortheir success in horse racing including Richard DePass, who once held theGuinness Book of World Records for the most wins in a day, Canadian awardswinner George HoSang, and American award winners Charlie Hussey, AndrewRamgeet, and Barrington Harvey.^[218]

Race car driving is also a popular sport inJamaica with several car racing tracks and racing associations across thecountry.^[219]

The Jamaicanational bobsled team wasonce a serious contender in the Winter Olympics, beating many well-established teams. Chess andbasketball are widely played in Jamaica and are supported by the Jamaica ChessFederation (JCF) and the Jamaica Basketball Federation (JBF),respectively. Netball isalso very popular on the island, with the Jamaicanational netball team calledThe Sunshine Girls consistently ranking in the top five in the world.^[220]

Rugby league has been played in Jamaica since 2006.^[221] The Jamaicanational rugby league team ismade up of players who play in Jamaica and from UK basedprofessional and semi professional clubs (notably in the Super League and Championship). In November 2018 for the first time ever, the Jamaicanrugby league team qualified for the Rugby LeagueWorld Cup after defeatingthe USA & Canada. Jamaica will play in the 2021 RugbyLeague World Cup inEngland.^[222]

According to ESPN, thehighest paid Jamaican professional athlete in 2011 was Justin Masterson, starting pitcher for the baseball team Cleveland Indians in the United States.^[223]

Main article: Education in Jamaica

The emancipation of the slaves heralded theestablishment of an education system for the masses. Prior to emancipationthere were few schools for educating locals and many sent their children off toEngland to access quality education.^{[citationneeded]} After emancipation the West Indian Commissiongranted a sum of money to establish Elementary Schools, now known as AllAge Schools. Most of these schools were established by the churches.^[224] This was the genesis of the modern Jamaican schoolsystem.

Presently the following categories ofschools exist:

·       Earlychildhood – Basic, infant and privatelyoperated pre-school. Age cohort: 2 – 5 years.

·       Primary – Publicly and privately owned (privately ownedbeing called preparatory schools). Ages 3 – 12 years.

·       Secondary – Publicly and privately owned. Ages 10 – 19 years.The high schools in Jamaica may be either single-sex or co-educationalinstitutions, and many schools follow the traditional English grammar school model used throughout the British West Indies.

·       Tertiary – Community colleges; teachers' colleges, with theMico Teachers' College (now The MICO University College) being the oldest,founded in 1836; the Shortwood Teachers' College (which was once an all-femaleteacher training institution); vocational training centres, colleges anduniversities, publicly and privately owned. There are five local universities:the Universityof the West Indies (MonaCampus); the Universityof Technology, Jamaica, formerlyThe College of Art Science and Technology (CAST); the NorthernCaribbean University, formerlyWest Indies College; the University of the Commonwealth Caribbean, formerly the University College of The Caribbean; andthe International University of the Caribbean.

Additionally, there are many community andteacher training colleges.

Education is free from the early childhoodto secondary levels. There are also opportunities for those who cannot affordfurther education in the vocational arena, through the Human Employment andResource Training-National Training Agency (HEART Trust-NTA) programme,^[225] which is opened to all working age nationalpopulation^[226] and through an extensive scholarship network forthe various universities.

Students are taught Spanish in school fromthe primary level upwards; about 40–45% of educated people in Jamaica knowssome form of Spanish.^{[citationneeded]}