Peoples of the Past: Babylonians by H.W.F. Saggs.
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DESCRIPTION: Hardcover with dustjacket: 192 pages. Publisher: University of Oklahoma Press; (1995). Dimensions: 9¾ x 7 inches; 1¾ pounds. Babylon stands with Athens and Rome as a cultural ancestor of western civilization. It was founded by the people of ancient Mesopotamia, who settled in the fertile crescent between the Tigris and the Euphrates rivers before the fourth millennium B.C. Some of the earliest experiments in agriculture and irrigation, the invention of writing, the birth of mathematics and the development of urban life all began there. Biblical associations are also numerous, from Nineveh to the Tower of Babel and the Flood.
In "Babylonians", H. W. F. Saggs describes the ebb and flow in the successive fortunes of the Sumerians, Akkadians, Amorites, and Babylonians who flourished in this region. Using evidence from pottery, cuneiform tablets, cylinder seals, early architecture and metallurgy, he illuminates the myths, religion, languages, trade, politics, and warfare, as well as the legacy, of the Babylonians and their predecessors.
During the twentieth century, collaboration by archaeologists from many nations has greatly increased the range of archaeological evidence, while work by linguists has gradually unlocked the secrets of the thousands of clay tablets recovered from the area. Today the historical record for some periods of ancient Mesopotamia is substantially better than for some centuries of Europe in the Christian era. Gaps and uncertainties remain, but Babylonians conveys a rich and fascinating picture of the development of this remarkable civilization from before the beginning of the third millennium B.C.
CONDITION: NEW. New hardcover w/dustjacket. University of Oklahoma (1995) 192 pages. Unblemished except for very faint (almost indiscernable) shelfwear to dustjacket and covers. Pages are pristine; clean, crisp, unmarked, unmutilated, tightly bound, unambiguously unread. Condition is entirely consistent with new stock from a traditional brick-and-mortar bookstore environment (such as Barnes & Noble, B. Dalton, Borders, etc.) wherein new books might show minor signs of shelfwear, consequence simply of being shelved and re-shelved. Satisfaction unconditionally guaranteed. In stock, ready to ship. No disappointments, no excuses. PROMPT SHIPPING! HEAVILY PADDED, DAMAGE-FREE PACKAGING! Meticulous and accurate descriptions! Selling rare and out-of-print ancient history books on-line since 1997. We accept returns for any reason within 30 days! #1681e.
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PLEASE SEE PUBLISHER, PROFESSIONAL, AND READER REVIEWS BELOW.
REVIEW: The people of ancient Mesopotamia, who settled in the "fertile crescent" between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers before the fourth millennium B.C., laid the foundations of Western civilization. Some of the earliest experiments in agriculture and irrigation, the invention of writing, the birth of mathematics and the development of urban life began there. Many fundamental developments in human society; from hunter-gatherer to farmer, from village to city-state; first occurred in this area. Biblical associations also are numerous, from Nineveh to the Tower of Babel and the Flood.
Professor H. W. F. Saggs describes the ebb and flow in the successive fortunes of the Sumerians, Akkadians, Amorites and Babylonians. Using evidence from pottery, cuneiform tablets, cylinder seals, early architecture and metallurgy; he illuminates the myths, religion, languages, trade, politics and warfare, as well as the legacy, of the Babylonians and their predecessors. Professor Henry W. F. Saggs is Professor Emeritus of Semitic Languages at University College, Cardiff, and the author of numerous books including "Civilization before Greece and Rome" (1989), "The Might that was Assyria" (1984), and "The Greatness that was Babylon" (1962).
REVIEW: Saggs describes the ebb and flow in the fortunes of the Sumerians, Akkadians, Amorites, and Babylonians, emphasizing their achievements in the formation of the city-state and the development of writing. Using evidence from pottery, cuneiform tablets, and early architecture, and numerous black-and-white and color photos, he illuminates the myths, religion, politics, and warfare of the Babylonians, and puts the numerous Biblical references to the Babylonian Empire in historical perspective.
REVIEW: H. W. F. Saggs' Babylonians is recommended for college-level students of ancient Mesopotamia: Professor Saggs uses evidence from pottery, architecture and metallurgy to recreate and examine the myths, religions, language, trade, politics, and warfare of the Babylonians and the predecessors. The book contains 12 color and 84 black-and-white illustrations as well as two maps.
REVIEW: Saggs puts together a very intriguing review of life in Early Mesopotamia, using archaeological evidence and historical texts. I thoroughly enjoyed this book. I highly recommend this book to any student doing research on the early settlements in the Sumer and Akkad region. The book covers briefly the Uruk period and in much more detail the Agade, Ur III, and Old Babylonian periods. Another book that you would also find of great interest is H. Crawford's book called "Sumer and the Sumerians". She examines the Uruk period in more detail than Saggs. Both books are of great value to professor, student, and history enthusiast alike.
REVIEW: Highly recommended for style and information. I found myself unable to put this book down. However, I feel that the title is a bit misleading in that while it does cover the Babylonians it also covers a whole lot more. To me the book served as an excellent summary of the history of ancient Mesopotamia from the Sumerians right on through the Babylonians. I borrowed it from the university library and ordered my own copy after I had read it.
REVIEW: This book really dishes out the skinny on ancient Mesopatamia. Saggs begins by describing the archaeologists and historians who rediscovered a lot of the ancient Mesopotamian history. Then he relates that history from the Neolithic all the way to the end of the Neo-Babylonian Empire. Saggs' style is quite lucid and the pictures add a lot to the material Saggs presents in this work. He really does an awesome job at introducing the amazing civilizations that made up ancient Mesopotamia. I highly recommend this book.
ADDITIONAL BACKGROUND:
Babylon: Babylon is the most famous city from ancient Mesopotamia whose ruins lie in modern-day Iraq 59 miles (94 kilometers) southwest of Baghdad. The name is thought to derive from bav-il or bav-ilim which, in the Akkadian language of the time, meant ‘Gate of God’ or `Gate of the Gods’ and `Babylon’ coming from the Greek. The city owes its fame (or infamy) to the many references the Bible makes to it; all of which are unfavorable. In the Book of Genesis, chapter 11, Babylon is featured in the story of The Tower of Babel and the Hebrews claimed the city was named for the confusion which ensued after God caused the people to begin speaking in different languages so they would not be able to complete their great tower to the heavens (the Hebrew word bavel means "confusion").
Babylon also appears prominently in the biblical books of Daniel, Jeremiah, and Isaiah, among others, and, most notably, The Book of Revelation. It was these biblical references which sparked interest in Mesopotamian archaeology and the expedition by the German archaeologist Robert Koldewey who first excavated the ruins of Babylon in 1899 A.D. Outside of the sinful reputation given it by the Bible, the city is known for its impressive walls and buildings, its reputation as a great seat of learning and culture, the formation of a code of law which pre-dates the Mosaic Law, and for the Hanging Gardens of Babylon which were man-made terraces of flora and fauna, watered by machinery, which were cited by Herodotus as one of the Seven Wonders of the World.
Babylon was founded at some point prior to the reign of Sargon of Akkad (also known as Sargon the Great) who ruled from 2334-2279 B.C. and claimed to have built temples at Babylon (other ancient sources seem to indicate that Sargon himself founded the city). At that time, Babylon seems to have been a minor city or perhaps a large port town on the Euphrates River at the point where it runs closest to the river Tigris. Whatever early role the city played in the ancient world is lost to modern-day scholars because the water level in the region has risen steadily over the centuries and the ruins of Old Babylon have become inaccessible.
The ruins which were excavated by Koldewey, and are visible today, date only to well over one thousand years after the city was founded. The historian Paul Kriwaczek, among other scholars, claims it was established by the Amorites following the collapse of the Third Dynasty of Ur. This information, and any other pertaining to Old Babylon, comes to us today through artifacts which were carried away from the city after the Persian invasion or those which were created elsewhere. The known history of Babylon, then, begins with its most famous king: Hammurabi (1792-1750 B.C.). This obscure Amorite prince ascended to the throne upon the abdication of his father, King Sin-Muballit, and fairly quickly transformed the city into one of the most powerful and influential in all of Mesopotamia.
Hammurabi’s law codes are well known but are only one example of the policies he implemented to maintain peace and encourage prosperity. He enlarged and heightened the walls of the city, engaged in great public works which included opulent temples and canals, and made diplomacy an integral part of his administration. So successful was he in both diplomacy and war that, by 1755 B.C., he had united all of Mesopotamia under the rule of Babylon which, at this time, was the largest city in the world, and named his realm Babylonia.
Following Hammurabi’s death, his empire fell apart and Babylonia dwindled in size and scope until Babylon was easily sacked by the Hittites in 1595 B.C. The Kassites followed the Hittites and re-named the city Karanduniash. The meaning of this name is not clear. The Assyrians then followed the Kassites in dominating the region and, under the reign of the Assyrian ruler Sennacherib (reigned 705-681 B.C.), Babylon revolted. Sennacherib had the city sacked, razed, and the ruins scattered as a lesson to others. His extreme measures were considered impious by the people generally and Sennacherib’s court specifically and he was soon after assassinated by his sons.
His successor, Esarhaddon, re-built Babylon and returned it to its former glory. The city later rose in revolt against Ashurbanipal of Nineveh who besieged and defeated the city but did not damage it to any great extent and, in fact, personally purified Babylon of the evil spirits which were thought to have led to the trouble. The reputation of the city as a center of learning and culture was already well established by this time. After the fall of the Assyrian Empire, a Chaldean named Nabopolassar took the throne of Babylon and, through careful alliances, created the Neo-Babylonian Empire. His son, Nebuchadnezzar II (604-561 B.C.), renovated the city so that it covered 900 hectares (2,200 acres) of land and boasted some the most beautiful and impressive structures in all of Mesopotamia.
Every ancient writer to make mention of the city of Babylon, outside of those responsible for the stories in the Bible, does so with a tone of awe and reverence. Herodotus, for example, writes: "The city stands on a broad plain, and is an exact square, a hundred and twenty stadia in length each way, so that the entire circuit is four hundred and eighty stadia. While such is its size, in magnificence there is no other city that approaches to it. It is surrounded, in the first place, by a broad and deep moat, full of water, behind which rises a wall fifty royal cubits in width and two hundred in height."
Although it is generally believed that Herodotus greatly exaggerated the dimensions of the city (and may never have actually visited the place himself) his description echoes the admiration of other writers of the time who recorded the magnificence of Babylon, and especially the great walls, as a wonder of the world. It was under Nebuchadnezzar II’s reign that the Hanging Gardens of Babylon are said to have been constructed and the famous Ishtar Gate built. The Hanging gardens are most explicitly described in a passage from Diodorus Siculus (90-30 B.C.) in his work Bibliotheca Historica Book II.10:
"There was also, because the acropolis, the Hanging Garden, as it is called, which was built, not by Semiramis, but by a later Syrian king to please one of his concubines; for she, they say, being a Persian by race and longing for the meadows of her mountains, asked the king to imitate, through the artifice of a planted garden, the distinctive landscape of Persia. The park extended four plethra on each side, and since the approach to the garden sloped like a hillside and the several parts of the structure rose from one another tier on tier, the appearance of the whole resembled that of a theater."
"When the ascending terraces had been built, there had been constructed beneath them galleries which carried the entire weight of the planted garden and rose little by little one above the other along the approach; and the uppermost gallery, which was fifty cubits high, bore the highest surface of the park, which was made level with the circuit wall of the battlements of the city. Furthermore, the walls, which had been constructed at great expense, were twenty-two feet thick, while the passage-way between each two walls was ten feet wide. The roofs of the galleries were covered over with beams of stone sixteen feet long, inclusive of the overlap, and four feet wide."
"The roof above these beams had first a layer of reeds laid in great quantities of bitumen, over this two courses of baked brick bonded by cement, and as a third layer a covering of lead, to the end that the moisture from the soil might not penetrate beneath. On all this again earth had been piled to a depth sufficient for the roots of the largest trees; and the ground, which was leveled off, was thickly planted with trees of every kind that, by their great size or any other charm, could give pleasure to beholder."
"And since the galleries, each projecting beyond another, all received the light, they contained many royal lodgings of every description; and there was one gallery which contained openings leading from the topmost surface and machines for supplying the garden with water, the machines raising the water in great abundance from the river, although no one outside could see it being done. Now this park, as I have said, was a later construction."
This part of Diodorus' work concerns the semi-mythical queen Semiramis (most probably based on the actual Assyrian queen Sammu-Ramat who reigned 811-806 B.C.). His reference to "a later Syrian king" follows Herodotus' tendency of referring to Mesopotamia as `Assyria'. Recent scholarship on the subject argues that the Hanging Gardens were never located at Babylon but were instead the creation Sennacherib at his capital of Nineveh. The historian Christopher Scarre writes:
"Sennacherib’s palace [at Nineveh] had all the usual accoutrements of a major Assyrian residence: colossal guardian figures and impressively carved stone reliefs (over 2,000 sculptured slabs in 71 rooms). Its gardens, too, were exceptional." Recent research by British Assyriologist Stephanie Dalley has suggested that these were the famous Hanging Gardens, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Later writers placed the Hanging Gardens at Babylon, but extensive research has failed to find any trace of them. Sennacherib’s proud account of the palace gardens he created at Nineveh fits that of the Hanging Gardens in several significant details."
This period in which the Hanging Gardens were allegedly built was also the time of the Babylonian Exile of the Jews and the period in which the Babylonian Talmud was written. The Euphrates River divided the city in two between an `old’ and a `new’ city with the Temple of Marduk and the great towering ziggurat in the center. Streets and avenues were widened to better accommodate the yearly processional of the statue of the great god Marduk in the journey from his home temple in the city to the New Year Festival Temple outside the Ishtar Gate.
The Neo-Babylonian Empire continued after the death of Nebuchadnezzar II and Babylon continued to play an important role in the region under the rule of Nabonidus and his successor Belshazzar (featured in the biblical Book of Daniel). In 539 B.C. the empire fell to the Persians under Cyrus the Great at the Battle of Opis. Babylon’s walls were impregnable and so the Persians cleverly devised a plan whereby they diverted the course of the Euphrates River so that it fell to a manageable depth. While the residents of the city were distracted by one of their great religious feast days, the Persian army waded the river and marched under the walls of Babylon unnoticed.
It was claimed the city was taken without a fight although documents of the time indicate that repairs had to be made to the walls and some sections of the city and so perhaps the action was not as effortless as the Persian account maintained. Under Persian rule, Babylon flourished as a center of art and education. Cyrus and his successors held the city in great regard and made it the administrative capital of their empire (although at one point the Persian emperor Xerxes felt obliged to lay siege to the city after another revolt).
Babylonian mathematics, cosmology, and astronomy were highly respected and it is thought that Thales of Miletus (known as the first western philosopher) may have studied there and that Pythagoras developed his famous mathematical theorem based upon a Babylonian model. When, after two hundred years, the Persian Empire fell to Alexander the Great in 331 B.C., he also gave great reverence to the city, ordering his men not to damage the buildings nor molest the inhabitants.
The historian Stephen Bertman writes, “Before his death, Alexander the Great ordered the superstructure of Babylon’s ziggurat pulled down in order that it might be rebuilt with greater splendor. But he never lived to bring his project to completion. Over the centuries, its scattered bricks have been cannibalized by peasants to fulfill humbler dreams. All that is left of the fabled Tower of Babel is the bed of a swampy pond.”
After Alexander’s death at Babylon, his successors (known as "The Diadochi", Greek for "successors") fought over his empire generally and the city specifically to the point where the residents fled for their safety (or, according to one ancient report, were re-located). By the time the Parthian Empire ruled the region in 141 B.C. Babylon was deserted and forgotten. The city steadily fell into ruin and, even during a brief revival under the Sassanid Persians, never approached its former greatness.
In the Muslim conquest of the land in 650 A.D. whatever remained of Babylon was swept away and, in time, was buried beneath the sands. In the 17th and 18th centuries A.D. European travelers began to explore the area and return home with various artifacts. These cuneiform blocks and statues led to an increased interest in the region and, by the 19th century A.D., an interest in biblical archaeology drew men like Robert Koldewey who uncovered the ruins of the once great city of the Gate of the Gods [Ancient History Encyclopedia].
Ancient Babylon: Babylon was a key kingdom in ancient Mesopotamia from the 18th to 6th centuries B.C. The city was built on the Euphrates river and divided in equal parts along its left and right banks, with steep embankments to contain the river's seasonal floods. Babylon was originally a small Akkadian town dating from the period of the Akkadian Empire circa 2300 B.C. The town became part of a small independent city-state with the rise of the First Amorite Babylonian Dynasty in the nineteenth century B.C.
After the Amorite king Hammurabi created a short-lived empire in the 18th century B.C., he built Babylon up into a major city and declared himself its king, and southern Mesopotamia became known as Babylonia and Babylon eclipsed Nippur as its holy city. The empire waned under Hammurabi's son Samsu-iluna and Babylon spent long periods under Assyrian, Kassite and Elamite domination. After being destroyed and then rebuilt by the Assyrians, Babylon became the capital of the short lived Neo-Babylonian Empire from 609 to 539 B.C.
The Hanging Gardens of Babylon was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, although a number of scholars believe these were actually in the Assyrian capital of Nineveh. After the fall of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, the city came under the rule of the Achaemenid, Seleucid, Parthian, Roman, and Sassanid empires. It has been estimated that Babylon was the largest city in the world from above 1770–1670 B.C., and again between about 612–320 B.C. It was perhaps the first city to reach a population above 200,000. Estimates for the maximum extent of its area range from 890 to 900 hectares (2,200 acres).
The remains of the city are in present-day Hillah, Babil Governorate, Iraq, about 85 kilometers (53 miles) south of Baghdad, comprising a large tell of broken mud-brick buildings and debris. The main sources of information about Babylon—excavation of the site itself, references in cuneiform texts found elsewhere in Mesopotamia, references in the Bible, descriptions in classical writing (especially by Herodotus), and second-hand descriptions (citing the work of Ctesias and Berossus)—present an incomplete and sometimes contradictory picture of the ancient city even at its peak in the sixth century B.C.
The English name "Babylon" comes from the Greek "Babylon", a transliteration of the Akkadian Babilim. The Babylonian name in the early 2nd millennium B.C. had been Babilli or Babilla, long thought to mean "gate of god" (Bab-Ili). In the Bible, the name appears as Babel, interpreted in the Hebrew Scriptures' Book of Genesis to mean "confusion", from the verb bilbél. Ancient records in some situations use Babylon as a name for other cities, including cities like Borsippa within Babylon's sphere of influence, and Nineveh for a short period after the Assyrian sack of Babylon.
The present-day site of ancient Babylon consists of a number of mounds covering an area of about 2 by 1 kilometer (1.24 × 0.62 miles) along the Euphrates to the west. Originally, the river roughly bisected the city, but the course of the river has since shifted so that most of the remains of the former western part of the city are now inundated. Some portions of the city wall to the west of the river also remain. Only a small portion of the ancient city (3% of the area within the inner walls; 1.5% of the area within the outer walls; 0.05% at the depth of Middle and Old Babylon) has been excavated.
Known remains include: Kasr—also called Palace or Castle, it is the location of the Neo-Babylonian ziggurat Etemenanki and lies in the center of the site. Amran Ibn Ali; the highest of the mounds at 25 meters, to the south. It is the site of Esagila, a temple of Marduk which also contained shrines to Ea and Nabu. Homera; a reddish colored mound on the west side. Most of the Hellenistic remains are here. Babil; a mound about 22 meters high at the northern end of the site. Its bricks have been subject to looting since ancient times. It held a palace built by Nebuchadnezzar.
Archaeologists have recovered few artifacts predating the Neo-Babylonian period. The water table in the region has risen greatly over the centuries and artifacts from the time before the Neo-Babylonian Empire are unavailable to current standard archaeological methods. Additionally, the Neo-Babylonians conducted significant rebuilding projects in the city, which destroyed or obscured much of the earlier record. Babylon was pillaged numerous times after revolting against foreign rule.
Most notably this occurred in the second millennium at the hands of the Hittites and Elamites, then by the Neo-Assyrian Empire and the Achaemenid Empire in the first millennium. Much of the western half of the city is now beneath the river, and other parts of the site have been mined for commercial building materials. Only the Koldewey expedition recovered artifacts from the Old Babylonian period. These included 967 clay tablets, stored in private houses, with Sumerian literature and lexical documents. Nearby ancient settlements are Kish, Borsippa, Dilbat, and Kutha. Marad and Sippar were 60 kilometers in either direction along the Euphrates.
Historical knowledge of early Babylon must be pieced together from epigraphic remains found elsewhere, such as at Uruk, Nippur, and Haradum. Information on the Neo-Babylonian city is available from archaeological excavations and from classical sources. Babylon was described, perhaps even visited, by a number of classical historians including Ctesias, Herodotus, Quintus Curtius Rufus, Strabo, and Cleitarchus. These reports are of variable accuracy and some of the content was politically motivated, but these still provide useful information.
References to the city of Babylon can be found in Akkadian and Sumerian literature from the late third millennium B.C. One of the earliest is a tablet describing the Akkadian king Šar-kali-šarri laying the foundations in Babylon of new temples for Annūnı̄tum and Ilaba. Babylon also appears in the administrative records of the Third Dynasty of Ur, which collected in-kind tax payments and appointed an ensi as local governor. The so-called Weidner Chronicle states that Sargon of Akkad (circa 23d century B.C. in the short chronology) had built Babylon "in front of Akkad". A later chronicle states that Sargon "dug up the dirt of the pit of Babylon, and made a counterpart of Babylon next to Akkad".
Van de Mieroop has suggested that those sources may refer to the much later Assyrian king Sargon II of the Neo-Assyrian Empire rather than Sargon of Akkad. The Book of Genesis, chapter 10, claims that king Nimrod founded Babel, Uruk, and Akkad. Ctesias, quoted by Diodorus Siculus and in George Syncellus's Chronographia, claimed to have access to manuscripts from Babylonian archives, which date the founding of Babylon to 2286 B.C., under the reign of its first king, Belus. A similar figure is found in the writings of Berossus, who according to Pliny, stated that astronomical observations commenced at Babylon 490 years before the Greek era of Phoroneus, indicating 2243 B.C.
Stephanus of Byzantium wrote that Babylon was built 1002 years before the date given by Hellanicus of Lesbos for the siege of Troy (1229 B.C.), which would date Babylon's foundation to 2231 B.C. All of these dates place Babylon's foundation in the 23rd century B.C.; however, cuneiform records have not been found to correspond with these classical (post-cuneiform) accounts. It is known that by around the 19th century B.C., much of southern Mesopotamia was occupied by Amorites, nomadic tribes from the northern Levant who were Northwest Semitic speakers, unlike the native Akkadians of southern Mesopotamia and Assyria, who spoke East Semitic.
The Amorites at first did not practice agriculture like more advanced Mesopotamians, preferring a semi-nomadic lifestyle, herding sheep. Over time, Amorite grain merchants rose to prominence and established their own independent dynasties in several south Mesopotamian city-states, most notably Isin, Larsa, Eshnunna, Lagash, and later, founding Babylon as a state. According to a Babylonian date list, Amorite[a] rule in Babylon began (circa 19th or 18th century B.C.) with a chieftain named Sumu-abum, who declared independence from the neighboring city-state of Kazallu.
Sumu-la-El, whose dates may be concurrent with those of Sumu-abum, is usually given as the progenitor of the First Babylonian Dynasty. Both are credited with building the walls of Babylon. In any case, the records describe Sumu-la-El’s military successes establishing a regional sphere of influence for Babylon. Babylon was initially a minor city-state, and controlled little surrounding territory; its first four Amorite rulers did not assume the title of king. The older and more powerful states of Assyria, Elam, Isin and Larsa overshadowed Babylon until it became the capital of Hammurabi's short lived empire about a century later.
Hammurabi (reigned 1792–1750 B.C.) is famous for codifying the laws of Babylonia into the Code of Hammurabi. He conquered all of the cities and city states of southern Mesopotamia, including Isin, Larsa, Ur, Uruk, Nippur, Lagash, Eridu, Kish, Adab, Eshnunna, Akshak, Akkad, Shuruppak, Bad-tibira, Sippar and Girsu, coalescing them into one kingdom, ruled from Babylon. Hammurabi also invaded and conquered Elam to the east, and the kingdoms of Mari and Ebla to the north west.
After a protracted struggle with the powerful Assyrian king Ishme-Dagan of the Old Assyrian Empire, he forced his successor to pay tribute late in his reign, spreading Babylonian power to Assyria's Hattian and Hurrian colonies in Asia Minor. After the reign of Hammurabi, the whole of southern Mesopotamia came to be known as Babylonia, whereas the north had already coalesced centuries before into Assyria. From this time, Babylon supplanted Nippur and Eridu as the major religious centers of southern Mesopotamia.
Hammurabi's empire destabilized after his death. Assyrians defeated and drove out the Babylonians and Amorites. The far south of Mesopotamia broke away, forming the native Sealand Dynasty, and the Elamites appropriated territory in eastern Mesopotamia. The Amorite dynasty remained in power in Babylon, which again became a small city state. Texts from Old Babylon often include references to Shamash, the sun-god of Sippar, treated as a supreme deity, and Marduk, considered as his son. Marduk was later elevated to a higher status and Shamash lowered, perhaps reflecting Babylon’s rising political power.
In 1595 B.C. the city was overthrown by the Hittite Empire from Asia Minor. Thereafter, Kassites from the Zagros Mountains of north western Ancient Iran captured Babylon, ushering in a dynasty that lasted for 435 years, until 1160 B.C. The city was renamed Karanduniash during this period. Kassite Babylon eventually became subject to the Middle Assyrian Empire (1365–1053 B.C.) to the north, and Elam to the east, with both powers vying for control of the city. The Assyrian king Tukulti-Ninurta I took the throne of Babylon in 1235 B.C.
By 1155 B.C., after continued attacks and annexing of territory by the Assyrians and Elamites, the Kassites were deposed in Babylon. An Akkadian south Mesopotamian dynasty then ruled for the first time. However, Babylon remained weak and subject to domination by Assyria. Its ineffectual native kings were unable to prevent new waves of foreign West Semitic settlers from the deserts of the Levant, including the Arameans and Suteans in the 11th century B.C., and finally the Chaldeans in the 9th century B.C., entering and appropriating areas of Babylonia for themselves. The Arameans briefly ruled in Babylon during the late 11th century B.C.
During the rule of the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–609 B.C.), Babylonia was under constant Assyrian domination or direct control. During the reign of Sennacherib of Assyria, Babylonia was in a constant state of revolt, led by a chieftain named Merodach-Baladan, in alliance with the Elamites, and suppressed only by the complete destruction of the city of Babylon. In 689 B.C., its walls, temples and palaces were razed, and the rubble was thrown into the Arakhtu, the sea bordering the earlier Babylon on the south. Destruction of the religious center shocked many, and the subsequent murder of Sennacherib by two of his own sons while praying to the god Nisroch was considered an act of atonement.
Consequently, his successor Esarhaddon hastened to rebuild the old city and make it his residence during part of the year. After his death, Babylonia was governed by his elder son, the Assyrian prince Shamash-shum-ukin, who eventually started a civil war in 652 B.C. against his own brother, Ashurbanipal, who ruled in Nineveh. Shamash-shum-ukin enlisted the help of other peoples subject to Assyria, including Elam, Persia, Chaldeans and Suteans of southern Mesopotamia, and the Canaanites and Arabs dwelling in the deserts south of Mesopotamia. Once again, Babylon was besieged by the Assyrians, starved into surrender and its allies were defeated.
Ashurbanipal celebrated a "service of reconciliation", but did not venture to "take the hands" of Bel. An Assyrian governor named Kandalanu was appointed as ruler of the city. Ashurbanipal did collect texts from Babylon for inclusion in his extensive library at Ninevah. After the death of Ashurbanipal, the Assyrian empire destabilized due to a series of internal civil wars throughout the reigns of Assyrian kings Ashur-etil-ilani, Sin-shumu-lishir and Sinsharishkun. Eventually Babylon, like many other parts of the near east, took advantage of the anarchy within Assyria to free itself from Assyrian rule.
In the subsequent overthrow of the Assyrian Empire by an alliance of peoples, the Babylonians saw another example of divine vengeance. Under Nabopolassar, a previously unknown Chaldean chieftain, Babylon escaped Assyrian rule, and in an alliance with Cyaxares, king of the Medes and Persians together with the Scythians and Cimmerians, finally destroyed the Assyrian Empire between 612 B.C. and 605 B.C. Babylon thus became the capital of the Neo-Babylonian (sometimes and possibly erroneously called the Chaldean) Empire. With the recovery of Babylonian independence, a new era of architectural activity ensued, particularly during the reign of his son Nebuchadnezzar II (604–561 B.C.).
Nebuchadnezzar ordered the complete reconstruction of the imperial grounds, including the Etemenanki ziggurat, and the construction of the Ishtar Gate—the most prominent of eight gates around Babylon. A reconstruction of the Ishtar Gate is located in the Pergamon Museum in Berlin. Nebuchadnezzar is also credited with the construction of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon—one of the seven wonders of the ancient world—said to have been built for his homesick wife Amyitis. Whether the gardens actually existed is a matter of dispute. German archaeologist Robert Koldewey speculated that he had discovered its foundations, but many historians disagree about the location.
Stephanie Dalley has argued that the hanging gardens were actually located in the Assyrian capital, Nineveh. Nebuchandnezzar is also notoriously associated with the Babylonian exile of the Jews, the result of an imperial technique of pacification, used also by the Assyrians, in which ethnic groups in conquered areas were deported en masse to the capital. Chaldean rule of Babylon did not last long; it is not clear whether Neriglissar and Labashi-Marduk were Chaldeans or native Babylonians, and the last ruler Nabonidus (556–539 B.C.) and his co-regent son Belshazzar were Assyrians from Harran.
In 539 B.C., the Neo-Babylonian Empire fell to Cyrus the Great, king of Persia, with a military engagement known as the Battle of Opis. Babylon's walls were considered impenetrable. The only way into the city was through one of its many gates or through the Euphrates River. Metal grates were installed underwater, allowing the river to flow through the city walls while preventing intrusion. The Persians devised a plan to enter the city via the river. During a Babylonian national feast, Cyrus' troops diverted the Euphrates River upstream, allowing Cyrus' soldiers to enter the city through the lowered water.
The Persian army conquered the outlying areas of the city while the majority of Babylonians at the city center were unaware of the breach. The account was elaborated upon by Herodotus, and is also mentioned in parts of the Hebrew Bible. Herodotus also described a moat, an enormously tall and broad wall cemented with bitumen and with buildings on top, and a hundred gates to the city. He also writes that the Babylonians wear turbans and perfume and bury their dead in honey, that they practice ritual prostitution, and that three tribes among them eat nothing but fish. The hundred gates can be considered a reference to Homer.
Following the pronouncement of Archibald Henry Sayce in 1883, Herodotus’s account of Babylon has largely been considered to represent Greek folklore rather than an authentic voyage to Babylon. Dalley and others have recently suggested taking Herodotus’s account seriously again. According to 2 Chronicles 36 of the Hebrew Bible, Cyrus later issued a decree permitting captive people, including the Jews, to return to their own lands. Text found on the Cyrus Cylinder has traditionally been seen by biblical scholars as corroborative evidence of this policy, although the interpretation is disputed because the text only identifies Mesopotamian sanctuaries but makes no mention of Jews, Jerusalem, or Judea.
Under Cyrus and the subsequent Persian king Darius I, Babylon became the capital city of the 9th Satrapy (Babylonia in the south and Athura in the north), as well as a center of learning and scientific advancement. In Achaemenid Persia, the ancient Babylonian arts of astronomy and mathematics were revitalized, and Babylonian scholars completed maps of constellations. The city became the administrative capital of the Persian Empire and remained prominent for over two centuries. Many important archaeological discoveries have been made that can provide a better understanding of that era.
The early Persian kings had attempted to maintain the religious ceremonies of Marduk, but by the reign of Darius III, over-taxation and the strain of numerous wars led to a deterioration of Babylon's main shrines and canals, and the destabilization of the surrounding region. There were numerous attempts at rebellion and in 522 B.C. (Nebuchadnezzar III), 521 B.C. (Nebuchadnezzar IV) and 482 B.C. (Bel-shimani and Shamash-eriba) native Babylonian kings briefly regained independence. However these revolts were quickly repressed and Babylon remained under Persian rule for two centuries, until Alexander the Great's entry in 331 B.C.
In October of 331 B.C., Darius III, the last Achaemenid king of the Persian Empire, was defeated by the forces of the Ancient Macedonian Greek ruler Alexander the Great at the Battle of Gaugamela. A native account of this invasion notes a ruling by Alexander not to enter the homes of its inhabitants. Under Alexander, Babylon again flourished as a center of learning and commerce. However, following Alexander's death in 323 B.C. in the palace of Nebuchadnezzar, his empire was divided amongst his generals, the Diadochi, and decades of fighting soon began. The constant turmoil virtually emptied the city of Babylon.
A tablet dated 275 B.C. states that the inhabitants of Babylon were transported to Seleucia, where a palace and a temple (Esagila) were built. With this deportation, Babylon became insignificant as a city, although more than a century later, sacrifices were still performed in its old sanctuary. Under the Parthian and Sassanid Empires, Babylon (like Assyria) became a province of these Persian Empires for nine centuries, until after A.D. 650. It maintained its own culture and people, who spoke varieties of Aramaic, and who continued to refer to their homeland as Babylon.
Examples of their culture are found in the Babylonian Talmud, the Gnostic Mandaean religion, Eastern Rite Christianity and the religion of the prophet Mani. Christianity was introduced to Mesopotamia in the 1st and 2nd centuries A.D., and Babylon was the seat of a Bishop of the Church of the East until well after the Arab/Islamic conquest. In the mid-7th century, Mesopotamia was invaded and settled by the expanding Muslim Empire, and a period of Islamization followed. Babylon was dissolved as a province and Aramaic and Church of the East Christianity eventually became marginalized.
Ibn Hauqal mentions a small village called Babel in the tenth century; subsequent travelers describe only ruins. Babylon is mentioned in medieval Arabic writings as a source of bricks, said to have been used in cities from Baghdad to Basra. European travelers in many cases could not discover the city's location, or mistook Fallujah for it. Twelfth-century traveler Benjamin of Tudela mentions Babylon but it’s not clear if he really went there. Others referred to Baghdad as Babylon or New Babylon and described various structures encountered in the region as the Tower of Babel. Pietro della Valle found the ancient site in the seventeenth century and noted the existence of both baked and dried mudbricks cemented with bitumen[Wikipedia].
Ancient Babylonians of Mesopotamia: The Babylonians began their rise to power in the region of Mesopotamia around 1900 BC. This was at a time when Mesopotamia was largely unstable, prone to conflict and invasion, and not at all unified. Known as the Old Babylonian Period this early period was characterized by over 300 years of rule of the Amorites. The Amorites had come from west of the Euphrates River. They formed an empire based in the city-state of Babylon. The empire was a monarchy. It had conquered the outer Amorite territories and united them into one kingdom. The Babylonian Empire thrived on an economy of trade with the city-states west of the Euphrates. Under the strict rule of Hammurabi sometime around 1750 BC the city of Babylon became the political and religious capital of the entire empire. King Hammurabi ran a tight ship, with his famous code of laws providing a steady environment where taxes were collected and affairs were run quite efficiently.
Babylonia was quite successful at taking control of nearby city-states. This was due in large part to their strong and disciplined army. Babylon’s influence was felt far and wide, as far away as the eastern Mediterranean regions. This phase of the Babylonian empire ended after a century and a half of thriving economy and cultural stimulus. This occurred when the city of Babylon fell to the Hittites in 1595 BC. Though Babylon was invaded by Hittite forces led by King Mursilis I, it remained capital of the foreign-led empire that replaced the former glory of the Babylonians. Succeeding the Hittites, the Kassites of Iran took over and renamed the city Kar-Duniash. For nearly 600 years this faction ruled over the western parts of Asia. Babylon was considered its holy city during this time known as the Kassite Period. Elsewhere in Mesopotamia the Assyrians continued to dominate.
There was a relatively peaceful coexistence between the Assyrians and Babylonians. Essentially the Assyrians gave Babylonia the latitude to enjoy quite a bit of power. When Babylonia felt its power and privileges were being strangled, they often attempted to rebel against Assyrian rule. When the last Assyrian king Ashurbanipal died in 627 BC, under the influence of Nabopolassar the Chaldean the Babylonians finally succeeded in a rebellion. The Assyrian city of Nineveh was taken in 612 BC., and Babylonia was gain in control of the entire region.
It was the nearly half-century rule of Nabopolassar’s son Nebudchadnezzar that again cemented Babylon as the center of the substantial Babylonian empire. This period of Babylonian history was known as the Chaldean Era of the Neo-Babylonian Empire. In 539 BC Persian king Cyrus mounted an invasion against the Babylonians. One of his first acts as the self-proclaimed successor of the Babylonian kings was to let the exiled Jews return to their homeland. Cyrus transferred power to his son Cambyses in 529 BC and died the following year. Immediately after Darius the Great seized power in Persia Babylonia briefly recovered its independence. Babylon was thus briefly under a native ruler, Nidinta-Bel, who took the name of Nebuchadnezzar III.
During this period Assyria to the north also rebelled. Nidinta-Bel/Nebuchadnezzar III purportedly reigned from October 521 to August 520 BC, when Darius’s Persian Achaemenid Empire retook Babylon by storm. A few years later in 514 BC Babylon again revolted and declared independence under the Armenian King Arakha. On this occasion after its recapture by the Persians, the walls of the city were partly destroyed. The Babylonian Kingdom effectively came to an end and the city fell into ruin. E-Saggila the great temple of Bel however still continued to be maintained and was a center of Babylonian patriotism [Ancient History Encyclopedia].
The Epic of Gilgamesh: Gilgamesh is the semi-mythic King of Uruk best known from The Epic of Gilgamesh (written circa 2150-1400 B.C.) the great Sumerian/Babylonian poetic work which pre-dates Homer’s writing by 1500 years and, therefore, stands as the oldest piece of epic Western literature. Gilgamesh’s father was the Priest-King Lugalbanda (who is featured in two poems concerning his magical abilities which pre-date Gilgamesh) and his mother the goddess Ninsun (the Holy Mother and Great Queen) and, accordingly, Gilgamesh was a demi-god who was said to have lived an exceptionally long life (the Sumerian King List records his reign as 126 years) and to be possessed of super-human strength.
Known as 'Bilgames’ in the Sumerian, 'Gilgamos’ in Greek, and associated closely with the figure of Dumuzi from the Sumerian poem The Descent of Inanna, Gilgamesh is widely accepted as the historical fifth king of Uruk whose influence was so profound that myths of his divine status grew up around his deeds and finally culminated in the tales found in The Epic of Gilgamesh. In the Sumerian tale of Inanna and the Huluppu Tree, in which the goddess Inanna plants a troublesome tree in her garden and appeals to her family for help with it, Gilgamesh appears as her loyal brother who comes to her aid.
In this story, Inanna (the goddess of love and war and one of the most powerful and popular of Mesopotamian deities) plants a tree in her garden with the hope of one day making a chair and bed from it. The tree becomes infested, however, by a snake at its roots, a female demon (lilitu) in its center, and an Anzu bird in its branches. No matter what, Inanna cannot rid herself of the pests and so appeals to her brother, Utu, god of the sun, for help. Utu refuses but her plea is heard by Gilgamesh who comes, heavily armed, and kills the snake.
The demon and Anzu bird then flee and Gilgamesh, after taking the branches for himself, presents the trunk to Inanna to build her bed and chair from. This is thought to be the first appearance of Gilgamesh in heroic poetry and the fact that he rescues a powerful and potent goddess from a difficult situation shows the high regard in which he was held even early on. The historical king was eventually accorded completely divine status as a god. He was seen as the brother of Inanna, one of the most popular goddesses, if not the most popular, in all of Mesopotamia.
Prayers found inscribed on clay tablets address Gilgamesh in the afterlife as a judge in the Underworld comparable in wisdom to the famous Greek judges of the Underworld, Rhadamanthus, Minos, and Aeacus. In "The Epic of Gilgamesh", the great king is thought to be too proud and arrogant by the gods and so they decide to teach him a lesson by sending the wild man, Enkidu, to humble him. Enkidu and Gilgamesh, after a fierce battle in which neither are bested, become friends and embark on adventures together. When Enkidu is struck with death, Gilgamesh falls into a deep grief.
Recognizing his own mortality through the death of his friend, questions the meaning of life and the value of human accomplishment in the face of ultimate extinction. Casting away all of his old vanity and pride, Gilgamesh sets out on a quest to find the meaning of life and, finally, some way of defeating death. In doing so, he becomes the first epic hero in world literature. The grief of Gilgamesh, and the questions his friend's death evoke, resonate with every human being who has wrestled with the meaning of life in the face of death. Although Gilgamesh ultimately fails to win immortality in the story, his deeds live on through the written word and, so, does he.
Since "The Epic of Gilgamesh" existed in oral form long before it was written down, there has been much debate over whether the extant tale is more early Sumerian or later Babylonian in cultural influence. The best-preserved version of the story comes from the Babylonian writer Shin-Leqi-Unninni (wrote 1300-1000 B.C.) who translated, edited, and may have embellished the original story. Regarding this, the Sumerian scholar Samuel Noah Kramer writes:
"Of the various episodes comprising The Epic of Gilgamesh, several go back to Sumerian prototypes actually involving the hero Gilgamesh. Even in those episodes which lack Sumerian counterparts, most of the individual motifs reflect Sumerian mythic and epic sources. In no case, however, did the Babylonian poets slavishly copy the Sumerian material. They so modified its content and molded its form, in accordance with their own temper and heritage, that only the bare nucleus of the Sumerian original remains recognizable. As for the plot structure of the epic as a whole - the forceful and fateful episodic drama of the restless, adventurous hero and his inevitable disillusionment - it is definitely a Babylonian, rather than a Sumerian, development and achievement."
Historical evidence for Gilgamesh’s existence is found in inscriptions crediting him with the building of the great walls of Uruk (modern day Warka, Iraq) which, in the story, are the tablets upon which he first records his great deeds and his quest for the meaning of life. There are other references to him by known historical figures of his time (26th century B.C.) such as King Enmebaragesi of Kish and, of course, the Sumerian King List and the legends which grew up around his reign.
In the present day, Gilgamesh is still spoken of and written about. A German team of Archaeologists claim to have discovered the Tomb of Gilgamesh in April of 2003 CE. Archaeological excavations, conducted through modern technology involving magnetization in and around the old riverbed of the Euphrates, have revealed garden enclosures, specific buildings, and structures described in The Epic of Gilgamesh including the great king’s tomb. According to legend, Gilgamesh was buried at the bottom of the Euphrates when the waters parted upon his death [Ancient History Encyclopedia].
Babylonian Trigonometry: A 3,700-year-old cuneiform tablet housed at Columbia University is inscribed with the world’s oldest and most accurate working trigonometric table, according to a report in The Guardian. Early twentieth-century scholars noted the Pythagorean triples on the tablet, but did not know how the numbers were used. Mathematicians Daniel Mansfield and Norman Wildberger of the University of New South Wales say the calculations on Plimpton 322, as the Babylonian tablet is known, describe the shapes of right triangles based on ratios, whereas modern trigonometric tables are based upon measurements of angles and circles.
Babylonian mathematicians used base 60 for their calculations, rather than base 10, which allowed for more accurate fractions. In addition, Mansfield and Wildberger explained that Plimpton 322 includes four columns and 15 rows of numbers, for a sequence of 15 right triangles decreasing in inclination. Based upon the mathematics, however, the broken table probably originally had six columns and 38 rows of numbers. The researchers think the large numbers on the table could have been used to survey land and calculate how to construct temples, palaces, and step pyramids [Archaeological Institute of America].
Present Day Babylon: Many challenges face the 4,000-year-old city of Babylon. Archaeologists agree that restoration work under Saddam Hussein in the 1980s inflicted damage on the ancient remains and continues to cause problems. The dictator began to build a replica of the palace of Nebuchadnezzar II on top of its ruins, and then, after the Gulf War, added a modern palace adjacent to it. In 2003, U.S. troops occupied the new palace. Visitors can see the basketball hoop they installed inside its walls. Concertina wire that was left behind has been reused to keep tourists away from a 2,500-year-old lion statue. An oil pipeline now runs through the eastern part of the site. “It goes through the outer wall of Babylon,” said tour guide Hussein Al-Ammari. Only two percent of Babylon has been excavated, but local development continues to encroach on the site [Archaeological Institute of America].
The Babylonian Goddess Ereshkigal: In Mesopotamian mythology, Ereshkigal ("Queen of the Great Earth") was the goddess of Kur, the land of the dead or underworld in Sumerian mythology. In later East Semitic myths she was said to rule Irkalla alongside her husband Nergal. Sometimes her name is given as Irkalla, similar to the way the name Hades was used in Greek mythology for both the underworld and its ruler, and sometimes it is given as Ninkigal ("Great Lady of the Earth" or "Lady of the Great Earth"). In Sumerian myths, Ereshkigal was the only one who could pass judgment and give laws in her kingdom. The main temple dedicated to her was located in Kutha.
In the ancient Sumerian poem Inanna's Descent to the Underworld Ereshkigal is described as Inanna's older sister. The two main myths involving Ereshkigal are the story of Inanna's descent into the Underworld and the story of Ereshkigal's marriage to the god Nergal. In ancient Sumerian mythology, Ereshkigal is the queen of the Underworld. She is the older sister of the goddess, Inanna. Inanna and Ereshkigal represent polar opposites. Inanna is the Queen of Heaven, but Ereshkigal is the queen of Irkalla. Ereshkigal plays a very prominent and important role in two particular myths.
The first myth featuring Ereshkigal is described in the ancient Sumerian epic poem of "Inanna's Descent to the Underworld." In the poem, the goddess, Inanna descends into the Underworld, apparently seeking to extend her powers there. Ereshkigal is described as being Inanna's older sister. When Neti, the gatekeeper of the Underworld, informs Ereshkigal that Inanna is at the gates of the Underworld, demanding to be let in, Ereshkigal responds by ordering Neti to bolt the seven gates of the Underworld and to open each gate separately, but only after Inanna has removed one article of clothing.
Inanna proceeds through each gate, removing one article of clothing at each gate. Finally, once she has gone through all seven gates she finds herself naked and powerless, standing before the throne of Ereshkigal. The seven judges of the Underworld judge Inanna and declare her to be guilty. Inanna is struck dead and her dead corpse is hung on a hook in the Underworld for everyone to see. Inanna's minister, Ninshubur, however, pleads with Enki and Enki agrees to rescue Inanna from the Underworld.
Enki sends two sexless beings down to the Underworld to revive Inanna with the food and water of life. The sexless beings escort Inanna up from the Underworld, but a horde of angry demons follow Inanna back up from the Underworld, demanding to take someone else down to the Underworld as Inanna's replacement. When Inanna discovers that her husband, Dumuzid, has not mourned her death, she becomes ireful towards him and orders the demons to take Dumuzid as her replacement.
The other myth is the story of Nergal, the plague god. Once, the gods held a banquet that Ereshkigal, as queen of the Underworld, could not come up to attend. They invited her to send a messenger, and she sent her vizier Namtar in her place. He was treated well by all, but for the exception of being disrespected by Nergal. As a result of this, Nergal was banished to the kingdom controlled by the goddess. Versions vary at this point, but all of them result in him becoming her husband. In later tradition, Nergal is said to have been the victor, taking her as wife and ruling the land himself.
It is theorized that the story of Inanna's descent is told to illustrate the possibility of an escape from the Underworld, while the Nergal myth is intended to reconcile the existence of two rulers of the Underworld: a goddess and a god. The addition of Nergal represents the harmonizing tendency to unite Ereshkigal as the queen of the Underworld with the god who, as god of war and of pestilence, brings death to the living and thus becomes the one who presides over the dead. In some versions of the myths, Ereshkigal rules the Underworld by herself, but in other versions of the myths, Ereshkigal rules alongside a husband subordinate to her named Gugalana.
In his book, "Sumerian Mythology: A Study of Spiritual and Literary Achievement in the Third Millennium B.C.", the renowned scholar of ancient Sumer, Samuel Noah Kramer writes that, according to the introductory passage of the ancient Sumerian epic poem, "Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Netherworld," Ereshkigal was forcibly abducted, taken down to the Underworld by the Kur, and was forced to become queen of the Underworld against her will. In order to avenge the abduction of Ereshkigal, Enki, the god of water, set out in a boat to slay the Kur.
The Kur defends itself by pelting Enki with rocks of many sizes and by sending the waves beneath Enki's boat to attack Enki. The poem never actually explains who the ultimate victor of the battle is, but it is implied that Enki wins. Samuel Noah Kramer relates this myth to the ancient Greek myth of the rape of Persephone, asserting that the Greek story is probably derived from the ancient Sumerian story. In Sumerian mythology, Ereshkigal is the mother of the goddess Nungal. Her son with Enlil is the god Namtar. With Gugalana, her son is Ninazu.
In later times, the Greeks and Romans appear to have syncretized Ereshkigal with their own goddess Hecate. In the heading of a spell in the Michigan Magical Papyrus, which has been dated to the late third or early fourth century A.D., Hecate is referred to as "Hecate Ereschkigal" and is invoked using magical words and gestures to alleviate the caster's fear of punishment in the afterlife [Wikipedia].
The Babylonian Goddess Ereshkigal: Ereshkigal (also known as Irkalla and Allatu) is the Mesopotamian Queen of the Dead who rules the underworld. Her name translates as "Queen of the Great Below" or "Lady of the Great Place". The word 'great' should be understood as 'vast,' not 'exceptional' and referred to the land of the dead which was thought to lie beneath the Mountains of Sunset to the west and was known as Kurnugia ('the Land of No Return'). Kurnugia was an immense realm of gloom under the earth, where the souls of the dead drank from muddy puddles and ate dust.
Ereshkigal ruled over these souls from her palace Ganzir, located at the entrance to the underworld, and guarded by seven gates which were kept by her faithful servant Neti. She ruled her realm alone until the war god Nergal (also known as Erra) became her consort and co-ruler for six months of the year. Erishkigal is the older sister of the goddess Inanna and best known for the part she plays in the famous Sumerian poem The Descent of Inanna (circa 1900-1600 B.C.).
Her first husband (and father of the god Ninazu) was the Great Bull of Heaven, Gugalana, who was killed by the hero Enkidu in The Epic of Gilgamesh. Her second husband (or consort) was the god Enlil with whom she bore a son, Namtar, and by another consort her daughter Nungal (also known as Manungal) was conceived, an underworld deity who punished the wicked and was associated with healing and retribution. Her fourth consort was Nergal, the only mate who agreed to remain with her in the realm of the dead.
There is no known iconography for Ereshkigal or, at least, none universally agreed on. "The Burney Relief" (also known as "The Queen of the Night", dating from Hammurabi's reign of 1792-1750 B.C.) is often interpreted as representing Ereshkigal. The terracotta relief depicts a naked woman with downward-pointing wings standing on the backs of two lions and flanked by owls. She holds symbols of power and, beneath the lions, are images of mountains. This iconography strongly suggests a depiction of Ereshkigal but scholars have also interpreted the work as honoring Inanna or the demon Lilith.
Although the relief most likely does depict Ereshkigal, and there are other similar reliefs of this same figure with varying details, it would not be surprising to find few images of her in art. Ereshkigal was the most feared deity in the Mesopotamian pantheon because she represented one's final destination from which there was no returning. In Mesopotamian belief, to create an image of someone or something was to invite the attention of the subject. Statues of the gods were thought to house the gods themselves, for example, and images on people's cylinder seals were thought to have amuletic properties.
A statue or image of Ereshkigal, then, would have directed the attention of the Queen of the Dead to the creator or owner, and this was far from desirable. Ereshkigal is first mentioned in the Sumerian poem The Death of Ur-Nammu which dates to the reign of Shulgi of Ur (2029-1982 B.C.). She was undoubtedly known earlier, however, and most likely during the time of the Akkadian Empire (2334-2218 B.C.). Her Akkadian name, Allatu, may be referenced on fragments predating Shulgi's reign. By the time of the Old Babylonian Period (circa 2000-1600 B.C.) Ereshkigal was widely recognized as the Queen of the Dead, lending support to the claim that the Queen of the Night relief from Hammurabi's reign depicts her.
Although goddesses lost their status later in Mesopotamian history, early evidence clearly shows the most powerful deities were once female. Inanna (later Ishtar of the Assyrians) was among the most popular deities and may have inspired similar goddesses in many other cultures including Sauska of the Hittites, Astarte of the Phoenicians, Aphrodite of the Greeks, Venus of the Romans, and perhaps even Isis of the Egyptians. The underworld in all these other cultures was ruled by a god, however, and Ereshkigal is unique in being the only female deity to hold this position even after gods supplanted goddesses and Nergal was given to her as consort.
Although Ereshkigal was feared, she was also greatly respected. The Descent of Inanna has been widely - and wrongly - interpreted in the modern day as a symbolic journey of a woman becoming her 'true self.' Written works may be interpreted in any reasonable way only insofar as that interpretation can be supported by the text. The Descent of Inanna certainly lends itself to a Jungian interpretation of a journey to wholeness by confronting one's darker half, but this would not have been the original meaning of the poem nor is that interpretation supported by the work itself. Far from praising Inanna, or presenting her as some heroic archetype, the poem shows her as selfish and self-serving and, further, ends with praise for Ereshkigal, not Inanna.
Inanna/Ishtar is frequently depicted in Mesopotamian literature as a woman who largely thinks only of herself and her own desires, often at the expense of others. In The Epic of Gilgamesh, her sexual advances are spurned by the hero and so she sends her sister's husband, Gugulana, The Bull of Heaven, to destroy Gilgamesh's realm. After hundreds of people are killed by the bull's rampage, it is killed by Enkidu, the friend and comrade-in-arms of Gilgamesh. Enkidu is condemned by the gods for killing a deity and sentenced to die; the event which then sends Gilgamesh on his quest for immortality. In the Gilgamesh story, Inanna/Ishtar only thinks of herself and the same is true in The Descent of Inanna.
The work begins by stating how Inanna chooses to travel to the underworld to attend Gugulana's funeral - a death she brought about - and details how she is treated when she arrives. Ereshkigal is not happy to hear her sister is at the gates and instructs Neti to make her remove various articles of clothing and ornaments at each of the seven gates before admitting her to the throne room. By the time Inanna stands before Ereshkigal she is naked, and after the Annuna of the Dead pass judgment against her, Ereshkigal kills her sister and hangs her corpse on the wall.
It is only through Inanna's cleverness in previously instructing her servant Ninshubur what to do, and Ninshubur's ability to persuade the gods in favor of her mistress, that Inanna is resurrected. Even so, Inanna's consort Dumuzi and his sister (agricultural dying and reviving deities) then need to take her place in the underworld because it is the land of no return and no soul can come back without finding a replacement. The main character of the piece is not Inanna but Ereshkigal. The queen acts on the judgment of her advisors, the Annuna, who recognize that Inanna is guilty of causing Gugulana's death.
The text reads: "The annuna, the judges of the underworld, surrounded her. They passed judgment against her. Then Ereshkigal fastened on Inanna the eye of death. She spoke against her the word of wrath. She uttered against her the cry of guilt. She struck her. Inanna was turned into a corpse. A piece of rotting meat. And was hung from a hook on the wall."
Inanna is judged and executed for her crime, but she has obviously foreseen this possibility and left instructions with her servant Ninshubur. After three days and three nights waiting for Inanna, Ninshubur follows the commands of the goddess, goes to Inanna’s father-god Enki for help, and receives two galla (androgynous demons) to help her in returning Inanna to the earth. The galla enter the underworld "like flies" and, following Enki’s specific instructions, attach themselves closely to Ereshkigal. The Queen of the Dead is seen in distress: "No linen was spread over her body. Her breasts were uncovered. Her hair swirled around her head like leeks."
The poem continues to describe the queen experiencing the pains of labor. The galla sympathize with the queen’s pains, and she, in gratitude, offers them whatever gift they ask for. As ordered by Enki, the galla respond, "We wish only the corpse that hangs from the hook on the wall" (Wolkstein and Kramer, 67) and Ereshkigal gives it to them. The galla revive Inanna with the food and water of life, and she rises from the dead. It is at this point, after Inanna leaves and is given back all that Neti took from her at the seven gates, that someone else must be found to take Inanna's place.
Her husband Dumuzi is chosen by Inanna and his sister Geshtinanna volunteers to go with him; Dumuzi will remain in the underworld for six months and Geshtinanna for the other six while Inanna, who caused all the problems in the first place, goes on to do as she pleases. "The Descent of Inanna" would have resonated with an ancient audience in the same way it does today if one understands who the central character actually is. The poem ends with the lines: "Holy Ereshkigal! Great is your renown! Holy Ereshkigal! I sing your praises!"
Ereshkigal is chosen as the main character of the work because of her position as the formidable Queen of the Dead, and the message of the poem relates to injustice: if a goddess as powerful as Ereshkigal can be denied justice and endure the sting then so can anyone reading or hearing the poem recited. Ereshkigal reigns over her kingdom alone until the war god Nergal becomes her consort. In one version of the story, Nergal is seduced by the queen when he visits the underworld, leaves her after seven days of love-making, but then returns to stay with her for six months of the year.
Versions of the story have been found in Egypt (among the Amarna Letters) dating to the 15th century B.C. and at Sultantepe, site of an ancient Assyrian city, dated to the 7th century B.C.; but the best-known version, dating from the Neo-Babylonian Period (circa 626-539 B.C.), has Enki manipulating the events which send Nergal to the underworld as consort to the Queen of the Dead. One day the gods prepared a great banquet to which everyone was invited. Ereshkigal could not attend, however, because she could not leave the underworld and the gods could not descend to hold their banquet there because they would afterwards be unable to leave. The god Enki sent a message to Ereshkigal to send a servant who could bring her back her share of the feast, and she sent her son Namtar.
When Namtar arrived at the gods' banquet hall, they all stood out of respect for his mother except for the war god Nergal. Namtar was insulted and wanted the wrong redressed, but Enki told him to simply return to the underworld and tell his mother what happened. When Ereshkigal hears of the disrespect of Nergal, she tells Namtar to send a message back to Enki demanding that Nergal be sent so she could kill him. The gods confer on this request and recognize its legitimacy and so Nergal is told he must journey to the underworld.
Enki has understood this would happen, of course, and provides Nergal with 14 demon escorts to assist him at each of the seven gates of the underworld. When Nergal arrives, his presence is announced by Neti, and Namtar tells his mother that the god who would not rise has come. Ereshkigal gives orders that he is to be admitted through each of the seven gates which should then be barred behind him and she will kill him when he reaches the throne room. After passing through each gate, however, Nergal posts two of his demon escorts to keep it open and marches to the throne room where he overpowers Namtar and drags Ereshkigal to the floor.
He raises his great axe to cut off her head, but she pleads with him to spare her, promising to be his wife if he agrees and share her power with him. Nergal consents and seems to feel sorry for what he has done. The poem ends with the two kissing and the promise that they will remain together. Since Nergal was often causing problems on earth by losing his temper and causing war and strife, it has been suggested that Enki arranged the entire scenario to get him out of the way. War was recognized as a part of the human experience, however, and so Nergal could not remain in the underworld permanently but had to return to the surface for six months out of the year.
Since he had posted his demon escorts at the gates, had arrived of his own free will, and been invited to stay as consort by the queen, Nergal was able to leave without having to find a replacement. As in "The Descent of Inanna", the symbolism of The Marriage of Ereshkigal and Nergal (either version) touches on the same themes as the Greek story of the Demeter, goddess of nature and bounty, and her daughter Persephone who is abducted by Hades. In the Greek tale, having eaten of the fruit of the dead, Persephone must spend half a year in the underworld with Hades and, during this time, Demeter mourned the loss of her daughter.
This story explained the seasons in that when Demeter and Persephone were together, the world was in bloom, but when Persephone returned to the underworld, nothing would grow and the earth was cold. The Descent of Inanna corresponds directly while The Marriage of Ereshkigal and Nergal explains the seasons of war since conflicts were waged only in certain seasons. Ereshkigal is always represented in prayers and rituals as a formidable goddess of great power but often in stories as one who forgives an injustice or a wrong in the interests of the greater good.
In this role, she encouraged piety in the people who should follow her example in their own lives. If Ereshkigal could suffer injustice and continue to perform her tasks in accordance with the will of the gods, then human beings should do no less. Her further significance was as the ruler of the underworld by which she was understood to reward the good and punish the evil, of course, but more importantly to keep the dead in the realm where they belonged. The seven gates of the underworld were not constructed to keep anyone out but rather to keep everyone who belonged there in.
A cult of the dead grew up around Ereshkigal to honor those who had passed into her realm and continue to remember and care for them. Since the dead had nothing but muddy water to drink and dust to eat, food was placed and fresh water poured on tombs, which was thought to trickle down to the mouth of the departed. Scholar E. A. Wallis Budge writes:
"The tears of the living comforted the dead and their lamentations and dirges consoled them. To satisfy the cravings of the dead these offerings were sometimes made by priests who devoted their lives to the cult of the dead, and the kinsmen of the dead often employed them to recite incantations that would have the effect of bettering the lot of the dead in the dread kingdom of Ereshkigal...The chief object of all such pious acts was to benefit the dead but underneath it all was the fervent desire of the living to keep the dead in the underworld. The living were afraid lest the dead should return to this world and it was necessary to avoid such a calamity at all costs."
Ereshkigal, as with all the gods of Mesopotamia, maintained order and stood against the forces of chaos. Those souls who had left the world of the living were not supposed to return, and Ereshkigal made certain they remained where they belonged. If a ghost should come back to haunt the living, one could be sure it was for a good reason and with Ereshkigal's permission. As in other cultures, the main reasons for a haunting were improper burial of the dead or impious acts which had gone unpunished. As queen and guardian of the dead, Ereshkigal stood as a potent reminder to the living to observe the proper rites and rituals in their lives and to act in the best interests of their immediate and larger communities [Ancient History Encyclopedia].
The Babylonian Goddess Lilitu: Lilith (evolved from the Babylonian Lilitu) is a figure in Jewish mythology, developed earliest in the Babylonian Talmud (3rd to 5th centuries). Lilith is often envisioned as a dangerous demon of the night, who is sexually wanton, and who steals babies in the darkness. The character is generally thought to derive in part from a historically far earlier class of female demons (lilītu) in ancient Mesopotamian religion, found in cuneiform texts of Sumer, the Akkadian Empire, Assyria, and Babylonia.
In Jewish folklore, from the satirical book Alphabet of Sirach (circa 700–1000) onwards, Lilith appears as Adam's first wife, who was created at the same time (Rosh Hashanah) and from the same dirt as Adam – compare Genesis 1:27. This contrasts with Eve, who was created from one of Adam's ribs: Genesis 2:22. The legend developed extensively during the Middle Ages, in the tradition of Aggadah, the Zohar, and Jewish mysticism.
For example, in the 13th-century writings of Isaac ben Jacob ha-Cohen, Lilith left Adam after she refused to become subservient to him and then would not return to the Garden of Eden after she had coupled with the archangel Samael. Evidence in later Jewish materials is plentiful, but little information has survived relating to the original Sumerian, Akkadian, Assyrian and Babylonian view of these demons [AncientGifts].
History of Mesopotamia: The oldest known communities in Mesopotamia are thought to date from 9,000 B.C., and include the ancient city of Babylon. Several civilizations flourished in the fertile area created as the Tigris and Euphrates rivers flow south out of Turkey. The river valleys and plains of Mesopotamia, often referred to as the “fertile crescent”, lay between the two rivers, which are about 250 miles apart from one another. The ancient Sumerians and Babylonians were inhabitants of Mesopotamia, located in a region that included parts of what is now eastern Syria, southeastern Turkey, and most of Iraq, lay between two rivers, the Tigris and the Euphrates. According to the Bible, Abraham came from this area. The area is commonly referred to as "the fertile crescent" by historians and archaeologists.
By 4,000 B.C. large cities had grown up in the region. Considered one of the cradles of civilization, the region is referred to frequently in The Bible, and is mentioned as the birthplace of Abraham. The region produced the first written records, as well as the wheel. The region was conquered by the Akkadians in the 24th century B.C. who ruled for about two centuries. The ancient city of Ur controlled the region for the next two centuries until about 2,000 B.C. Mesopotamia was not again united until about 1750 B.C., then the Kingdom of Babylon arose and reigned supreme in the area for about one and one-half centuries.
The Babylonians in turn were conquered by Hittites from Turkey in about 1595 B.C. The longest control of the area was by the ancient Assyrians, who ruled the area from about 1350 B.C. through about 600 B.C. After a brief interlude of chaos, the Persians conquered the area and held it for three centuries until Persian and all of its territories were conquered by Alexander the Great in the last 4th century B.C. However the Greeks only held the region for about one century, before it again fell to the Persians. The Persians and Romans wrestled over the area for a number of centuries. Finally in the 7th century A.D. the area of Mesopotamia fell to the Islamic Empire [AncientGifts].
Mesopotamia, Land Between the Rivers: The term “Mesopotamia” is from the Greek, meaning 'between two rivers’. Mesopotamia was a region in the ancient world located in the eastern Mediterranean. It was bounded in the northeast by the Zagros Mountains and in the southeast by the Arabian Plateau. The region corresponds to the greatest degree to today’s Iraq, but also includes parts of modern-day Iran, Syria and Turkey. The 'two rivers' of the name referred to the Tigris and the Euphrates rivers and the land was known as 'Al-Jazirah' (the island) by the Arabs. The classical term for the region was the “Fertile Crescent” as coined by Egyptologist J.H. Breasted.
Unlike the more unified civilizations of Egypt or Greece, Mesopotamia was a collection of varied cultures. Their only real bonds were their script, their gods, and their attitude toward women. The social customs, laws, and even language of Akkad, for example, cannot be assumed to correspond to those of Babylon. It does seem however, that the rights of women, the importance of literacy, and the pantheon of the gods were indeed shared throughout the region. However even the gods had different names in various regions and periods. As a result of this Mesopotamia should be more properly understood as a region that produced multiple empires and civilizations rather than any single civilization.
Even so Mesopotamia is known as the “cradle of civilization” primarily because of two developments that occurred there in the region of Sumer in the 4th millennium BC. First was the rise of the city as we recognize that entity today. Second was the invention of writing. It is important to note however that writing is also known to have developed in Egypt, in the Indus Valley, in China, and to have taken form independently in Mesoamerica. The invention of the wheel is also credited to the Mesopotamians. In 1922 the archaeologist Sir Leonard Woolley discovered at the site of the ancient city of Ur, “the remains of two four-wheeled wagons, the oldest wheeled vehicles in history ever found, along with their leather tires”.
Other important developments or inventions credited to the Mesopotamians include, but are by no means limited to, domestication of animals, agriculture, common tools, sophisticated weaponry and warfare, the chariot, wine, beer, demarcation of time into hours, minutes, and seconds, religious rites, sails for sailboats, and irrigation. In fact Orientalist Samuel Noah Kramer has listed 39 `firsts' in human civilization that originated in Sumer. Archaeological excavations starting in the 1840s have revealed human settlements dating back to 10,000 BC in Mesopotamia. The settlements indicate that the fertile conditions of the land between two rivers allowed an ancient hunter-gatherer people to settle in the land, domesticate animals, and turn their attention to agriculture. Trade soon followed, and with prosperity came urbanization and the birth of the city. It is generally thought that writing was invented due to trade, out of the necessity for long-distance communication, and for keeping more careful track of accounts.
Mesopotamia was known in antiquity as a seat of learning. Historians believe that “Thales of Miletus”, known as the 'first philosopher', studied there around 585BC. As the Babylonians believed that water was the 'first principle' from which all else flowed, and as Thales is famous for that very claim, it seems probable he studied in the region. Intellectual pursuits were highly valued across Mesopotamia. Schools were devoted primarily to the priestly class. Historical accounts state that schools were as numerous as temples. The schools taught reading, writing, religion, law, medicine, and astrology.
There were over 1,000 deities in the pantheon of the gods of the Mesopotamian cultures. There were as well many stories concerning the gods. Principal amongst them was the creation myth, the “Enuma Elish”. It is generally accepted that biblical tales such as the Fall of Man and the Flood of Noah, among many others, originated in Mesopotamian myth. These tales first appear in Mesopotamian works such as “The Myth of Adapa” and the “Epic of Gilgamesh”, and were adopted by and adapted to Christianity. The “Epic of Gilgamesh” is the oldest written story (known) to the modern world. The Mesopotamians believed that they were co-workers with the gods and that the land was infused with spirits and demons.
The beginning of the world they believed was a victory by the gods over the forces of chaos. However even though the gods had won, this did not mean chaos could not come again. Through daily rituals, attention to the deities, proper funeral practices, and simple civic duty, the people of Mesopotamia felt they helped maintain balance in the world. By so doing they kept the forces of chaos and destruction at bay. Along with expectations that one would honor one’s elders and treat people with respect, the citizens of the land were also to honor the gods through the jobs they performed every day.
Men and women both worked. Because ancient Mesopotamia was fundamentally an agrarian society the principal occupations were growing crops and raising livestock. Other occupations included those of the scribe, the healer, artisan, weaver, potter, shoemaker, fisherman, teacher, and priest or priestess. As one historian wrote, “…At the head of society were the kings and priests served by the populous staff of palace and temple. With the institution of standing armies and the spread of imperialism, military officers and professional soldiers took their place in Mesopotamia’s expanding and diverse workforce…”
Women enjoyed nearly equal rights and could own land, file for divorce, own their own businesses, and make contracts in trade. The early brewers of beer and wine, as well as the healers in the community, were initially women. It seems these trades were later taken over by men when it became apparent they were lucrative occupations. Whatever work one did however was never considered simply a `job’. Rather it was considered to be one’s contribution to the community. By extension, it was also one’s contribution to the gods’ efforts in keeping the world at peace and in harmony.
The temple at the center of every city was often on a raised platform. The temple symbolized the importance of the city’s patron deity. That deity would also be worshipped by whatever communities the city presided over. Mesopotamia gave birth to the world’s first cities which were largely built of sun-dried brick. In the words of one historian, “…the domestic architecture of Mesopotamia grew out of the soil upon which it stood. Unlike Egypt, Mesopotamia, especially in the south, was barren of stone that could be quarried for construction…” The land was equally devoid of trees for timber, so the people, “…turned to other natural resources that lay abundantly at hand: the muddy clay of its riverbanks and the rushes and reeds that grew in their marshes. With them the Mesopotamians created the world’s first columns, arches, and roofed structures…”
Simple homes were constructed from bundles of reeds lashed together and inserted in the ground. More complex homes were built of sun-dried clay brick. This technology was later adopted by the ancient Egyptians. Cities and temple complexes, with their famous ziggurats were all built using oven-baked bricks of clay which were then painted. Ziggurats were the step-pyramid structures commonplace within the region. Prior to the concept of a king the priestly rulers are believed to have dictated the law according to religious precepts. The gods were thought to be present in the planning and execution of any building project. Very specific prayers were recited in a set order to the proper deity. The prayers were considered of utmost importance in the success of the project and the prosperity of the occupants of the home.
The vital role of the gods in the lives of the people remained undiminished. This was true regardless of which kingdom or empire held sway across Mesopotamia, in whatever historical period. This reverence for the divine characterized the lives of both the field worker and the king. As one historian recorded, “…The precariousness of existence in southern Mesopotamia led to a highly developed sense of religion. Cult centers such as Eridu, dating back to 5000 BC, served as important centers of pilgrimage and devotion even before the rise of Sumer. Many of the most important Mesopotamian cities emerged in areas surrounding the pre-Sumerian cult centers, thus reinforcing the close relationship between religion and government…”
The role of the king was established at some point after 3600 BC. Unlike the priest-rulers who came before, the king dealt directly with the people and made his will clear through laws of his own devising. Prior to the concept of a king, the priestly rulers are believed to have dictated the law according to religious precepts and received divine messages through signs and omens. For the king it was still important that he still honor and placate the gods. However the king was considered a powerful enough representative of those gods to be able to speak their will through his own dictates, using his own voice.
This is most clearly seen in the famous laws of Hammurabi of Babylon, who ruled from 1792 to 1750 BC. A ruler claiming direct contact with the gods was quite common throughout Mesopotamian history. It was perhaps most prominently on display during the 2261 to 2224 BC reign of the Akkadian king Naram-Sin. This king went so far as to proclaim himself a god incarnate. In general the king was responsible for the welfare of his people. A good king who ruled in accordance with divine will, was recognized by the prosperity of the region he reigned over.
However even very efficient rulers such as Sargon of Akkad who reigned from 2334 to 2279 BC encountered difficulties. Sargon still had to deal with perpetual uprisings and revolts by factions, or whole regions, contesting his legitimacy. Mesopotamia was a vast with many different cultures and ethnicities within its borders. A single ruler attempting to enforce the laws of a central government would invariably be met with resistance from some quarter.
The history of the region, and the development of the civilizations which flourished there is most easily understood by dividing it into periods. First the “Pre-Pottery Neolithic Age”, also known as the Stone Age. This was up to around 10,000 BC, though there is evidence of scattered agriculture and urbanization prior to that time. There is archaeological confirmation of crude settlements and early signs of warfare between tribes. The friction was most likely over fertile land for crops and fields for grazing livestock. Animal husbandry was increasingly practiced during this time with a shift from a hunter-gatherer culture to an agrarian one.
One historian noted of the time, “…There was not a sudden change from hunting-gathering to farming, but rather a slow process during which people increased their reliance on resources they managed directly, but still supplemented their diets by hunting wild animals. Agriculture enabled an increase in continuous settlement by people…” As more settlements grew, architectural developments slowly became more sophisticated in the construction of permanent dwellings.
The second period is known as the “Pottery Neolithic Age” and was centered around 7,000 BC. In this period there was a widespread use of tools and clay pots. A distinct, specific culture begins to emerge in the Fertile Crescent. As one scholar wrote, “…during this era, the only advanced technology was literally 'cutting edge'” as stone tools and weapons became more sophisticated…the Neolithic economy was primarily based on food production through farming and animal husbandry…” This period in time witnessed urban populations which were much more settled. This was in contrast to the Stone Age in which communities were more mobile and migratory. Architectural advancements naturally followed in the wake of permanent settlements as did developments in the manufacture of ceramics and stone tools.
The next period is known as the “Copper Age”, and ran from approximately 5900 BC through 3200 BC. It is also known as the “Chalcolithic Period” owing to the transition from stone tools and weapons to ones made of copper. This era includes the so-called “Ubaid Period” of about 5000 to 4100 BC. This period was named for Tell al-`Ubaid. This is the location in Iraq where the greatest number ever of ancient artifacts were found from the period during which the first temples in Mesopotamia were built. Unwalled villages developed from sporadic settlements of single dwellings. These villages then gave rise to process during the Uruk Period from about 4100 through 2900 BC when cities rose. The urbanization process was most notable in the region of Sumer, including Eridu, Uruk, Ur, Kish, Nuzi, Lagash, Nippur, and Ngirsu, and in Elam with its city of Susa.
The earliest city is often cited as Uruk, although Eridu and Ur have also been suggested by many historians. One historians wrote, “…Mesopotamia was the most densely urbanized region in the ancient world, and the cities which grew up along the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, as well as those founded further away, established systems of trade which resulted in great prosperity…” This period saw the invention of the wheel around 3500 BC and a system of writing around 3000 BC. Both of these innovations are attributable to the Sumerians. The same time period witnessed the establishment of kingships to replace priestly rule. An account of the first recorded war in the world between the kingdoms of Sumer and Elam was preserved in writing for posterity. It occurred around 2700 BC, and Sumer was the victor.
The following period is known as the “Early Bronze Age” which lasted from about 3000 through 2119 BC. During this period bronze supplanted copper as the material from which tools and weapons were made. The Early Bronze Age included the “Early Dynastic Period”, which lasted from about 2900 through 2334 BC. Within this period all of the advances of the Uruk Period were developed. Cities and government in general stabilized. Increased prosperity in the region gave rise to ornate temples and statuary, sophisticated pottery and figurines.
This period also witness the development of toys for children, including dolls for girls and wheeled carts for boys. As well the use of personal seals became widespread. Known as “cylinder seals” the imprint they created denoted ownership of property stood for an individual’s signature. Cylinder seals would be comparable to one's modern-day identification card or driver's license. In fact the loss or theft of one's seal would have been every bit as significant as modern-day identity theft or losing one's credit cards.
The rise of the city-state laid the foundation for economic and political stability which would eventually lead to the rise of the Akkadian Empire during the time period between 2334 and 2218 BC. This period gave rise to the rapid growth of the cities of Akkad and Mari, two of the most prosperous urban centers of the time. The cultural stability necessary for the creation of art in the region resulted in more intricate designs in architecture and sculpture. It also fostered a number of specific and momentous inventions including the plow, the wheel, the chariot, the sailboat, and as described above, the cylinder-seal.
The cylinder seal became the single most distinctive art form of ancient Mesopotamia. The cylinder seal also evolved into a pervasive demonstration of the importance of property ownership and business in the country’s daily life. During the period the Akkadian Empire of Sargon the Great was the first multi-national realm in the world. Sargon's daughter, Enheduanna, who lived from 2285 to 2250 BC, was the first author of literary works known by name. The library at Mari contained over 20,000 cuneiform tablets (books) and the palace there was considered one of the grandest in the region.
The next period was the “Middle Bronze Age”, which lasted from 2119 to about 1700 BC. The period was noteworthy for the expansion of two kingdoms. The first was the Assyrian Kingdoms, including the cities of Assur, Nimrud, Sharrukin, Dur, and Nineveh. The second was the rise of the Babylonian Dynasty, centered in Babylon and Chaldea. The expansion of these two kingdoms created an atmosphere which not only stimulated trade, but with it, increasingly conducive conditions for warfare. The Guti Tribe were fierce nomads who succeeded in toppling the Akkadian Empire. They dominated the politics of Mesopotamia until they were defeated by the allied forces of the kings of Sumer.
Hammurabi, King of Babylon from 1792 to 1750 BC, rose from relative obscurity to conquer the region and reign for 43 years. Among his many accomplishments was his famous code of laws, inscribed on the stele of the gods. Babylon became a leading centre at this time for intellectual pursuit and high accomplishment in arts and letters. This cultural centre was not to last, however, and was sacked and looted by the Hittites who were then succeeded by the Kassites.
The next period was known as the “Late Bronze Age”, which lasted from about 1700 to 1100 BC. The rise of the Kassite Dynasty leads to a shift in power and an expansion of culture and learning after the Kassites conquered Babylon. The Kassites were a tribe who came from the Zagros Mountains in the north, and are thought to have originated in modern-day Iran. The collapse of the Bronze Age followed the discovery of how to mine ore and make use of iron. This was a technology which the Kassites and, earlier, the Hittites made singular use of in warfare. The period also saw the beginning of the decline of Babylonian culture due to the rise in power of the Kassites until they were defeated by the Elamites and driven out.
After the Elamites gave way to the Aramaeans, the small Kingdom of Assyria began a series of successful military expansionist campaigns. The Assyrian Empire became firmly established and prospered under Tiglath-Pileser I who ruled from 1115 to 1076 BC. After him came Ashurnasirpal II, who ruled from 884 to 859 BC and consolidated the empire further. Most Mesopotamian states were either destroyed or weakened following the Bronze Age Collapse around 1250 though 1150 BC. This collapse led to a brief "dark age".
The Iron Age followed from about 1000 to 500 BC. This age saw the rise and expansion of the Neo-Assyrian Empire under Tiglath-Pileser III who ruled from 745 through 727 BC. His rule initiated the meteoric rise to power and conquest for Neo-Assyrian Empire under the rule of a succession of great Assyrian kings. These included such as Sargon II who ruled from 722 to 705 BC; Sennacherib who ruled from 705 to 681 BC; Esarhaddon who ruled from 681 to 669 BC; and Ashurbanipal who ruled from about 668 to -627 BC. During this period of time the Neo-Assyrians conquered Babylonia, Syria, Israel, and Egypt).
The Empire suffered a decline as rapid as its rise due to repeated attacks on central cities by Babylonians, Medes, and Scythians. The tribes of the Hittites and the Mitanni consolidated their respective powers during this time which resulted in the rise of the Neo-Hittite and Neo-Babylonian Empires. King Nebuchadnezzar II reigned as King of Babylon from about 605 (or 604) to 562 BC. It was during his reign that the Babylonians destroyed Jerusalem in 588 BC and forced the inhabitants of Israel into the “Babylonian Exile”. Nebuchadnezzar II was also responsible for extensive construction in Babylon, creating famous buildings such as the Ishtar Gate and the Great Ziggurat, also known as the "Tower of Babel". The fall of Babylon to King Cyrus II of Persia in 539 BC effectively ended Babylonian culture. After Cyrus II took Babylon the bulk of Mesopotamia became part of the Persian Empire and a rapid cultural decline ensued.
The next period of Mesopotamian history is during what historians refer to as “Classical Antiquity” a period which ran from about 500 BC into the 7th century AD. After Cyrus II took Babylon in 539 BC, the bulk of Mesopotamia became part of the Achaemenid Persian Empire. This period witnessed a rapid cultural decline in the region, most notably in the loss of the knowledge of cuneiform script. The conquest of the Persians by Alexander the Great in 331 BC brought (Greek) Hellenization of the culture and religion. However even though Alexander tried to again make Babylon a city of consequence, its days of glory were now in the past.
After his death, Alexander’s general Seleucus took control of the region and founded the Seleucid Dynasty. The Seleucids ruled until 126 BC when the land was conquered by the Parthians. The Parthians were in turn dominated by the Sassanians. The Sassanians were of Persian origin. As one historian wrote, “…under Sassanian domination, Mesopotamia lay in ruins, its fields dried out or turned into a swampy morass, its once great cities made ghost towns”. By the time of the conquest by the Roman Empire (around 115-117 AD) Mesopotamia was a largely Hellenized region. It lacked any political unity, and had long forgotten the old gods and the old ways.
The Romans improved the infrastructure of their colonies significantly through their introduction of better roads and plumbing and brought Roman Law to the land. Even so the region was constantly caught up in the wars various Roman emperors waged with other nations over control of the area. The entire culture of the region once known as Mesopotamia was swept away in the final conquest of the area by Muslim Arabs in the 7th century AD which resulted in the unification of law, language, religion and culture under Islam. As one historian noted, “…with the Islamic conquest of 651 AD the history of ancient Mesopotamia ends”.
Today the great cities that once rose along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers are largely unexcavated mounds or broken bricks on arid plains. The once fertile crescent has steadily dwindled to a wasteland due to human factors. Those factors are many, and include overuse of the land in agricultural pursuits and urban development. In large part it is also due simply to natural climate change. However the legacy of Mesopotamia endures today through many of the most basic aspects of modern life such. The sixty-second minute and the sixty-minute hour are both innovations from ancient Mesopotamia.
As one historian concludes, “…because the well-being of the community depended upon close observation of natural phenomena, scientific or protoscientific activities occupied much of the priests' time. For example, the Sumerians believed that each of the gods was represented by a number. The number sixty, sacred to the god An, was their basic unit of calculation. The minutes of an hour and the notational degrees of a circle were Sumerian concepts. The highly developed agricultural system and the refined irrigation and water-control systems that enabled Sumer to achieve surplus production also led to the growth of large cities…”
Urbanization, the wheel, writing, astronomy, mathematics, wind power, irrigation, agricultural developments, and animal husbandry, all came from the land of Mesopotamia. This even includes and the narratives which would eventually be re-written as the Hebrew Scriptures and provide the basis for the Christian Old Testament. Noah Kramer, the noted historian, lists 39 `firsts' from Mesopotamia in his book “History Begins at Sumer”. Yet as impressive as those `firsts' are, Mesopotamian contributions to world culture do not end with them. The Mesopotamians influenced the cultures of Egypt and Greece through long-distance trade and cultural diffusion. In turn through these cultures Mesopotamia influenced the culture of Rome. Rome of course set the standard for the development and spread of western civilization.
Mesopotamia in general and Sumer specifically gave the world some of its most enduring cultural aspects. Even though the cities and great palaces are long gone, that legacy continued into the modern era. In the 19th century archaeologists of varying nationalities arrived in Mesopotamia to excavate. They were seeking evidence which would corroborate the biblical tales of the Old Testament. At the time the Bible was considered the oldest book in the world and the stories found in its pages were thought to be original compositions. The archaeologists who sought physical evidence to support the biblical stories found exactly the opposite once cuneiform was deciphered. The story of the Great Flood and Noah's Ark, the story of the Fall of Man, the concept of a Garden of Eden, even the complaints of Job had all been written centuries before the biblical texts by the Mesopotamians.
Once cuneiform could be read the ancient world of Mesopotamia opened up to the modern age and transformed people's understanding of the history of the world and themselves. The discovery of the Sumerian Civilization and the stories of the cuneiform tablets encouraged a new freedom of intellectual inquiry into all areas of knowledge. It was now understood that the biblical narratives were not original Hebrew works. The world was obviously older than the church had been claiming. There were civilizations which had risen and fallen long before that of Egypt. If the claims by authorities of church and schools had been false, perhaps others were as well.
The spirit of inquiry in the late 19th century was already making inroads into challenging the paradigms of accepted thought. With the deciphering of and the discovery of Mesopotamian culture and religion this process was accelerated. In ancient times Mesopotamia impacted the world through its inventions, innovations, and religious vision. In the modern world it literally changed the way people understood the whole of history and one's place in the continuing story of human civilization [Ancient History Encyclopedia].
Daily Life in Mesopotamia: Daily life in ancient Mesopotamia cannot be described in the same way one would describe life in ancient Rome or Greece. Mesopotamia was never a single, unified civilization. This was true even when “unified” under the Akkadian Empire of Sargon the Great. It is possible however to make some generalizations in reference to the time period encompassed from the rise of the cities in around 4500 BC to the downfall of Sumer in 1750 BC. In many respects the people of the regions of Mesopotamia did live their lives in similar ways. The civilizations of Mesopotamia placed a great value on the written word. Once writing was invented somewhere between 3500 and 3000 BC, Mesopotamian scribes seem almost obsessed with recording every facet of the cities in which they lived.
Because of this archaeologists and scholars in the present day have a fairly clear understanding of how the people in ancient Mesopotamia lived and worked. The population of ancient Mesopotamian cities varied greatly. In about 2300 BC estimates are that Uruk had a population of 50,000. Mari to the north had a population of 10,000. Akkad had a population of about 36,000. The populations of these cities were divided into social classes. Like societies in every civilization throughout history the social classes were hierarchical. These classes were: the King and Nobility; Priests and Priestesses; the Upper Class (merchants, artisans, and skilled workers); the Lower Class (laborers); and Slaves.
The king of a city, region, or empire was thought to have a special relationship with the gods. He or she it was believed served as an intermediary between the world of the divine and the earthly realm. The depth of a king’s relationship with his gods, and the god’s pleasure with his rule, was gauged by the success of the territory he ruled over. A great king would enlarge his kingdom and make the land prosperous. By doing he demonstrated that the gods favored him. Many of the regions of Mesopotamia rebelled repeatedly against the rule of Sargon of Akkad, who ruled from 2334 to 2279 BC. They rebelled against the dynasty he founded. Still Sargon became a legendary figure because of his successful military conquests and the expanse of his empire. Regardless of how an individual human being or community felt about Sargon’s rule, these accomplishments would have meant that he was favored by Inanna, the god that he served.
The priests and priestesses presided over the sacred aspects of daily life and officiated at religious services. They were literate and considered adept at interpreting signs and omens. They also served as healers. The first doctors and dentists of Mesopotamia were priestesses who attended to people in the outer court of the temple. Among the most famous priestesses was Enheduanna, who lived from 2285 to 2250 BC. She was the daughter of Sargon of Akkad. She served as High Priestess at Ur and is also the world’s first author known by name. Enheduanna would not have served as a healer. Her day would have been spent in taking care of the business of the temple and that of the surrounding complex. As well she would have officiated at ceremonies.
The upper classes in ancient Mesopotamian society included merchants who owned their own companies, scribes, private tutors. In time this also included high-ranking military men. Other occupations of the upper class were accountants, architects, astrologers (who were usually priests), and shipwrights. The merchant who owned his own company and did not need to travel was a man of leisure. He could enjoy the best beer in the city in the company of his friends while attended by slaves.
In ancient Mesopotamia every teacher was a scribe. Scribes were highly respected and served at court, in the temple, and in the schools. Schools were often run by a local temple. One of the most important disciplines they taught in every school was writing. However only boys attended school and were taught to read and write. Women did enjoy almost equal rights in ancient Mesopotamia. Nonetheless they were not considered intelligent enough to be able to master literacy. This paradigm remained in place even after the notable career of Enheduanna. Private tutors were also held in high regard. They were well paid by the wealthy families of the cities to help their sons excel at their school work.
Private tutors not in the employ of a school were considered men of exceptional intelligence, virtue, and character. They devoted themselves completely to the student or students under their tutelage. If the tutor had a client of high means, the tutor lived almost as well as he did. The lower class was made up of those labor-type occupations which kept the city or region actually operating. This would include farmers, construction workers, canal builders, bakers, basket makers, butchers, fishermen, cup bearers, brick makers, brewers, tavern owners, metallurgists, carpenters, potters, cart and, later, chariot drivers, soldiers, sailors, and merchants who worked for another man’s company. Artists and musicians were also considered lower class.
In addition jewelry makers, goldsmiths, and prostitutes while considered lower class, could also be considered upper class professions under the right circumstances. Such circumstances were generally either possession exceptional skill and/or finding favor in a wealthy patron or the king. Any member of the lower class could however climb the social ladder. As one Assyrian scholar noted, “…the town of Kish was ruled not by a king but by an energetic queen called Ku-baba, a former tavern keeper, about whom we know nothing else…" For the most part, women were relegated to the lower class jobs. However clearly history informs us that they could hold the same esteemed positions as males.
Women were the first brewers and tavern keepers. Women were also the first doctors and dentists in ancient Mesopotamia. However as those occupations proved lucrative they were taken over by men. The lowest social order was the slaves. One could become a slave in a number of ways. These included being captured in war. One could also sell oneself into slavery to pay off a debt, or be sold by a family member to repay a debt. One could be sold as punishment for a crime. It was not uncommon to be kidnapped and sold into slavery in another region. Slaves had no single ethnicity nor were they solely employed for manual labor. Slaves kept house, managed large estates, tutored young children, tended horses, served as accountants and skilled jewelry makers. They could be employed in whatever capacity their master saw they had a talent in. A slave who worked diligently for his or her master could eventually buy their freedom.
So where and how did people live in ancient Mesopotamia? The king and his court of course lived in the palace and the palace complex. In the cities homes were built out from the center of the settlement. The center of the settlement was the temple with its ziggurat. The wealthiest and highest on the social ladder lived closest to the center. The homes of the affluent were built of sun-dried bricks while those of people of lesser means would have been constructed from reeds. It should be noted even reed buildings were still considered houses and were not the `huts’ so often imagined. A described by one specialist of ancient Mesopotamian history wrote describing the construction of such homes:
“…To build a simple house, tall marsh plants would be uprooted, gathered together, and tied into tight bundles. After holes were dug in the ground, the bundles of reeds would be inserted, one bundle per hole. After the holes were filled in and firmly packed, pairs of bundles that faced each other would be bent over and tied together at the top, forming an archway. The remaining bundles would then be joined together in similar fashion…Reed mats would then be draped over the top to cover the roof, or hung from a wall opening to make a door…” The same historian also described the construction of a mud brick home:
“…Clay from the riverbanks would be mixed with straw for reinforcement and packed into small brick-shaped wooden molds, which would then be lifted off so the mud bricks could dry on the ground in the hot sun…Sun-dried brick was notoriously impermanent, especially as a consequence of yearly downpours. The alternative, oven-baked brick, was expensive, however, because of the fuel and skilled labor required for its manufacture. As a result, it tended to be used for the houses of kings and gods rather than the homes of ordinary people…”
Light in the home was provided by small lamps fueled by sesame seed oil and sometimes in more expensive homes by windows. Windows were constructed of wooden grill work. As wood was a rare commodity, windowed homes were uncommon. The exterior of brick homes was whitewashed…as a further defense against the radiant heat…(and) there would be only one exterior door, its frame painted bright red to keep out evil spirits…” Another historian of ancient Mesopotamia noted that, “…the purpose of a house in southern Iraq was to provide shelter from the twelve hours of unrelenting heat – the climate from May to September…” After September came the rainy season of cooler weather when homes would be heated by burning palm fronds or palm wood.
Palaces, temples, and upper-class homes had ornate braziers for heating the rooms. The lower classes made use of a shallow pit lined with hardened clay. Indoor plumbing was in wide use by at least the 3rd millennium BC. Much as today, toilets could be found in separate rooms of upper class homes, palaces, and temples. Tiled drains were built at a slant. The tiled drains would carry waste from the building’s toilet(s) to a cesspool or a sewer system of clay pipes. The clay pipes in turn would transport the waste to the river.
All homes in the region of Sumer, whether of the rich or poor, needed the blessing of the brother-gods Kabta and Mushdamma. These two deities presided over foundations, buildings, construction, and bricks. Before any building project could begin and then again upon completion, offerings were made in gratitude to the Arazu, god of completed construction. Every region of Mesopotamia had some form of these same gods. Their blessing, however, did not always guarantee a secure home. As one historian noted, “…ancient houses, particularly those made of sun dried brick, often collapsed. The Laws of Hammurabi devoted five sections to this problem, noting in particular the builder’s responsibility: `If a builder constructs a house for a man, but does not make his work sound, and the house that he constructs collapses and causes the death of the householder, that builder shall be killed. If it should cause the death of a son of the householder, they shall kill a son of that builder’…”
Homes were furnished in much the same way they are today. This included chairs tables, beds, and kitchen ware. Chairs had legs, backs, and in wealthier homes, arms. In affluent homes beds were made from a wooden frame. The frame was underlaid with crisscrossed rope or reeds. The underlayment was then covered by a mattress stuffed with wool or goat hair, atop which were linen sheets. These beds were often intricately carved. By the 3rd third millennium the beds were according to one historian, sometimes “…overlaid with gold, silver, or copper…(and) had legs that often terminated with an ox foot or claw…” The lower classes of course could not afford such luxury. They slept on mats of woven straw or reeds which were laid on the floor. Tables were constructed in the same way they still are today. Families gathered at the table for the evening meal in the same way many still do presently. The more prosperous homes had linen tablecloths and napkins.
The family was constituted as it is in the modern day with a mother, father, children, and extended family. Both men and women worked while the children's lives were directed according to their sex and social status. Male children of the upper classes were sent to school. Their sisters remained at home and acquired domestic skills. Sons of the lower classes followed their fathers into the fields or whatever other line of work they pursued. Daughters of the lower classes, as with those of the upper classes, emulated their mother’s role in her domestic chores. The toys these children played with were likewise similar to toys in the present day such as toy trucks and dolls.
For infants and toddlers there were terra-cotta rattles. These were filled with pellets and pinched closed at the edges like piecrust. They typically also had a small hole for a string. For boys dreaming of hunting or soldiering there were slingshots and little bows and arrows and boomerangs to throw. For girls hoping to raise their own children someday there were dolls and miniature pieces of furniture for playing house. Miniature furnishings ranged from tables and stools to beds. Model ships and chariots as well as tiny draught animals and wagons let the young travel through the world of their imagination. For more amusement there were also balls and hoops and a game of jump rope named curiously for the love goddess Ishtar.
Families also enjoyed board games and games of dice. The most popular board game was much like the game of Parcheesi. Ancient images depict families at leisure in much the same way family photographs do today. Sports seem to primarily have involved males. The most popular sports were wrestling and boxing among the lower classes. Among the nobility hunting was the most popular sport. The family meal was similar to that in the present day. The major difference between then and now was the forms of entertainment during and after the dinner. Storytelling was an important aspect of an evening meal as was music. In poorer homes a family member would play an instrument, sing, or tell a story after dinner. The wealthy had slaves for this purpose or professional entertainers. The instruments employed in the production of music would be familiar to anyone in the modern day.
Ancient inscriptions describe and ancient images depict Mesopotamians listening to music while drinking beer or reading or relaxing in their home or garden. The Mesopotamians had singers of course. Musical instruments included those of percussive varieties such as drums, bells, castanets, sistrums, and rattles. There were also wind instruments such as recorders, flutes, horns, and panpipes. Last, there were also stringed instruments such as the lyre and the harp. Images throughout Mesopotamia attest to the people’s great love of music. As written by a contemporary historian, “…so great, in fact, was a queen of Ur’s love of music, she could not bear the thought of being in the afterworld without it; so, with the help of a sleeping potion in the tomb, she took her royal musicians with her into the beyond…”
The historian continued, “…music was an integral part of ancient Mesopotamian life. The images on inlaid plaques, carved seal-stones, and sculpted reliefs transport us back to a world of sound. We watch a shepherd playing his flute as his dog sits and attentively listens…”. At least for the wealthier citizens of ancient Mesopotamia music was also an integral part of the banquet and even private meals. The chief grain crop in Mesopotamia was barley, and so it is no wonder that they were the first to invent beer. The goddess of beer was Ninkasi whose famous hymn from around 1800 BC is also the world’s oldest beer recipe. Beer is thought to have originated from fermented barley bread.
The Mesopotamians also enjoyed a varied diet of fruits and vegetables. These included apples, cherries, figs, melons, apricots, pears, plums, and dates as well as lettuce, cucumbers, carrots, beans, peas, beets, cabbage, and turnips. As well they consumed fish from the streams and rivers, and livestock from their pens. The livestock consisted mostly of goats, pigs, and sheep. Cows were expensive to keep and were too precious to be slaughtered for their meet. The ancient Mesopotamians would have augmented this diet through hunting game such as deer and gazelle and birds. They also kept domesticated geese and ducks for eggs.
Comments from one historian noted that the Mesopotamians had “…an impressive inventory of goods…” which made up their daily meals. Further that they flavored their food with ingredients such as sesame seed oil and salt. The historian further noted that “…all these indigenous ingredients were so varied that, as far as we know, the Mesopotamians never imported from abroad, so to speak, in spite of the intensity and geographical extent of their trade…” Beer was so greatly valued it was used to pay workers' wages. Along with beer the people drank strong wine or water. Beer however was the most popular beverage in ancient Mesopotamia. Due to its high nutrient content and thickness it was often served as the largest part of the mid-day meal.
Mesopotamians would wash and dress for the evening meal. Before eating anything prayers of gratitude would be offered to the gods who had provided the food. Religion was an integral part of the lives of all Mesopotamians. Their religion was centered on a human beings being in a sense, “co-workers” with the gods. Thus the deities of the Mesopotamian pantheon were a routine part of one’s daily existence. The gods provided the people with all their needs. In return the people labored in the service of the gods. As one historian related, “…not only were these gods the originators of the universe and mankind, but they remained their supreme masters and guided their existence and evolution from day to day. For that reason, they were regarded as the promoters and guarantors of all the infinite obligations – positive and negative – that govern human life…”
All aspects of Mesopotamian existence were imbued with a sense of the divine at work, even the clothes that they wore. Like everything else clothing in Mesopotamia was dictated by and reflected one’s social standing. Archaeologists confirm that historically textiles were among the first of human inventions. Plant fibers may have been twisted, sewn, and plaited to make clothing as far back as the Old Stone Age, some 25,000 years ago or even further back in time. However wool seems to have been Mesopotamia’s most common cloth fabric, along with linen which was reserved for more expensive garments. Cotton wasn’t introduced until the age of the Assyrians. The ancient Assyrians imported the cotton plants from Egypt and the Sudan around 700 BC. Silk was perhaps not introduced to the region of Mesopotamia until the age of the Romans, who imported it from China.
Men generally wore either a long robe or pleated skirts of goatskin or sheepskin. Women dressed in one-piece tunics of either wool or linen. Soldiers are distinctive in the ancient depictions in that they always wore hooded capes over their uniforms. Older men are always seen in one-piece robes which fall to their ankles. Younger men seem to have worn either the robe or the skirt. Women are always depicted wearing the robe but these robes were not uniformly mono-colored. Many different patterns and designs are seen in the dress of Mesopotamian women. Men on the other hand are routinely depicted in monotone robes. Exceptions would be kings and soldiers and sometimes scribes.
Shawls, hooded capes, and wraps were used in bad weather and these were often embroidered and tasseled. Girls dressed like their mothers. Boys dressed like their fathers. Everyone wore sandals of greater or more modest design. Women’s sandals were generally more likely to be ornamented than those of men. Women and men both wore cosmetics. As one scholar noted, “…the desire to enhance one’s natural beauty and allure through the use of cosmetics and perfume is attested as far back as Sumerian times…” Men and women would outline their eyes with an early form of mascara, much as the Egyptians were famous for doing, Perfumes were used by both sexes after bathing. Perfumes were made by “steeping aromatic plants in water and blending their essence with oil. Some of these recipes became so popular that were closely guarded. A successful recipe could raise a perfume maker from a lower class worker to almost the level of nobility.
The daily life of the ancient Mesopotamians was not so different from the lives of those who live in that area today. Like those of the modern world, the people of the ancient regions of Mesopotamia loved their families, worked their jobs, and enjoyed their leisure time. Advances in technology give one the impression today that we are much wiser and vastly different from those who lived thousands of years before us. However the archaeological records tell a different story. Within the historical record human beings have never been very different than we are today. This applies to both in human attributes and detriments. The basic needs and desires, as well as the daily lives of the people of ancient Mesopotamia adhere to a pattern that is easily recognizable [Ancient History Encyclopedia].
The Babylonian Exhibition at the Louvre and British Museum: From Genesis to "Beach Blanket Babylon," few cities have inspired as many legends and works of art (not to mention musical spoofs) as the Mesopotamian capital of Babylon. An exhibition touring Europe aims to celebrate both the myths and the reality behind the ancient metropolis, now a symbol of modern Iraq. "Babylon"--which opened at the Louvre and will be traveling to Berlin's Pergamon Museum and the British Museum --focuses on artifacts dating from the city's beginnings around 2300 B.C. to its abandonment in the second century A.D.
The show also features paintings such as Pieter Brueghel the Elder's 1563 oil-on-wood fantasy, The "Little" Tower of Babel, as well as drawings, books, and films about the city. Babylon has long impressed the world with its military prowess and cultural achievements, which include the 12-month calendar, scientific weights and measures, and dynastic chronicles that influenced the writings in the Bible. At the exhibit entrance stands the famous seven-foot-tall basalt stele inscribed with the Code of Hammurabi (reigned 1792-1750 B.C.), the first codified set of laws. Elsewhere are clay tablets recounting the epic of Gilgamesh and the great flood.
Perceptions of the city have shifted with the Zeitgeist. For the fifth-century B.C. Greek historian Herodotus, Babylon "surpassed in splendor any city in the known world." During the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century, the tower of Babel was viewed as a symbol of the revolt of Man against God. But by the Enlightenment in the 18th century, the tower was seen as an extraordinary feat of engineering. The Babylonians experienced a golden age under Nebuchadnezzar II (reigned 605-562 B.C.), who restored and expanded the walled city to cover nearly four square miles and built the Hanging Gardens.
But in 587 B.C., when he destroyed Jerusalem and deported the Jews to Babylon, Nebuchadnezzar II ensured that the city would become shorthand for decadence and evil. (St. Augustine condemned it as the "anti-Jerusalem.") The city's other famous rulers also have a prominent place in the exhibit. The period of Persian occupation (559-331 B.C.) is represented by fragments from a stele of Darius I with his foot on the chest of a defeated rebel king. A marble sculpture of Alexander the Great's head is a reminder of the Macedonian ruler's plans to restore Babylon to its former glory, an ambition that went unrealized at his death there in 323 B.C.
Oddly, the exhibition does not address Babylon's recent past. Styling himself as the new Nebuchadnezzar, Saddam Hussein constructed not one, but two kitschy palaces on top of the ancient site. After the 2003 U.S.-led invasion, American forces further damaged the archaeological remains by digging trenches, building a helicopter pad, and using archaeological deposits to fill sandbags. There are plans to restore the site and eventually turn it into a tourist destination, but for now, a European capital is as close as you will come to Babylon [Archaeological Institute of America].
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ABOUT US: Prior to our retirement we used to travel to Eastern Europe and Central Asia several times a year seeking antique gemstones and jewelry from the globe’s most prolific gemstone producing and cutting centers. Most of the items we offer came from acquisitions we made in Eastern Europe, India, and from the Levant (Eastern Mediterranean/Near East) during these years from various institutions and dealers. Much of what we generate on Etsy, Amazon and Ebay goes to support worthy institutions in Europe and Asia connected with Anthropology and Archaeology. Though we have a collection of ancient coins numbering in the tens of thousands, our primary interests are ancient/antique jewelry and gemstones, a reflection of our academic backgrounds.
Though perhaps difficult to find in the USA, in Eastern Europe and Central Asia antique gemstones are commonly dismounted from old, broken settings – the gold reused – the gemstones recut and reset. Before these gorgeous antique gemstones are recut, we try to acquire the best of them in their original, antique, hand-finished state – most of them originally crafted a century or more ago. We believe that the work created by these long-gone master artisans is worth protecting and preserving rather than destroying this heritage of antique gemstones by recutting the original work out of existence. That by preserving their work, in a sense, we are preserving their lives and the legacy they left for modern times. Far better to appreciate their craft than to destroy it with modern cutting.
Not everyone agrees – fully 95% or more of the antique gemstones which come into these marketplaces are recut, and the heritage of the past lost. But if you agree with us that the past is worth protecting, and that past lives and the produce of those lives still matters today, consider buying an antique, hand cut, natural gemstone rather than one of the mass-produced machine cut (often synthetic or “lab produced”) gemstones which dominate the market today. We can set most any antique gemstone you purchase from us in your choice of styles and metals ranging from rings to pendants to earrings and bracelets; in sterling silver, 14kt solid gold, and 14kt gold fill. When you purchase from us, you can count on quick shipping and careful, secure packaging. We would be happy to provide you with a certificate/guarantee of authenticity for any item you purchase from us. There is a $3 fee for mailing under separate cover. I will always respond to every inquiry whether via email or eBay message, so please feel free to write.
